Table 19.

I Dimensions of various physical quantities

Dimensions Quantity Dimensions

Qnantity
Mass (m) [M Momentum (M)
[MLT
Length (
Power (P)
[MT
Time () Frequency (n)

Temperature (7) Pressure (p), stress (T)

[ML'T
Diameter, radius Velocity potential

Area (4) Surface tension (O) [MT

Volume (v Dynamic viscosity ( ) [ML'T
Speed velocity () LT] Kinematic viscosity (v) r
Angular speed ( @ ) Moment of inertia ()

Acceleration (a)
LT Discharge (Q) Pr'
Angularacceleration (a ) I7 Gravitational acceleration (g) [LT
Density P) [MLS Specific weight (w) [MLT
Impulse [MLT Modulus of elasticity (E) [ML'
Force, thrust (F)
[MLT] Compressibility (1/E) [M LT']
Weight (#) [MLT Gas constant (R)

Angular momentum MLPT' Vorticity (2)

Moment, torque (1)
LMIT) Stream function ( y)

Work, energy [MIT Circulation (T)

Enthalpy. quantity of heat
[MIPT2 Thermal conductivity (k) [MLT
Specific heat
Entropy (s) [AMLT-o
 a5 The vel
19.5 velocity through a circular orifice
Examficient Of
Example

viscosity 4, mass
of viscosit depends on the head H
D,
V
density p and the
acceleration due to gravity causing the flow, diameter of the orifice
expression for
an g. Using Buckingham pi theorem, obtain
Solution
can be expressed as,
The problem

V= f(H, D, 4, P. 8)
(i)
S,H, D, j, p, g) = 0
Total number of variables:
n=6
(ii)
Wnting the dimensions of each term, we get:
V =
[LT'], H =
[L], D =
[L], 4 =[ML'T),p=[ML), g =lLT)
Thus,fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T and hence, m =3.
Iherefore,the number of t terms n-m=6-3 =3. =

Ihe three t terms say n1, T7 and rz are formed.

Equation (ii) may be written as,

T , T2, Tz) =0 (ii)

SInce m=3,
an 7t
choosing H, g andp as the repeating variables.
term contains (m +1) variables and can be written as,
(a)

(b)

(c)
T3 =H g" p°u
or t term:
(a)

[ML'F (LTr'i
M°'T° =
[L1 [Lr-3
Auating the exponent nents of M, L and T, respectively,
we get:
-1
+1,0= -2h
0=C,0 =aj +b
-3c
slutC0,
on b -(1/2) and a = -(1/2)
 Chapter 19
19.12

and rearranging, we
get
Substituting the values of a, b, and c in Equation (a)
V=- V
i =H/2)g-/2) gH
For 7 term:

T =
H g pi D (b)
M°Lr° =[L [L72 [ML' [L]
Equating the exponents of M, L and T, respectively, we get:

0=C2,0= a2 +b -3c2 +1,0 =-2b2

Solution: c2 = 0, b = 0 and a2 =-1
Substituting the values ofa , b, and c2 in Equation (b) and rearranging, weget

H
For T: term:

c)

M°T=Lr ur Mrr [M:'r-']

Equating the exponents of M, L and 7, respectively, we get:

O=c+1,0=aj +by -3cg -1,0= -2b-1

Solution: c3 =
-1, b =1/2) and a =
-(3/2)
Substituting the values of a3, bg andez in Equation (c) and rearranging, multiplying and dividing by V, v

T =H-3/2)gU2) pu =-
H3pyg
For obtaining the functional relationship, substituting the values of T, T2 and nz in Equation (i), we get:
D
VgHH'Hor = 0
Since expression is required for velocity V, we get:
D

Example 196 Derive on the hasis af dime

 6 o l Delow. d are also termed as
non-dimensional
97.1 Reynolds Number
defined as the
ae ratio of inertia force
(F) to the
viscous force (F,). The
O w

expression for Reynolds number (Re) is given

F =
pxQxV pxAVxV =
=

Lis the characteristic length.

HereLi sth pl?v2
F, = TxA1=|

DUS Re pl-vpLVL
:V=4/Pl
ae of pipe flows, L is replaced by pipe diameter D, we get:
RePVD VD
(19.1)

Raynolds number is the key parameter to determine the flow regime in pipes. It is named in the honour of Osborne Reyn-
ts (1842-1912), a British
physicist. This number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia force to the viscous
At large Reynolds number, the inertia forces are large relative to the viscous forces which cause random and rapid
cations and thus, the flow is turbulent. At small Reynolds number, the viscous forces are large which keep the fuid
-ne and thus, the flow is laminar.
ais number is taken as a criterion of dynamic similarity in the flow situations where viscous forces predominate. For
1OW through pipes, orificemeter, venturimeter, flow through low speed turbo machines and flow over submerged
whes.

197.2 Froude Number

the square root of the ratio of the inertia force (F) to the gravity force (F). The expression for Froude
anbera s
(F) is given below.
F =plv?

pxP' xg
Fpx Volume xg
=

pL2 (19.2)
pli'g
where grav.
he Froude n similarity of the flow
and it governs the dynamic
flows only and notches and flow through
open
number
nal forces is Significant
are 1S sign in free surface
are flow
spillways,
over
weirs
forces
oannels. predominant. Some of the examples
 Chapter 19
19.30

19.7.3 Euler Number

the square root of the ratio

of the inertia force (F) to the pressure force (F,). The expression for Eiler
ler
It is defined as
below.
number (E,) is given
F =pLv2

x area =
pxA =
pxL
F pressure

Eu (19.3)
Thus p'p
low enough to cause vapour formation. This
considered in a fluid when its pressure drops
The Euler number may be the other forces, such as viscous
in fluid flows are predominant and
number becomes important when pressure changes of such flow may be pressure rise due to sudden
forces and surface tension forces are absent. Some examples
forces. gravity
and discharge through orifice.
closure ofa valve, water hammer in pipes

19.7.4 Weber Number

ratio of the inertia force (F) to the force of surface tension (F). The expression for
It is defined as the square root of the
Weber number (W) is given below.
F =pLv2

Surface tension x Length = OxL

F =

(19.4)
Thus a'(pL)
value in the order of unity or less which shows the predomi-
The Weber number is significant only when it has a smaller
in flow situations, such as droplets, capillary flows, blood flows
in
nance of surface tension force. It assumes importance

veins and arteries, and ripple waves.

19.7.5 Mach Number

It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force (F)to the elastic force (F). The expression for Mach number
(M) is given below.
F = plfv

F = Bulk modulus of elasticity x Area = Kx A = KxLE

Speed of flow (19.5)

Thus Klp Kp= C Speed of sound
K?
A
Here, C= KIp represents the velocity of sound in that fluid medium whose properties K and p are being taken.
flow is called sonie when M =1, subsonic when M<1,supersonicwhen M>land hypersonic when M >>l.Ahigher
effect of compressibility of the fluid. At a smaller value of Mach numder
Mach number signifies the predominance of the
effect is neglected.
(less than 0.3 for gas flows), the compressibility 1 is
substantial change in the density of a fluid due to pressure changes.
The Mach number is significant when there is
number is used in the analysis of systems involving high speed
flows, spacecraft, rockets, water hammer problems, aero
dynamic testing and compressor testing.
Example 25.1 The external and internal diameters ofthe impellerofa centrifugalpump are 0.4 mand 0.2 m, respectively
of 25°. If radial flow
constant
at 1200 rpm and its vanes at the exit are set back at an angle
a
The centrifugal pump runs

is maintained at 2.5 m/s, then determine (i) the inlet

vane angle, (ii) angle made by absolute velocity
through the impeller
done the impeller per unit weight of water.
by
at the outlet and (iii) work

Solution
0.2 m, N = 1200 rpm, o= 25° and V =
Vo 2 . 5 m/s. w be the work done
Let
=0.4 m, D; =

Refer Figure 25.7. Let D

unit weight of water.
by impeller per
 Chapter 25
25.12

TD,N Tx0.2X120=12.57 m/s o

i) 4 =-
G Vwo E
60 60

tan 2.5 Outlet Vfo N

tan =11.25°
12.57
D
TtD,N Tx0.4x1200
(i) 4, =- -= 25.13 m/s B
60 60
Inlet V=V
fo 2.5
25.13-4= 19.77 m/s
wo4 tan o tan 25° 4 A

Figure 25.7
B = tan t a n 2.5 =7.2
19.77
ii) w=wo
g
19.77x25.1550.644
9.81
Nm/N
Example 25.2 The internal and external diameters of a centrifugal pump are 10 cm and 20 cm, respectively. It uns at
2800 rpm and delivers 0.105 m°/s of water. The widths ofimpeller at the inlet and outlet are 2 cm andl cm, respectively
The water enters the impeller radially at the inlet and impeller blade angle at the exit is 45°. Determine the pressure rise in
the impeller by assuming that flow velocity as constant and neglecting losses through it.
Solution
Let D =10 cm = 0.1 m, D, = 20 cm = 0.2 m, N = 2800 rpm, =0.105 m'/s, B, =2 cm = 0.02 m, B, = 1 cm = 0.01 m,
V 0, =45° and Va =Vfo
Since Q= nD,Bfo
0.105
fo = 16.71 m/s
TD,B Tx0.2x0.01

Thus V fo16.71 m/s

tD,N x0.2x280029.32 m/s

60 60

Since
PoPi +u-V cosec)
Pw& 2g
nD (16.71 +29.324 -16.71* cosec"
PwS 2x9.81
45)=29.584 m
Example 25.5 The impeller of a centrifugal pump is of 0.3 m diameter, 0.05 m width at the periphery and has
blades whose tip angle inclines backwards 60° from the radius. The pump delivers 15 m/min and the impeller rotates at
1000 rpm. Assume that the pump is designed to admit radially and calculate (i) the speed and direction of water as it leaves
the impeller, (i) torque exerted by the impeller in water, (ii) shaft power required and (iv) lift of the pump. Take mechanical
efficiency as 95% and hydraulic eficiency as 75%.
Solution
Refer Figure 25.11. Let D, = 0.3 m, B, = 0.05 m, d= 60°,Q = 15 m/min =0.25 m°/s, N = 1000 rpm, V,y =0. n,m =0.95
and n = 0.75.

TDN Tx0.3Xi0015.71 m/s wo

G E
60 60

Since Q nD,BVfo Outlet

Vo Vro
Vo
0.25
=5.3 5.3 m/s
Vfo0TD,B, Tx0.3x0.05
B
Since tan
Vfo
Inlet , =V
4-wo
C
Thus w 4-Vf, cot o = 15.71 -5.3cot60° =
12.65 m/s
Figure 25.11
 Centrifugal Pumps
25.19
V-+K, =vs.3*+12.65 =13.715m/s
B tan
wo
5.322.13
(i) Torque exerted by the impeller on the water is given by,
T P,QVwoR, = 1000x0.25x12.65x0.15 =474.375 Nm

(ii) 27TNT 27x1000 x 474,375 49.676 kWN

60 60x 1000

P = im49.676 = 52.29 kW

TIm 0.95

PsQH
iv) MP 1000Pim n =man
T im

H 1000nPim 1000x0.75x49.676=15.1914 m
P8 1000x9.81x0.25

a head of 12 m, when
Example 25.6 A pump is required to discharge 60 litres per second water against
centrifugal
in the pump being assumed as
running at a speed of 750 rpm. The manometric efficiency is to be 80%, the loss of head
enters the impeller without whirl
0.025 of water, where V is the absolute velocity of water leaving the impeller. Water vane angle at the outlet
and the velocity of flow at the exit is 3 m/s. Determine (i) the impeller diameter and outlet area, (ii)
the vane with the direction of motion at the
edge of the impeller and (iii) angle made by absolute velocity of water leaving
outlet.

Solution
Refer Figure 25.12. Let Q= 60 l/s = 0.06 m°/s, H =12 m, N = 750 rpm,
Vwo
man 0.8, head loss =
0.025V,, Vi = 0 and Vfo = 3 m/s. G E

TD,NTx D, x750 30 27 Outlet Vo

39.27D, m/s
60 60

Headdeveloped="m12 m B
man 0.8
Head loss = 15 -12 = 3 m Inlet

0.025V =3
Thus
Figure 25.12
3
: .V Vo.02510.954
m/s

w -Vu=V10.9s4-3 =10.535 m/s

g

9.81x12
0.8
10.535x 39.27D,
 25.20 Chapter 25

D 9.81x12 0.356 m
10.535x39.27x0.8
4 39.27D, =39.27x0.356 = 13.98 m/s

AVo0.06=0.02 m*
tan fo 3
13.98-10.535 =41.05°

B tan tan 10.535

=15.89°
Example 25.7 A centrifugal pump has an
impeller of 0.75 m diameter and it delivers 1000 litres per second
head of 65 m. The impeller runs at 1000
rpm and the width at the outlet is 6 cm. If the
against a
then the external mechanical loss is 15 kW
and the manometric
leakage loss is 3.5% of the discharge,
outlet, (ii) power required and (ii) efficiency of the efficiency is 85%. Determine (i) the blade
angle at the
pump.
Solution
Refer Figure 25.13. Let
D, 0.75 m, Q,=
=
1000 1/s =
1 m°/s,
H =65 m, N =
wo
1000 rpm, B. 6 cm= 0.06 m, G
=
loss leakage =
3.5% of Q,, mechanical loss=15 kW
and nman =0.85.
Outlet o Vro
) Let Qh and Q, be the theoretical and actual discharges, respectively.
em =Qa +3.5% xQ, 1.035Q,= =
1.035 x1 =
1.035 m'/s B
Since Q=rD, B,Vjo Inlet V-
Qa
.VfoTD,B. Tx0.75 x0.06 7.07 m/s
Figure 25.13
TD,N mx0.75x1000 = 39.27 m/s
60 60

Since man gHm

Vwoo
gHm 9.81x65
wo = 19.1 m/s
mano 0.85x39.27

7.07
)=tan
39.27-19.1 = 19.32

Theoretical power Pw8Lthl"m 1000x 9.81x1.035x6s

(ii) =

1000
_
= 659.968 kW
1000
Actual power input = "Theoretical power + Mechanical loss

Actual power input = 659.968+15 = 674.968 kw

 25.21
Centrifugal Pumps

Pw8Lalm_1000>x9.81x1x65

output 637.65 kw
m) Actual power
=

1000 1000

Actual power output 637.65

x100 94.47%
Actual power input 674.968

a 12 c m diameter
centrifugal pump is required to deliver 0.03 m/s of water to a height of 25 through
m
Example 25.8 A
is 72%. Take coefficient of
pipe and 110 m long. Determine the power required to drive the pump if its overall efficiency
frction f = 0.01 for the pipe line.

Solution
let Q=0.03 ms, , +hy) = 25 m, D=12 cm = 0.12 m, L =110 m, n, = 0.72 and f= 0.01. Let V=V, =Va be the
elocity of water in pipe and P be the power required by the pump.

0.03
-= 2.652 m/s
A (7/4)D2 (/4) x0.122

4 LV2
hs +hja)= 2gD 4x0.01xI10X 2.0>
2x9.81x0.12
=13.144 m

2.6522
H =h, +ha +hg +ha + 25+13.144 + 2x9.81 =
38.5 m

H 1000x9.81x0.03x38.5
=15.737 kW
1000 1000x0.72

T Exar e 25.9 The discharoe from a centrifugal pump running at 750 rom ie O Ds3
 UU) K VW.

27.2.2 Actual Hydraulic Press

The simplest form of an actual
A movable hydraulic press is shown in Figure
27.2 and it consists of a ram
plate is attached to the lower sliding in a fixed
and down with the ram between two fixedcylinder.
end of the ram which
The upper and lower fixed moves up
plates are joined by columns. The ram is plates.
by a pump. Usually, a hydraulic accumulator is provided between the
operated by liquid under pressure which is supplied
liquid while the press is at rest. When and the pump, where it stores
direction. It exerts a force on any materialliquid under pressure is supplied topress high
the cylinder, then the ram moves in the pressure
placed between the lower fixed plate and the movable downward
gets pressed or any desired mechanical plate. Thus, the material
the cylinder is removed. As a operation is performed. To bring back the ram in its initial
result, the ram along with the movable position, liquid from
the
plate moves up by the action of return weights.
High pressure liquid -
- Fixed cylinder

Pulley

Upper
fixed plate
Ram

Return
Movable plate weight
Column
Lower
fixed plate
Figure 27.2 Actual hydraulic press
27.3 HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOOR
The hydraulic accumulator
intermittent requirement. Thetemporarily stores the
hydraulic machines
energy of liauid under
pressure and supplies it for any sudden or
liquid under pressure during upward motion of the such as lifts or cranes
require large amount of energy in the
these devices move in the downward load only, This energv is
supplied torm or
from the hydraulic accumulator. When
is stored in the accumulator. direction, no energy is practically used. At that time, the
Therefore, an accumulator energy supplied by the pump
it along with the urniform stores energy during the idle
supply from the pump to the machine during its period of the machine and supplies
under presure is required. Thus, it acts as a working stroke when large quantity of liquid
pressure regulator, which means it damps out
hydraulic system. This function is analogous to that of an pressure surges and shocks in the
electric storage battery and the flywheel of a
reciprocating engine.
27.3.1 Simple Hydraulic Accumulator
A simple
hydraulic accumulator is illustrated in Figure 27.3. It consists
of fixed vertical cylinder
a
containing a sliding ram or plunger. The -Load
bottom end of the cylinder has two
of the cylinder. A
openings, namely inlet and outlet Sliding-
heavy load is placed on the top of the ram to generate ram
pressure inside the cylinder chamber. The inlet of the cylinder is con-
nected to the pump which continuously
supplies liquid under pressure
to the Fixed
cylinder. The outlet of the cylinder is connected to the machine
which may be lift, crane, press, etc. cylinder
nitially, the ram is at its lowermost position. When liquid is not P
required by the machine, the pump delivers the liquid under pressure to Inlet from-
Outlet to machine
nccylinder. It raises the loaded ram till it reaches its uppermost position
the cylinder. This constitutes the
pump
upward stroke ofthe ram. Now at this
Figure 27.3 Simple hydraulic accumulator
27.6 Chapter 27

position, the cylinder is full of liquid under pressure and hence, the accumulator has stored maximum amount of energy
Later on, when the machine requires a large amount of energy during its working stroke, then the hydraulic accumulator
supplies the stored energy. Thus, the ram gradually moves in the down ward direction. It constitutes the downward stroke of
the ram during which the liquid under is delivered to the machine.
pressure

27.3.2 Capacity of Accumulator

The maximum amount of hydraulic energy that the accumulator can store is known as the capacity of the accumulator.
Let Lbe the stroke or lift of the ram, D be the diameter of the sliding ram, A= (7/4)D be the area of the sliding ram,
AL be the volume ofaccumulator,p be the pressure intensity of liquid supplied by the pump and Wbe the total weight of
the loaded ram (including the
weight of the ram) as given in the following expression.
W=pxA
The work done in lifting the is
ram given by,
w WxStroke of the ram =WL pAxKL =
(27.9)
The work done in
lifting the ram is equal to the energy stored in the accumulator. Thus, the capacity of accumulator is
given by the following expression.

C WxL =pAx L =
p x Volume of accumulator| (27.10)

Example 27.4 Anaccumulator has a ram of 0.2 m diameter and lift of 6.5 m. If the
liquid is supplied at a pressure of
5000kN/m-, then determine (i) the load on the ram and (ii)
capacity of the accumulator in kWh.
Solution
Let D =
0.2 m, L =
6.5 m and p =
5000 kN/m*. Let Wbe the load on the ram and C be the capacity of the accumulator.
)W pxA = p x D = 5000xx0.22 = 157.08 kN
4

(i) 1kWh =1000x60 x 60 = 3.6x10° Nm

WxL 157.08x10' x6.5

C =
0.28362 kWh
3.6x10 3.6x10
Example 27.5 The ram of an accumulator is 0.35 m diameter and it weighs 50 kN. Determine the
be placed over it to develop a pressure of 4 MPa. additional weight to
Solution
Let D = 0.35 m, W = 50 kN and p=4 MPa = 4x10 N/m2.

A-D x0.35 0.09621 m2

Pressure
W 50x10 = 519696.5 N/m
A 0.09621

Required pressure =
4x10" -519696.5 3480303.5 N/m2
=

Required extra load = Required pressure x Area

3480303.5x0.09621
Wextra 103
= 334.84 kN
27.5 HYDRAULIC RAM
from large quantity of water
The hydraulic ram is a small quantity of water to a greater height
type of pump which lifts a
external power. The schematic diagram af
available at a smaller height. The hydraulic ram lifts water without the use of any
a typical hydraulic ram and its main components are illustrated in Figure
27.6. It consists of a valve chamber connected to
a waste valve Vj and a delivery valve V.
the supply tank by an inclined supply pipe. The valve chamber is provided with
Both these valves are non-return valves that permit the flow in one direction only. The waste valve Vj opens inwards while
the delivery valve V, opens outwards. The delivery valve V connects the valve chamber to the air vessel which 1s connected

to the delivery tank through the delivery pipe.

It works on the principle of water hammer. When a flowing liquid is suddenly brought to rest, the change in momentum
of lhquid mass causes a sudden rise in pressure. This rise in pressure is utilized to raise a portion of the liquid to higher
levels.
When the supply valve fitted to the supply pipe is opened, water starts flowing from the supply tank to the valve chamber.
The level of water rises in the valve chamber and the waste valve starts moving upwards. The waste valve 1 being open, the
water flows through it to the waste water channel. As the rate of discharge after the waste valve increases, the fiow of water
in the supply pipe accelerates. With increase in the velocity of flow in the supply pipe, dynamic pressure on the underside
of the waste valve reaches to a stage which suddenly closes the waste valve. Due to the sudden closure of waste valve, water
in the supply pipe is suddenly brought to rest which creates high pressure inside the valve chamber. This high pressure lifts
the delivery valve 2 and a part of water from the valve chamber enters the air vessel and compresses the air inside it. This
compressed air exerts force on the water in the air vessel and a small quantity of water is supplied through the delivery pipe
to the delivery tank
placed to a greater height.

(H-h)
Air vessel
Delivery tank
H
Waste Delivery pipe
valve ()
Supply tank
Delivery valve (V2)
Supply pipe-
Supply valve- -Valve chamber

Figure 27.6 Hydraulic ram

 Hydraulic Systems 27.13

When the water in the valve chamber loses its momentum, the waste valve V, opens. Now the flow of water from supply
tank starts flowing to the valve chamber and this cycle is repeated.
The hydraulic ram works with water streams of l m'/s to 40 m'/s, fall heads of 1.5 m to 30 m, and lifts water up to
heights about 300 m.
Let bethe discharge through supply pipe, q be the discharge through delivery pipe, h be the height of water in supply
tank above the valve chamber and H be the height of water raised from the valve chamber.

Energy supplied to the ram = p,,gOh

Energy supplied by the ram =

p,ggH
The etticiency of hydraulic ram is given by,

D
Energy supplied by the ramPwg4H qxH| (27.15)
Energysupplied to the ram PgQh Qxh

The above expression for efficiency was suggested by D'Aubuisson and thus, it is known as D'Aubuisson's efficiency.
Rankine suggested another form of the above efficiency and hence, it is called Rankine efficiency. It is defined on the
basis of the difference of water head in the discharge and the supply tank. The Rankine's efficiency is mathematically
expressed as given below.

R =X(H-h]

(27.16)
xh
The above two efficiencies, in terms of weight are given by,

WxH
nD Wxh (27.17)

wx(H-h)
R (W-w)xh (27.18)

Here. w is the weight of water delivered per second by the ram and W is the weight of water flowing from supply tank to
the valve chamber per second.
Due to several energy losses, the maximum efficiency of hydraulic ram is usually limited to only about 75%. The main
causes of energy losses are (i) friction and secondary losses which occur in the supply pipe, delivery pipe and in the valves
and (ii) the velocity energy carried away by the water leaving the waste valve.
Some of the characteristic features of hydraulic ram are (i) it is suitable to pump water from streams for irrigation
purposes and supplying water to houses in hilly and remote areas, (ii) it is quiet in operation and works automatical
n) it requires very ittle maintenance and running costs, (v) it has no moving parts, so frequent oiling is not required
(v)it does not require any external source ofenergy to pump water but it needs large quantity of water at low heads.
 Hydraulic Systems 27.2
27.8 HYDRAULIC COUPLING
The hydraulic coupling (or fluid coupling) is a device
used totransmit power from which is
driving shaft (input shaft) to
shaft (output shaft) through a liquid medium driven
is no mechanical or
rigid connection between(generally oil). There
the two shafts. The Pump impeller-
schematic view of a typical
27.10. It consists of a radialhydraulic coupling is shown in Figure
shaft 4 and a radial flow turbine impeller keyed to the drivingB
pump
runner keyed to the driven
B. Both the impeller and runner shaft
are identical in
shape and size. FTurbine
These two units are kept
very close with their ends facing each runner
other and are enclosed in a
with ordinary mineral
casing. The casing is completely filled
the torque from the
lubricating oil. The oil in the casing transmits
pump impeller to the turbine runner.
Initially, both the shafts 'A' and B° are
stationary. When the Driving- Driven
shaft A is rotated by the shaft 4
prime mover (engine or a motor), the shaft 'B
pump impeller causes the oil to flow from its inner
radius (eye)
to the outer radius. This oil of
increased energy enters the turbine -Casing
runner vanes at its outer radius and
flows inwardly to its inner
radius and thus, it exerts a force on the runner vanes.
As the speed
of the driving shaft 'A' increases, the the
torque on turbine runner T
increases. Eventually, the magnitude of the torque overcomes the
inertia of the driven unit. Thus, the turbine runner and the driven
shaft 'B starts rotating. The oil from the runner flows back into the Figure 27.10 Hydraulic coupling
pump impeller and thus, it makes a continuous circulation.
Let Tbe the torque which remains equal on driving shaft
(impeller) and driven shaft (runner), w, be the angular speed
of the pump impeller or driving shaft A, a@, be the angular
speed of the turbine runner or driven shaft B.
Efficiency of the coupling is given by,

Power output_7X@_ @ =

(27.22)
- -

Power input
Tx@p Op
Therefore, this ratio (0,/o,) is known as speed ratio.
Slip (s) of hydraulic coupling is defined by,

p- -1-L=1-7 (27.23)
p
Generally, the efficiency of a hydraulic coupling is more than 94%. A typical efficiency versus speed ratio curve for a
hydraulic couplingis shown in Figure 27.11(a). The efficiency starts at zero and increases uniformly with the speed ratio
until it reaches to 95% and then, it reduces to zero.
The stall is the condition when the speeds of both the shafts 'A and 'B' becomes equal due to which the slip becomes
zero and efficiency becomes unity. Under such conditions, there is no flow of oil and hence, the coupling does not work.
values of slip are parabolic curves
The variation of driving shaft input torque with the driving shaft speed for different
for a given slip. Thus,
which are illustrated in Figure 27.1 1(b). The input torque increases with the cube of driving speed
In order to reduce the input torque, the slip must
The power transmitted also varies with the cube of speed for a given slip.
be of a smaller value.
to mechanical couplings. However, these
have low value of transmission efticiency in comparison
areHydraulic couplings
widely used in automobiles, marine engines, ropeway cable drive units, power driven excavators and agricultural
are very usefiul where smooth
0.7 kW to 26500 kW. The hydraulic couplings
machinery to transmit torque ranging from loads are involved.
Snock free operations are required and where large initial
 27.22 Chapter 27

100
Slip %
80 100 50 20 10

60
Stall

40

20

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Speed ratio (o,/o,) Driving shaft speed
(a) b)
Figure 27.11 Performance characteristics of a hydraulic coupling

27.9 HYDRAULIC TORQUE CONVERTER

The hydraulic torque converter is a device which is used to transmit increased or decreased
In caseof hydraulic coupling, the torque torque at the driven shaft.
output is equal to the torque input, but in case of hydraulic torque converter, the
torque output can be increased or decreased. Usually, the torque converters are used to increase the
shaft. The torque may be increased about five times the torque at the driven
torque available at the driving shaft with an efficiency of about 90%.
The hydraulic torque converters are used in automobile
power transmission units, diesel locomotives and earth
machinery. moving
It consists of a pump impeller mounted on the
driving shaft (input shaft), a turbine runner fixed on the driven shaft
(output shaft) and stationary guide vanes (also called stator or reaction member) fixed to
the impeller and the runner as shown in the casing are provided between
Figure 27.12(a). The construction ofa hydraulic converter is similar to hydraulic
coupling, except for a series of fixed guide vanes which are provided between the
impeller and the runner.
Stationary-
guide vane
100
TpConstant
- -

Pump
impeller
Turbine 80
runner

60
Driving
shaft 40
Driven
shaft
20

-Casing
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(a)
Speed ratio (o,lo,)
(b)
Figure 27.12 Hydruulic torque converter and its characteristics
 27.23
Hydraulic Systems

The liquid tlowing from the impeller goes to the runner and to a series of guide vanes. The guide vanes change the
direction of liquid, as a result of which the torque delivered increases many times. By suitable design of the guide vanes, the
torque transmitted to the driven shaft can be increased or decreased. Therefore, hydraulic torque converter is comparable
to an electric transformer.
Let 7, be the torque transmitted to the turbine runner (driven shaft), T, is the torque ofthe pump impeller (driving shaft),
T, is the variation of torque caused by guide vanes, o, is the angular speed of the pump impeller (driving shaft), o, is the
angular speed ofthe turbine runner (driven shaft) and (o,/o,) is the speed ratio.
The torque relationship is given by,

T,=Tp +T (27.24)
The efficiency of the converter is given by,

=
Power output (p +T,)xo,
o_ao (27.25)
Power input Tp Xp
From Equation (27.25), it can be seen that if T, is zero (i.e., when there is no stationary guide vanes). then the torque
converter reduces to hydraulic coupling and we have 7 = (®, / 0 ) . I fslip is considered then n = (l-s).
In Equation (27.25), if T, is positive, then increased torque is obtained at the driven shaft. To achieve this, guide
in that on the driven
vanes are to be designed to receive the torque from the liquid
obtained
a direction opposite tois
exerted shaft.
Conversely, if T, is negative, then reduced torque is at
the driven shaft. This accomplished bydesigning the
from the liquid in the same sense as that of driven shaft.
guide vanes to receive a torque
In order to obtain a large reduction in speed and a large torque magnitieation, the hydraulic torque converters have two
Or more sets of turbine runners and fixed guide vanes.
The efficiency versus speed ratio curve for hydraulic torque converter at a given pump torque (T,) is illustrated in
Figure 27.12(b). It can be seen that efficiencyincreases with increase in speed ratio and it becomes maximum when speed
ratio is approximately 0.5, but the efficiency drops at higher speed ratios. It is also observed that the eticiency of a torque
a fluid coupling at lower speed
ratios. the coupling is more economical than a converter
converter is higher than Conversely,
when the speed ratio approaches unity. Thus, the advantages of both the converter and the coupling can be obtained in a

transmissionsystem by designing it in such a way that it acts as a converter at low speed ratios and as a coupling at high
speed ratios.