RESISTIVITY OF WIRES

Aim: To determine resistivity of a given wires by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current.

Apparatus: Two wires of unknown resistance, battery eliminator (0 to 3V), voltmeter (0-5
V), ammeter (0–5A), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires.

Principle:
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential differenc e across its ends, provided the
physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.

Formula:
1
R= Ω.
slope

Resistivity

Procedure:
1. Connect various components – resistance wire, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter
and ammeter as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on
the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer.
3. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that
current passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
4. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key.
Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the
ammeter and voltmeter reading.
6. Repeat step 5 for five to six different settings of the rheostat. Record your
observations in a tabular column.
7. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) v/s current (I).
8. The resistance of the given wire is equal to the reciprocal of the
slope.
9. Resistivity can be calculated by given formulae
10. We will repeat the procedure with one / two more wires
Circuit Diagram: Nature of graph:
Ba
K

I (ampere)
+ A
A
_ Rh
R C
B

V ( volts )
+ V _

Where:
Ba – Battery, K – Plug Key, A – Ammeter, V – Voltmeter, Rh – Rheostat, R – Resistance of
Given Wire

Observations:
Radius of given wire (r) =
Length of the given wire ( l ) = …………….m

Applied Potential
Current through the wire
S No. difference
( I in ampere )
(V in volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6
 Radius of given wire (r) =
Length of the given wire ( l ) = …………….m

Applied Potential
Current through the wire
S No. difference
( I in ampere )
(V in volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculation:
First Wire
From graph, Slope = =
The Resistance of the given wire is R = …….. Ω
Second Wire
From graph, Slope = =
The Resistance of the given wire is R = …….. Ω

Result: resistivity of the given wires

First wire = …….. Ω-m
Second wire = …….. Ω-m

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The rheostat should be moved smoothly.
3. Readings should be taken without any parallax error
Source of error:
1. Connections may be loose
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 METER BRIDGE- RESISTANCE OF GIVEN WIRE

Aim: To determine the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge and hence determine
the resistivity of the material of the wire

Apparatus: Meter Bridge, experimental wire, battery, plug key, resistance box, jockey and
pointer galvanometer.

Principle:
A meter bridge works on the principle of balanced Whetstone’s bridge. The
Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when the current through the galvanometer is zero.

Formula:
Resistance of the wire

Where:
S- Standard resistance.
l – Balancing length.
L – Length of the experimental wire.
r – Radius of the experimental wire.

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. A suitable resistance S is unplugged in the standard resistance box.
3. The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing jockey at the two ends of the
wire AB alternately.
4. The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards B till the galvanometer shows
zero deflection.
5. The balancing length l is measured. The resistance of the wire is calculated using the
formula
6. The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of R is found.
7. The length and radius of the experimental wire is measured using meter scale and screw
gauge respectively.

Circuit Diagram:
R
S

A B
C
l 100 - l

K
Ba
Where: AB – Meter bridge wire, Ba – Battery, K – Plug key, S – Standard resistance box,
R – Resistance of given wire, C- Balancing Point, G- Pointer galvanometer, AC –
Balancing length

Observations:
Length of the given wire (L) = …………..cm
Radius of the given wire ( r) = ……………… cm

To Measure the resistance of the given wire:

Resistance Balancing length

S.No
S in Ω l in cm
in Ω
1
2
3

Mean R = ………..Ω

Result:
The resistance of the given wire is ……….Ω

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observation to be taken.
Source of error:
1. Connections may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 METER BRIDGE - COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances in series and using meter bridge.

Apparatus: Meter Bridge, battery, two resistor, plug key, resistance box, galvanometer and
jockey.

Principle:
The series or parallel combinations of two resistors are connected in the left gap of
Meter Bridge R. A standard resistance S is connected in the right gap of the meter bridge.
When the bridge is balanced the current through the galvanometer is zero, ( the jockey is at
the point C). The balancing condition is,
,
( . .. R α l)
The effective resistance of combination is given by
( )
Formula:
Resistance

.
Equivalent resistance in series, Rs = R1 + R2 Ω
Where:
S – Standard resistance.
l – Balancing length.
R1 and R2 – Individual resistances.

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. i.e, the two resistors are
connected in series
2. A suitable resistance S is unplugged in the standard resistance box.
3. The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing jockey at the two ends of the
meter bridge wire AB alternately.
4. The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards B till the galvanometer shows
zero deflection.
5. The balancing length l is measured. The equivalent resistance of the series combination
is calculated using the formula .
6. The experiment is repeated for different values of S and average value of Rs is found.
The theoretical value of equivalent resistance is calculated using the formula
Rs = R1 + R2 .
7. Now the two resistors are connected in parallel on the left gap of Meter Bridge.
 8. The jockey is moved on the wire and hence balancing length l is measured. The
equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is calculated using the formula
.

Circuit Diagram:
S
R1 R2
Y S
X
R1
X Y
G R2

A B
C
l 1-l

Ba K

Where:
R1 and R2 - given resistors, S – Standard resistance box, G – Galvanometer , Ba –
Battery , K – plug key,
AB – Meter Bridge wire, AC – Balancing length.

Observations:
1. Resistance of given resistor, R1 = ……………Ω
2. Resistance of given resistor, R2 = ……………Ω
,
To verify the laws of combination of resistance in series:

Balancing
Resistance
S.No length
S in Ω
l in m
in Ω
1
2
3

Mean RS= …………..Ω

Calculations:

Theoretical, Rs = R1 + R2

Result:
Theoretical value of resistances in series, Rs = ….Ω
Experimental value of resistances in series, Rs = ….Ω
Experimental values are in good agreement with theoretical values, thus the laws of
combination of resistances in series are verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observation to be taken.
Source of error:
1. Connections may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 FIGURE OF MERIT
Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key (two numbers) and
connecting wires.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity. The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection
method. The circuit is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection 0 is
determined with a suitable value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the
galvanometer resistance,

Figure of merit of galvanometer: It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1

division. It is measured in ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a
current I flow in the circuit and it produces a deflection 

Therefore

By varying R and noting corresponding value of  , we can find a set of values of figure of merit. The
mean of these values gives the figure of merit.

Circuit Diagram:

Ba K1 R

I
Ig
G -
+

S K2

Where:
Ba – Battery, G – Galvanometer, R & S – Resistance boxes, K1 & K2 – Plug keys
Observation:
S.No Resistance Deflection in Shunt S Galvanometer Figure of
Ω galvanometer Ω Resistance G merit
(divisions) (divisions) Ω

Mean (K) = A/division

Procedure:
a) Make the connections as shown.
b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum (say 30 div)
e) Note the deflection. Let it be  i.e.,  = 30 div.
f) Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, such that deflection
in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e.,  /2.
g) Note the value of R.
h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R

Result:
1) The resistance of galvanometer is found to be
2) Figure of merit of galvanometer is A/division.
Precautions:
a) All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
b) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small resistance
can damage the galvanometer.
Sources of error:
1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.
2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and may have contact resistance.
 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Aim: To determine the refractive index of glass using travelling microscope.

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, a glass slab, chalk dust and paper.
Principle: If a glass slab is placed in air on horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from
top, it appears to be elevated due to the refraction. The distance between the apparent bottom and the
top surface of the slab gives the apparent thickness of the slab. In case of normal observation, the
refractive index of the glass with respect to air is the ratio of real thickness of glass slab to the
apparent thickness.
Formula:
1. Total reading TR = MSR + (CVD x LC). cm
2. Refractive index of glass slab
Where: MSR – Main scale reading
CVD – Coincide vernier scale division
LC- Least count
R1 – travelling microscope reading when focused on object (ink mark) through air
R2 - travelling microscope reading when focused on image when glass slab is kept on object.
R3 – travelling microscope reading when focused on the particles on the surface of glass slab.

Procedure:
1. The least count of travelling microscope is calculated.
2. A sheet of white paper with ink mark is placed on the base of travelling microscope.
3. The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper and readings are noted in
vertical scale and total reading (R1) is found using relevant formula.
4. Now glass slab is placed on the paper and the microscope is focused on the ink mark through
glass slab and corresponding reading R2is found.
5. Some chalk dust is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab the microscope is focused
on chalk dust and corresponding reading R3 is found.
6. Refractive index of glass slab is calculated using the formula .
7. The experiment is repeated for one more trail to raise the position of glass slab and hence
calculate the refractive index. Then mean refractive index is found.

Diagram:

R3 A B

R2 I

R1 C
D O
Where:
ABCD – Rectangular glass slab, O – object, I – Image
R3 - position of the particles on glass slab, R2- position of the image (object seen through glass
slab),
R1 - position of the object

Observations:
The value of the 1MSD of travelling Microscope (S) = ………….cm
Total number of VSD (N) = ……………….
Least count (L C) =

Travelling Microscope Reading for

Mark made on paper through Particles on the top of glass
Mark made on paper
S.N glass slab surface
o. TR TR TR
MSR CVD MSR CVD MSR CVD
in cm in cm in cm
in cm in div in cm in div in cm in div
(R1 ) (R2) (R3)
1
2
3

Calculation:
Refractive index of the slab (ng) =

Result: the refractive index of glass is ) = …………….

Precautions:
1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed
2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.
Sources of error:
1. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated
 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER BY CONVEX LENS

Aim: To determine the refractive index of water using convex lens and plane mirror.
Apparatus: Plane mirror, convex lens, laboratory stand with rigid base and clamp arrangement,
water, a pin, a plumb line, spherometer and a meter scale.
Principle: The reciprocal of the equivalent focal length of the combination of the lens is the equal to
the sum of the reciprocal of focal lengths of individual lenses.
In figure – 1, OF = f is the focal length of the convex lens. In figure- 2, OF' = f ' is the
equivalent focal length of combination of convex lens and the plano – concave lens of water. If fw is
the focal length of plano – concave lens of water.

From lens maker formula the focal length of Plano – concave water lens
( ) Where Fw – magnitude of the focal length of plano-concave water lens

Formula:
1. Focal length of Plano-concave water lens,
2. Refractive index of water,
Where: f – Focal length of convex lens.
f ' – Equivalent focal length of combination of convex lens and Plano-concave water lens.
Procedure:
1. A plane mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface upward.
2. A convex lens is placed on the plane mirror as shown in figure.
3. A sharp edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the optic center (O) of the convex
lens and clamped.
4. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that it coincide with its image A'B' without parallax.
5. The vertical distance between the optic center (O) of convex lens and pin is measured using
plumb line. It’s equal to the focal length f of convex lens.
6. A few drops of water are put under the lens with the help of syringe so that the space between
the mirror and lens is filled with water.
7. The position of the pin AB is raised such that it coincides with its image A''B'' without parallax.
8. Then vertical distance between the optic center (O) of convex lens and pin AB is measured by
plumb line, which is equal to the effective focal length f ' of combination of convex lens and
water lens.
9. The focal length of water lens is calculated using the relevant formula.
10. The radius of curvature of the spherical surface of the convex lens in contact with water is
found by using spherometer.
11. Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula.
 Diagram:

A'' B'' F' B A

A' B' F B A

f'

L L O
O
M
M M1
M' M M'

Figure-1
Figure-1 Figure-2

Where:
L – convex lens, MM' – plane mirror, AB- object Pin , A'B' – image by convex lens,
A''B'' – image by combination of water lens end convex lens, O- optic centre

Observations:
1. The radius of curvature of the given convex lens (R) = ………….cm
To measure the focal length of water lens:

Position of pin with respect to the optical center O

Distance of the pin without water from Distance of the pin with water from
S.
No Upper Plane Upper surface Plane
surface of the mirror of the lens mirror
in cm
lens (d1cm) (d2 cm) in cm (d'1cm) (d'2 cm) in cm
1
2

Mean fw = ………….cm

Calculation:
Focal length of the plano-concave lens of water
Refractive index of water

Precautions:
1. The parallax should not be there
2. Meter scale should be straight while taking reading.
3. Air Bubbles should not be there in water.
Sources of error:
1. Formation air bubbles in water
2. Impurities in water.
 ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting graph between
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, prism, drawing pins, and white paper.
Principle:
A ray of light incident on one of the refracting surface of prism of angle A and refractive index n,
it will deviate while passing through prism as shown in figure-1. The deviation is given by
d = (i1 + i2) – A where i1 and i2 are angle of incident and angle of emergence.
As the angle of incidence is gradually increased, the angle of deviation first decreases reaches a
minimum value (dm) and then increases as shown in graph. When the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of emergence, the deviation is minimum.
Procedure:
1. A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing board.
2. The points O1, O2, O3 … are marked on line XY.
3. A normal N1O1 is drawn to XY at O1 and straight line D1O1is drawn to represent ray of
incidence which makes an angle 450 with N1O1.
4. The prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in the figure and its boundary is drawn.
5. Two pins P1 and Q1 are vertically fixed about 5cm apart on the ray of incidenceD1O1.
6. While seeing the images of the pins P1 and Q1 through the other refracting surface BC of the
prism, two more pins R1 and S1are fixed on the side of AC so that R1,S1 and the images of the
pins P1 and Q1 will be collinear.
7. Pins are removed and their pricks are marked. A straight line is drawn through the pin pricks of
R1 and S1 to obtain the ray of emergence.
8. The ray of incidence and emergence are extended as shown in the figure – 2 to find the angle of
deviation (d).
9. The experiment is repeated for different value of angle of incidence and to find the
corresponding angle of deviation.
10. A graph of angle of incidence (i) versus angle of deviation (d) is drawn and angle of minimum
deviation dm is found from the graph.

Diagram:
A Nature of Graph

Q M
i1 i2 d
d

r1 r2 R

P N S
B dm
C
Figure -1
i

N2 N3
N1
P1
P2 P3
Q1 i1 i2
Q2 Q3 i3
X Y
B O1 A B O2 A B O3 A

d2 d3
d1
C R1 C CR
R2 3

S1 S2 S3

Figure – 2
Where:
ABC – Prism,
P1Q1R1S1, P2Q2R2S2… - pins,
i1i2&i3 – different angle of incidence,
d1d2&d3 –angle of deviation

Observations:

S.N Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

o i d
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

( )

( )

Calculations:
From graph
Angle of minimum deviation dm = ………
Result: The angle of minimum deviation, dm = ………

Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 350 – 600
2. The pins should be fixed vertically
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10mm.
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
Sources of error:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
 SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim: To Draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction diode, milli ammeter, microammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.
Principle: when p-side of the semi-conductor diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery, then p-n junction is said to be forward biased. The junction offers low resistance and initially
a negligibly small current flows through circuit till the applied voltage crosses a certain value the
diode current increases exponentially.
When p-side of the semi-conductor diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery, then p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased. As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse biased
condition, starting from zero, the current increases, but soon become constant. It is called reverse
saturation current.
Procedure:
(a) For forward bias:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Using rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for a value V. the voltage V and corresponding Current
I are noted.
3. The voltage is increased in small steps. Value of V and I are noted in each case and readings
are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted for the current I versus voltage V.
5. Cut in voltage is located in the graph.
(b) For reverse bias:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Using rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for a value V. the voltage V and corresponding Current
I are noted.
3. The voltage is increased in small steps. Value of V and I are noted in each case and reading
are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted for the current I versus voltage V.
5. Reverse saturation current is found.
Circuit Diagram:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Ba K Ba K

Rh Rh

+ +
mA µA
- D - D

V V
+ - + -
Where:
Ba – Battery,
V – Voltmeter,
µA – Micro ammeter,
mA – Milli ammeter
Rh – Rheostat,
D – Diode
K – Plug key.

Nature of Graph:
Reverse Bias
Forward Bias
Vbr V in volts O

I in µA
I in mA

O OB – Reverse
V in volts P (Vk)
saturation current
Observations:
Forward Bias Characteristics:
Voltage(V) Current
S.No
in volts I in mA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Reverse Bias Characteristics:

Voltage(V) Current
S.No
in volts I in mA
1
2
3
 4
5
6
7
8
9

Result:
I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode are drawn.
From graph: Cut in voltage = OP = …..V

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Forward- bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
3. Reverse- bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Source of error:
The junction diode supplied may not be faulty