Environ. Sci. Technol.

2007, 41, 7509-7515

MSW refers to the materials discarded in urban areas for

Municipal Solid Waste Fueled which municipalities are usually held responsible for col-
Power Generation in China: A Case lection, transport, and final disposal. In China, the physical
components of MSW typically include food waste, paper,
Study of Waste-to-Energy in textiles, rubber, plastic, glass, metals, wood, and inert
materials (e.g., stones, ceramics, ashes, etc.). Small amounts
Changchun City of industrial wastes and construction wastes occasionally
may also end up in MSW. Waste sorting is not implemented
H E F A C H E N G , * ,† Y A N G U O Z H A N G , ‡ in China, and these components are not separated. On the
AIHONG MENG,‡ AND QINGHAI LI‡ other hand, some of the MSW components, such as metals
and paper, are highly recycled because of their value. The
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford
University, Stanford, California 94305, and Key Laboratory for
informal recycling sector, comprised of street pickers, dump
Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of pickers, and itinerant buyers, is involved in waste scavenging
Education, Department of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua and recycling activities in China, as in other developing
University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China 100084 countries (1-3). Because of the lifestyle differences and
current trash disposal practice, MSW in China shows some
distinct compositional characteristics. Comparison of the
average compositions of MSW in selected cities in China
With rapid economic growth and massive urbanization in with those in other countries is shown in Table S1 of the
China, many cities face the problem of municipal solid waste Supporting Information. Food waste makes up the largest
(MSW) disposal. With the lack of space for new landfills, fraction (∼50%) of MSW in most cities in China, while the
contents of paper and metals are very low because of their
waste-to-energy incineration is playing an increasingly
high recycling levels. This is similar to the situations in many
important role in waste management. Incineration of MSW developing countries. In contrast, wood and yard trimmings
from Chinese cities presents some unique challenges constitute the largest component of MSW generated (47%),
because of its low calorific value (3000-6700 kJ/kg) and and paper is the second-largest component (34%) in the U.S.
high water content (∼50%). This study reports a novel waste- MSW in developed countries typically has a high content of
to-energy incineration technology based on co-firing of paper, while that of food waste is relatively low.
MSW with coal in a grate-circulating fluidized bed (CFB) The number of MSW management facilities increased
incinerator, which was implemented in the Changchun MSW from 12 in 1979 to a total of 479 by the end of 2005 in China,
power plant. In 2006, two 260 ton/day incinerators but they could only dispose of 52% of the total MSW generated
incinerated 137 325 tons, or approximately one/sixth of the (0.49 million tons/day) (4). Landfill, composting, and in-
MSW generated in Changchun, saving more than 0.2 cineration disposed of approximately 85, 5, and 10% of the
wastes, respectively (4). More than half of the landfills in
million m3 landfill space. A total of 46.2 million kWh electricity
China do not have leachate collection and treatment systems,
was generated (38 473 tons lignite was also burned as causing serious surface water and groundwater contamina-
supplementary fuel), with an overall fuel-to-electricity tion in many sites (4, 5). Contamination of water and soil
efficiency of 14.6%. Emission of air pollutants including from poorly managed municipal landfills poses growing
particulate matters, acidic gases, heavy metals, and dioxins health and ecological threats in China. On the other hand,
was low and met the emission standards for incinerators. construction of new lined landfills is restricted by the land
As compared to imported incineration systems, this space available in metropolitan areas. MSW composting and
new technology has much lower capital and operating compost application were widely promoted in China in 1990s.
costs and is expected to play a role in meeting China’s However, due to the lack of waste sorting prior to disposal
demands for MSW disposal and alternative energy. and appropriate materials separation processes, the contents
of noncompostables such as glass and plastic are high, while
the nutrient contents are relatively low (0.5-1.1% N, 0.3-
0.7% P, and 0.3-0.6% K) in the compost. Elevated levels of
Introduction
heavy metals (e.g., Hg, Pb, and Cr) and pathogens are also
With the sustained and rapid economic growth in the last found in the compost products (5). As a result, most MSW
three decades, China is undergoing massive urbanization. composting facilities have ceased to operate because of
The total population increased from 962.6 million in 1978 to technical difficulties and low market demand for compost
1375.6 million by the end of 2005. Meanwhile, the country’s products. Incineration is an alternative in MSW disposal with
urbanization rate increased from 17.4 to 41.8%. The country’s the primary benefit of substantial reduction of the waste’s
rapid economic growth also presents some unprecedented weight (up to 75%) and volume (up to 90%). Organic wastes
environmental challenges. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is are broken down, and bacteria and viruses are also destroyed
one of the major problems that affect China’s environmental during incineration.
quality and the sustainable development of its cities.
MSW incineration in developing countries is generally
Increased waste generation results from both the increasing
limited by several factors, including significant capital and
population and the improved lifestyle of the people. The
operating costs, potential environmental impacts, and
country produces more than 150 million tons of MSW each
technical difficulties of operating and maintaining an in-
year, and MSW generation is increasing at an annual rate of
cinerator and its pollution control equipment (3). One distinct
8-10%.
characteristic of MSW in developing countries is its high
moisture level (typically around 50%), which is much higher
* Corresponding author phone: (+1) 650 723-1478; fax: (+1) 650
725-3162; e-mail: [email protected]. than that (20-30%) in the MSW in the U.S. and European
† Stanford University. countries. Because of the traditions of materials recovery
‡ Tsinghua University. and extensive picking in China, the calorific values in the
10.1021/es071416g CCC: $37.00  2007 American Chemical Society VOL. 41, NO. 21, 2007 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 7509
Published on Web 10/04/2007
MSW streams are rather low. The high moisture content Changchun. Two 260 ton/day grate-CFB incinerators were
further lowers the MSW’s energy content. Results of proxi- designed and installed by a joint team from Tsinghua
mate and ultimate analyses for MSW generated in selected University and Beijing Boiler Works. The facility construction
cities in China are shown in Table S2 of the Supporting was completed in June 2004, and the waste-to-energy system
Information. The MSW’s calorific values (3000-6700 kJ/kg) began full operation in October 2005. Currently, 520 tons/
are typically less than half of those (8400-17 000 kJ/kg) of day, or one/sixth of the MSW generated in Changchun, is
the MSW in developed countries, which are mainly composed incinerated in the facility.
of sorted organic wastes (6, 7). As a result, supplementary Figure 1a shows the schematics of the grate-CFB com-
fuels (e.g., coal, natural gas, or oils) are often necessary for bustion system of the Changchun MSW power plant. It
incineration of such low energy content wastes. consists mainly of an integrated feeder and dryer, combustion
Besides waste reduction, incineration can also generate chamber, steam generation system, and pollution control
revenues from energy production, known as waste-to-energy, system. Trash bags unloaded from trucks were first torn apart.
which partially offsets the cost of incineration. The heat The ferrous metals were removed by a magnetic separator,
released from combustion of the MSW can be collected while the heavy and bulky materials, such as bricks, were
through steam generation, which is subsequently used for removed by air classification. The waste was then stored in
heating or power generation. MSW power plants are designed the garbage tank for several hours to up to 2 days before
to dispose of MSW and to produce electricity as a byproduct being lifted by a clamshell crane and dropped into the feeder.
of the incinerator operation. MSW is a source of biomass: Leachate from the MSW in the garbage tank was collected
food waste and yard trimmings are examples of biomass and treated by injection into the combustion chamber.
trash, while materials that are made out of glass, plastic, and Combustion of MSW with a high moisture content could
metals are not (8). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency cause sharp pressure fluctuation in the combustion chamber
(U.S. EPA) considers MSW to be a renewable energy resource due to water flash vaporization and the quick-release of
because the waste would otherwise be sent to landfills (9). volatile components of the waste. This was avoided by the
The Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Depart- grate design of the integrated feeder and dryer (Figure 1b);
ment of Energy now includes MSW in renewable energy only MSW on the grate was dried by the hot flue gas drawn from
to the extent that the energy content of the MSW source the furnace-exit level passed through the MSW layer and by
stream is biogenic (8). the heat radiated from the combustion chamber as well. Local
Currently, most MSW power plants in China rely on pyrolysis/combustion also occurred during the feeding
equipment imported from North America and Western processes, which led to further water removal. As a result of
Europe, which costs 0.6-0.7 million Yuan Ren Min Bi (RMB)/ the combination of these three drying effects, the moisture
daily ton treatment capacity. Such imported equipment is content of the waste could be significantly reduced. The dried
very expensive relative to the economic levels of most cities waste then fell into the dense phase zone of the combustion
in China. Furthermore, imported equipment, which is chamber without causing much disturbance to the combus-
designed for incinerating MSW in developed countries, does tion. The use of a grate allowed the waste to be fed and dried
not perform well in China and other developing countries, simultaneously. Consequently, the incinerator could adapt
primarily because of the high moisture content and the low to MSW with a wide range of moisture contents (up to 55%).
calorific value of the wastes (3, 10). Diesel is often added as The inside of the combustion chamber was covered with
a supplementary fuel to support combustion of the low energy firebricks to minimize heat loss and to prevent corrosion.
content MSW, which substantially increases the incinerator’s The combination of grate and CFB also allowed wastes with
operating cost. In addition, personnel training, maintenance, relatively large sizes (up to 50 cm) to be incinerated directly
and repair of imported incineration equipment are also without shredding.
expensive. The combustion chamber was equipped with an auxiliary
There is a significant demand for reliable yet relatively burner fired with diesel fuel, which was only used to start up
inexpensive MSW incinerators in China. Particularly, waste- the combustion process (340-400 kg of light diesel per
to-energy incineration adds the benefits of recovering energy startup). MSW combustion was generally not self-sustaining
from the wastes. Tsinghua University has recently developed because of the waste’s low heating value, and pulverized
a grate-circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combined combustion coal, fed by a screw conveyor into the combustion chamber,
technology for waste-to-energy incineration. This incinera- had to be added as a supplementary fuel. The supplementary
tion system incorporates four patented technologies (11- fuel made combustion of the MSW possible and helped to
14) and is well-suited for disposal of non-sorted high moisture ensure that the temperature in the combustion chamber
content and low energy content MSW. In 2000, the first full- never dropped below 800 °C and that the pollutant emissions
scale waste-to-energy incineration facility (2 × 150 ton/day complied with legal requirements.
incinerators) based on domestic technologies and equipment The walls of the furnace chamber were lined with vertical
was constructed by Tsinghua University in Chaolai Agricul- tubes containing water. Heat transfer from the hot combus-
tural Park, Beijing (15). Another MSW incineration facility tion gases in the furnace boiled the water in the tubes,
designed by Tsinghua University, which consists of two producing high temperature (450 °C) and high pressure
260 ton/day incinerators for electricity generation, was (3.82 MPa) steam. The steam flowed from the incinerator to
constructed in Changchun, Jilin and began full operation in a 3000 rpm condensing steam turbine that drove a 6 MW
October 2005. A total of 137 325 tons MSW was incinerated electric generator; the thermal energy in the steam was
in the facility in 2006, generating 46.2 million kWh electricity, converted to mechanical energy and then to electricity. After
which is enough to power more than 30 000 local the steam exited the turbine, it was condensed, and the water
homes. was pumped back to the incinerator. A series of heat recovery
sections, known as superheater, reheater, economizer, and
Changchun MSW Power Plant Setup air heater, was located downstream of the furnace chamber,
Changchun is the capital city of the Jilin Province, China, which served to extract additional heat from the flue gas to
with a total urban population of 3.15 million and 21 336 Yuan improve overall energy conversion efficiency. After the
RMB gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in 2005. MSW exchange of heat, the temperature of the flue gas was brought
is generated at a rate of approximately 3000 tons per day. In to a value close to but not lower than 200 °C, to avoid steam
2003, Jilin Xinxiang Corp. Ltd. invested a total of 160 million condensation that would boost the corrosive action of the
Yuan RMB to construct the first waste-to-energy facility in flue gas.

7510 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 41, NO. 21, 2007
FIGURE 1. Schematic diagram of the incineration facility (a) and integrated feeder and dryer (b).

TABLE 1. Key Parameters of Grate-CFB Incinerators and Power Generation System

item value
incinerator capacity 2260 ton MSW/day
steam output 218 ton/h
steam parameters 3.82 MPa, 450 °C
boiler efficiency g79%
auxiliary fuel (coal) consumption e20% of total fuel mass
residence time of flue gas in combustion chamber g2 s
moisture content in original MSW e55%
MSW calorific value g3100 kJ/kg
condensing steam turbine 16 MW, 3000 rpm, 3.43 MPa, 435 °C
electric generator 16 MW, 6300 V, 3000 rpm

The coarse dust was separated from the flue gas by two Table 1 summarizes the key parameters of the grate-CFB
cyclone units with a gas-solid separation efficiency of 98- incinerator and the power generation system of the Chang-
99%, which were constructed with fire-resistant and wear- chun MSW power plant. Full-scale testing of the waste-to-
resistant materials. Thereafter, acidic gases (HCl, Cl2, and energy facility was conducted between August and November
SO2) in the flue gas were removed through a dry scrubber, 2005 to examine the operating characteristics of the grate-
where a slurry of hydrated lime was sprayed into the hot flue CFB incinerators. Emissions of air pollutants were also
gas to absorb the pollutants. The heat of the flue gas was measured to check the performance of the air pollution
used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a non- control equipments. The sampling and analysis of particulate
saturated flue gas to exit the scrubber. Activated carbon could matters, CO, O2, SO2, NOx, HCl, Hg, Cd, Pb, and dioxins, in
also be added, if necessary, for the removal of dioxins and the flue gas at the inlet of the stack were carried out according
some heavy metals (e.g., mercury). The resulting dry material, to standard methods specified by the State Environmental
including fly ash, was collected in a downstream particulate Protection Administration of China (16), following procedures
control device (a fabric filter). The cyclone collector and fabric similar to those used by Liu and Liu (10). Loss on ignition
filter were designed to catch approximately equal volumes of the bottom ash was measured at 600 ( 25 °C for 3 h to
of dust; this configuration reduced the cost while maintaining determine the completeness of combustion.
a high overall dust removal efficiency. The bottom ash drained
from the furnace bottom and the fly ash collected in the Results and Discussion
particulate matter control devices were conveyed to a storage Incinerator Performance. Under typical operating condi-
silo. The purified flue gas was exhausted to the atmosphere tions, MSW with a water content of ∼50% was fed at a rate
through a stack. of 180 kg/min to each grate-CFB incinerator. The thickness

VOL. 41, NO. 21, 2007 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 7511
TABLE 2. Mass Balance of Two 260 Ton/Day Grate-CFB Incinerators for MSW Incineration (in 24 h)a
fuel (ton/day) fly ash (ton/day)
date MSW lignite bottom ash (ton/day) from cyclone from fabric filter solid residue to fuel ratio (%)
Aug 5, 2005 406 143 81 32 37 27
Aug 19, 2005 415 133 78 31 42 28
Nov 14, 2005 491 121 78 27 43 24
Nov 15, 2005 502 135 77 22 31 20
Nov 16, 2005 478 115 78 26 22 21
av 458 129 78 28 35 24
a Hydrated lime and activated carbon added for pollution control end up as fly ash, and their masses are included in the solid residue.

TABLE 3. Fuel (MSW and Coal) Consumption of Changchun MSW Power Plant and Electricity Generation in 2005 and 2006
operation period July to Sept, 2005 Oct to Dec, 2005 Jan to June, 2006 July to Dec, 2006 total
MSW incinerated (ton) 28831 35013 70380 66945 201169
lignite burned (ton) 10471 11431 18341 20132 60375
coal equivalent (29 300 kJ/kg) consumed (ton) 4789 5228 8388 9208 27613
coal equivalent to MSW fuel ratio 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.14 0.14
total fuel (coal + MSW) energy (million kWh) 72.85 83.69 150.97 153.60 461.10
electricity generated (million kWh) 9.85 11.52 23.49 22.68 67.53
fuel-to-electricity generation efficiency (%) 13.5 13.8 15.6 14.8 14.6
electricity supplied to public grid (million kWh) 7.40 8.96 18.63 18.01 53.00
electricity consumed within facility (million kWh) 2.45 2.56 4.86 4.67 14.54
ratio of net electricity generation (%) 75.1 77.8 79.3 79.4 78.5

of the MSW layer (bulk density: ∼350 kg/m3) on the drying Comparison of the sizes of the bed materials and the solid
grate was 0.35 m, and the residence time was 11.5 min. residues from the grate-CFB incinerator with those from a
Thermal radiation from the furnace to the MSW layer was conventional coal-fired CFB boiler is shown in Table S3 of
640 kW. Assuming that 90% of the heat was absorbed by the the Supporting Information. The bed materials, bottom ash,
water in the MSW, this could cause evaporation of 7.6% of and fly ash all had larger size ranges in the grate-CFB
water in the MSW. Another 0.8% reduction in the moisture incinerators as compared to those of the coal-fired CFB boiler.
content of the MSW could be brought by drying air This could be attributed to the heterogeneous nature of the
(∼150 °C) passing through the MSW layer. The heat generated MSW and the fact that the wastes were not shredded before
due to local pyrolysis and combustion of MSW on the drying incineration. The bottom ash and fly ash are excellent civil
grate raised the temperature of MSW to 200-500 °C at the engineering materials for the construction of buildings and
exit end of the integrated feeder and dryer. Measurements roads, such as cement admixtures, concrete admixtures,
show that the moisture content in the MSW was typically walling material, road material, and construction backfill (20,
reduced to less than 10% before entering the combustion 21). After the separation of ferrous materials, the bottom ash
chamber (data not shown). Therefore, the combined effect and fly ash from the waste-to-energy facility were utilized
of heat radiation, drying, pyrolysis, and combustion during for the production of commercial floor tiles. Overall, MSW
feeding significantly reduced the moisture content of the incineration at the Changchun MSW power plant could save
MSW, making combustion of MSW with a high moisture more than 0.2 million m3 landfill space each year.
content possible. Table 3 summarizes the MSW incinerated and coal
In the CFB furnace, the solid fuels (MSW and coal) were consumed at the waste-to-energy facility in the second half
suspended by upward-blowing jets of air during the com- of 2005 and in 2006 as well as the electricity generation. The
bustion process. The combustion furnace and flue gas two grate-CFB incinerators incinerated 201 169 tons MSW
from July 2005 to December 2006. A total of 60 375 tons lignite
temperatures were controlled in the range of 800-900 °C,
was also consumed as supplementary fuel during this period.
with a flue gas residence time of no less than 2 s. Destruction
Coal apparently constituted 23.1% of the total fuel mass
of dioxins and other organochlorines was rapid at this
because the energy content (mean calorific value: 13 400
temperature range (17). Incomplete combustion and dioxin
kJ/kg) of the burned lignite is less than half of that of standard
formation would occur at lower temperatures (18, 19), while
coal equivalent (29 300 kJ/kg). When converted to the coal
NOx began to form at higher temperatures.
equivalent, the coal equivalent to MSW fuel ratio was only
Mass balance of the grate-CFB incinerators was charac- 0.14. A total of 67.53 million kWh electricity was generated
terized from August to November 2005. Table 2 shows the from the combustion of the MSW and lignite from July 2005
rates of fuel consumption and solid residue production of to December 2006. The overall fuel-to-electricity efficiency
the facility. Loss on ignition of the bottom ash ranged from was approximately 14.6%, which is less than half of the
0.3 to 1% in many random samples, which is indicative of average efficiency (33-35%) of modern coal-fired power
near complete fuel combustion. On average, the ratio of solid plants. This value is comparable to the actual plant efficiencies
residue to fuel mass was 24%, with a slightly greater (low 20% range) of biomass fueled power plants (22). There
production of bottom ash than fly ash. One reason for the are several reasons for the low efficiency of the waste-to-
high solid residue to fuel ratio was that poor quality lignite, energy facility. The capacity (6 MW) of the MSW power plant
having low heat values of 11 700-15 500 kJ/kg and ash is rather low as compared to coal-fired power plants that are
contents of >35%, was used as the supplementary fuel. typically in the 100-1500 MW range. A small capacity plant
Another factor is that MSW in Changchun contained a such as this one tends to be lower in efficiency because of
significant fraction (11.3%) of non-combustibles, as shown economic trade-offs (i.e., efficiency-enhancing equipment
in Table S1 of the Supporting Information. Incineration led cannot pay for itself in this case). The high moisture content
to an overall reduction of MSW and coal mass by 76%. (∼50%) in the MSW and increased excess air with feeding of

7512 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 41, NO. 21, 2007
MSW further reduced the incinerator’s efficiency. If MSW

TEQ is defined as TEQ ) Σ(concentration of dioxin congeners × TEF), where TEF is the toxic equivalent concentration, defined as the relative potency of different dioxin congeners as compared to TCDD (2,3,7,8-
a Emission standards given in ref 16. b Analysis methods used for these pollutants are the standard ones set by the State Environmental Protection Administration of China. c Values for lead, cadmium, mercury,

and their compounds include both solid and gaseous phases. d Below the respective method detection limit. e According to ref 33. f Dioxin concentrations are corrected to dry gas, 11% O2, 0.1 MPa, and 273 K conditions;
and lignite were assumed to have identical fuel-to-electricity

formaldehyde absorbing-pararosaniline spectrophotometry, GB/T15262-94

efficiencies in the incinerators, approximately 50% of the
electricity generated in the facility came from the energy
recovered from MSW. Overall, 21.5% of the electricity

gold amalgamation-cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometrye

generated by the waste-to-energy facility was consumed on-
site with the rest supplied to the public electric grid.
Pollutant Emissions. Table 4 summarizes air pollutant

mercuric thiocyanate spectrosphotometry, HJ/T 27-1999

emissions from the two grate-CFB incinerators and the
emission standards for MSW incineration issued by the State

nondispersive infrared spectrometry, HJ/T 44-1999

Environmental Protection Administration of China (16). The
low emissions of SO2 and CO from MSW incineration are not
surprising because biomass is known to reduce SO2, CO, and

flame atomic absorption spectrophotometrye

flame atomic absorption spectrophotometrye
analysis methodb

ultraviolet spectrophotometry, HJ/T 42-1999

other air emissions as compared to when coal is burned

gas chromatography/mass spectrometryg

alone (22, 23). NOx emissions in fluidized bed boilers are

Ringelmann smoke chart, GB 5468-91

usually low because of the low combustion temperature
(850-1000 °C). The acidic gases (SO2, Cl2, and HCl) in the hot
flue gas could also be removed when passing the dry scrubber
through adsorption and reactions with the hydrated lime

gravimetry, GB/T 16157-1996

(2.1 ton/day for each incinerator). Particulate matters
originated from the combustion process and were carried
over by the flue gas exiting the combustion chamber. They
were effectively removed by the combination of cyclone and
fabric filter.
In high temperature incineration, metal species contained
in the waste are not destroyed. Instead, they condense, either
through the formation of an aerosol of discrete heavy metal
particles or through adsorption onto ash particles, as the
flue gas cools through the post-furnace systems (24-26).
Consequently, the heavy metals tend to be associated with
the fly ash, particularly the finer size fraction (27, 28). Stack
TABLE 4. Pollution Emissions from Two 260 Ton/Day Grate-CFB Incinerators at Changchun MSW Power Plant
emissions of volatile and semi-volatile heavy metals such as

Ringelmann category 1 (20%)

Hg, Cd, and Pb have been shown to follow a consistent
relationship with particulate matters (29), and linear or greater national emission standarda
reductions in heavy metal emissions are expected as with
lowering particulate matter emissions (10). As shown in Table
4, concentrations of Hg, Cd, and Pb in stack emissions were
far below their emissions standards. Therefore, the emissions
of the volatile and semi-volatile heavy metals were effectively
controlled by the pollution control equipment of the facility.
Incineration and combustion processes in general can
also produce hazardous or toxic organic compounds, such
150
260
400

0.2
0.1
1.6
1.0
80

75

as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dioxins or poly-

chlorinated dibenzodioxin and polychlorinated dibenzofuran
(PCDD/PCDF). The emissions of these toxic organic com-
pounds depend upon the waste composition and operating
incinerator 2

<0.001d
<0.01d

<0.05d

parameters such as furnace temperature, excess air, and

<20%

170.3

0.086
40.1

63.0
16.4

presence of chlorine (17, 30). Formation of dioxins and furans

2.2
monitoring results

is low in fluidized bed combustion because of good com-

bustion stability and uniform temperature. The levels of
dioxins in the flue gas of both incinerators were lower than
the national emission standard, probably because of the well-
incinerator 1

controlled combustion environment and low plastic content

<0.001d
<0.01d

<0.05d

tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). g According to ref 34.

(2.2%) in the MSW of Changchun. Injection of activated

<20%

136.9

0.220
25.4

80.1
13.6

carbon (approximately 0.1 ton/day for each incinerator) into

1.7

the flue gas was also highly effective for the removal of dioxins
(and mercury and other heavy metals as well). Overall,
emissions of all air pollutants were much lower than the
national standards, indicating that the acidic gases, heavy
particulate matters (mg/m3)

metals, and dioxins were effectively controlled in the

incineration and flue gas treatment processes.
dioxinsf (ng TEQ/m3)

System Economics. To promote waste-to-energy incin-

eration for MSW disposal, the Changchun municipal gov-
pollutant

ernment set a tipping fee structure and an above-market

smoke opacity

NOx (mg/m3)
SO2 (mg/m3)

price for purchasing electricity from the waste-to-energy

Hgc (mg/m3)
HCl (mg/m3)

Cdc (mg/m3)
Pbc (mg/m3)
CO (mg/m3)

facility. The facility receives 30.00 Yuan RMB for each ton of
MSW disposed from the municipal government and 0.94 Yuan
RMB for each kilowatt-hour of electricity supplied to the
public electric grid from public utilities. The gross revenue
of the Changchun MSW power plant was approximately 38.6

VOL. 41, NO. 21, 2007 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 7513
million Yuan RMB in 2006, 89.3% of which came from the waste-to-energy industry is growing quickly in China
electricity sales. (32).
As compared to the incineration facilities operating China is now the world’s second largest consumer of
imported equipments, domestic-built MSW power plants energy and third largest importer of oil. Waste-to-energy
such as the one described here are much more cost-effective. incineration, which is technically energy recovery rather than
An imported 600 ton/day waste-to-energy facility (2 × renewable energy per se and is being considered primarily
300 ton/day incinerators and 2 × 4.5 MW generators) costs for its ability to reduce the volume of waste requiring landfill
450-500 million Yuan RMB. In contrast, a comparable facility disposal, can play a small but not insignificant role in power
with domestic equipment designed by Tsinghua University generation. The challenge of MSW disposal and the demand
costs only 180-200 million Yuan RMB. For incineration for alternative energy sources are not unique in China; many
facilities designed and constructed in China, the costs of other developing countries face a similar situation. It is
operating and maintenance (training, fuel, and personnel) expected that the waste-to-energy technology described here
are both much lower as compared to the imported ones. The can also be a promising alternative to other developing
operating costs for imported incineration systems are 210- counties.
240 Yuan RMB/ton; if the maintenance costs are added, the
operating and maintenance costs ranged from 310 to 340 Note Added after ASAP Publication
Yuan RMB/ton (10). The operating cost of MSW incineration Reference 34 was modified in the version published ASAP
in the Changchun MSW power plant was only 50-60 Yuan October 4, 2007; the corrected version was published ASAP
RMB/ton (depreciation cost not included), and the main- October 5, 2007.
tenance cost was around 20 Yuan RMB/ton, which are
comparable to those of other domestic-built incinerators Supporting Information Available
(10).
Additional information on MSW characteristics generated
Perspective of Waste-to-Energy in China. Along with the in selected cities in China in comparison with those of other
continued urbanization in China, the quantity of MSW countries, elementary analysis of MSW from selected cities
generated increases rapidly. By 2015, MSW generation is of China, and comparison of mean diameters of the bed
expected to reach 179 million tons in China, and 60-70% of materials and solid residues from the grate-CFB incinerators
the MSW is to be disposed of in waste management facilities with those from a coal-fired CFB boiler.
(31). If 20% of the MSW generated is to be disposed of by
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