Khossain 2007

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

11 (2007) 1617–1649
www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Prospects of renewable energy utilisation for

electricity generation in Bangladesh
A K Hossain, O Badr
Department of Process and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering, Cranfield University, Cranfield,
Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK
Received 11 November 2005; accepted 19 December 2005
Abstract
Bangladesh has been facing a power crisis for about a decade, mainly because of inadequate power
generation capacity compared with demand and the ageing infrastructure of many existing power
generation facilities. Only 20% of the total population are connected to grid electricity—25% in
urban areas and a mere 10% in rural areas where 80% of the total population resides. Currently,
most power plants in Bangladesh (representing 84.5% of the total installed capacity) use natural
gas—the main commercial primary energy source, with limited national reserves—as a fuel.
Electricity supply to low-load rural and remote areas is characterised by high transmission and
distribution costs and transmission losses, and heavily subsidised pricing.
Renewable energy sources in Bangladesh, particularly biomass, can play a major role to meet
electricity demands in the rural and remote areas of the country. The current study indicates that in
2003, the national total generation and recovery rates of biomass in Bangladesh were 148.983 and
86.276 Mtonne, respectively. In energy term, the national annual amount of the recoverable biomass
is equivalent to 312.613 TWh. Considering the present national consumption of biomass, total
available biomass resources potential for electricity generation vary from 183.865 to 223.794 TWh.
Biomass energy potential in the individual districts of the country has been estimated for the
planning small- to medium-scale biomass-to-electricity plants.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Renewable energy; Electricity generation; Sustainability; Biomass; Bangladesh
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0 1234 754781; fax: +44 0 1234 754685.
E-mail address: o.badr@cranfield.ac.uk (O. Badr).
1364-0321/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.12.010
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1618 A. K Hossain, O. Badr / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1617–1649
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
2. Bangladesh: location and economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
3. Commercial primary energy resources and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
3.1. Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
3.2. Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
3.3. Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
3.4. Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
4. Electricity generation and consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
4.1. Electricity generation and transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
4.2. Electricity consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
5. Renewable energy utilisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
5.1. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
5.2. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1630
5.2.1. Solar thermal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631
5.2.2. Solar PV systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631
5.3. Small-scale hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633
5.4. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1634
5.4.1. Biomass resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636
5.4.2. Total energy potential of recoverable biomass resources . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641
5.4.3. Biomass consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641
5.4.4. Biomass energy available for electricity generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1646
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647
1. Introduction
World energy demand is likely to grow faster than the increase in population. In 2004,
the total world-wide consumption of commercial primary energy sources was estimated at
10,224 Mtonne of oil equivalent (mtoe) [1]. Of the total, fossil fuels amounted to 88%,
whereas the shares of nuclear and hydroelectricity were small (Table 1). In addition to the
well-recognised environmental impacts of the combustion of fossil fuels, there are two
factors affecting their availability: the limited nature of their reserves and the security of
supply. At current production rates, global proven reserves for crude oil and natural gas
are estimated to last for 40.5 and 66.7 years, respectively [1]. Of all the global crude oil
reserves, 81% are concentrated in eight countries, with about 61.7% in the Middle East
and 22% in Saudia Arabia alone. Of all the natural gas reserves, 70% are in six countries,
with about 40.6% in the Middle East and 35.7% in Europe and Eurasia. Although coal
deposits are more evenly distributed, 89% of all coal reserves are in eight countries. More
than half of Asian, African and Latin American countries import over 50% of all their
commercial primary energy needs [1,2].
New and renewable energies will, therefore, become one of the world’s main energy
sources. At present, renewable energy contributes only 11% to world primary energy. It is,
however, expected that 60% of all world energy will come from renewable energy sources
by the year 2070 [3].
Electricity is a pre-requisite for technological progress and economic growth.
Bangladesh has been facing a severe power crisis for about a decade. Currently, power
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A. K Hossain, O. Badr / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1617–1649 1619
Table 1
Worldwide consumption of commercial primary energy in 2004 [1]
Source Consumption
mtoe % of total
Fossil fuels
Oil 3767.1 36.84
Coal 2778.2 27.17
Natural gas 2420.4 23.67
Nuclear energya 624.3 6.11
Hydro electricitya 634.4 6.21
Total 10,224.4 100.00
a
Converted on the basis of thermal equivalence assuming 38% conversion efficiency in a modern oil-fired
thermal power station to generate the same amount of electricity.
generation in the country is almost entirely dependent on natural gas (i.e. 84.5% of total
electricity generation installed capacity [4]). At the current annual rate of growth of
consumption of 10%, the national proven reserve of natural gas may not last more than
15–20 years [5].
Electrification of villages in remote areas usually requires large investment and leads to
power losses associated with transmission and distribution networks. One of the great
promises offered by the renewable energy technologies is their potential to provide
electricity in areas not served by national power grids. The draft Renewable Energy Policy
of Bangladesh, published in 2002, stated that renewable energy will take a vital role for off-
grid electrification in the country. The main renewable energy resources in Bangladesh are
biomass, solar, wind and hydropower. The hydropower potential of Bangladesh is low due
to the relative flatness of the country. Most of potential sites for wind power utilisation are
situated in coastal regions. Wind power generation in Bangladesh has certain limitations
due to the lack of reliable wind speed data and the remarkable seasonal variation of wind
speed. The country has good prospects of utilising solar photovoltaic (PV) systems for
electricity generation, but the high capital investment cost of solar PV is a big barrier for
adopting such systems. Biomass is the major energy source in Bangladesh and biomass
utilisation systems represent a proven option for small- to medium-scale decentralised
electricity generation.
Biomass is a versatile source of energy; it can be used as a solid fuel or converted into
liquid or gaseous fuels. The utilisation of biomass, as a substitute for fossil fuels, plays also
an important role in CO2 mitigation. If grown in a sustainable manner, the production and
utilisation of biomass create no net accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere [6]. During
the next century, biomass energy is expected to offer cost-effective and sustainable
opportunities with the potential to meet 50% of world energy demands and the
requirement of reducing carbon emissions from fossil fuels [7]. Biomass energy systems can
play an important role in a country’s or region’s development, i.e. education, employment
and economic growth through business expansion (i.e. earnings), direct and indirect
effects on GDP, support of traditional industries, rural diversification and community
empowerment.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Not all the recoverable biomass in Bangladesh is available for electricity generation.
Biomass is mainly utilised in the country as fuel for domestic cooking and for generating
process heat in industrial and commercial activities. Estimation of the total national
biomass availability and most importantly local resources in individual divisions and
districts are important for assessing the potential for decentralised biomass electricity
generation plants.
In this study, a review of the country’s primary energy reserves, production and
consumption; electricity generation and consumption; and renewable energy utilisation is
presented. Potential biomass availability (annual, seasonal or monthly), both nationally
and in individual districts, are estimated.
2. Bangladesh: location and economy
The People’s Republic of Bangladesh—a south-Asian country—is located between

231340 N and 261380 N latitudes and 881010 E and 921410 E longitudes [8]. The country is
divided into 6 divisions (regions): Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Barisal, Sylhet and
Khulna. In these regions, there are 64 districts (Fig. 1) [9]. The total area of the country is
1.44 1011 m2 [10]. In 2003–2004, the population of Bangladesh reached 138.1 million (i.e.,
959 people/km2), making it the most densely populated country in the world. Of the total
population, 80% resided in rural areas.
The climate in the country follows a four-season cycle: winter (December–February),
summer (March–May), monsoon (June–September) and autumn (October–November).
In winter, the average maximum and minimum temperatures are 26.5 and 13.5 1C,
respectively, whereas the corresponding respective values in summer are 33.3 and
22.2 1C [11].
The sectors of the country’s economy are agriculture and forestry, fishing, mining and
quarrying, manufacturing, construction, electricity and gas, transport and communication,
wholesale and retail trade, financial services and other services (e.g. tourism, real state
business). During the last 5 years, Bangladesh averaged over 5% growth in the GDP. In
the financial year 2003–04, GDP grew at an average rate of 5.5%—an increase of 20%
over the previous year [12]. The agriculture and forestry sector—the single largest
contributor to GDP growth—accounted for 31.5% of GDP in 1998–99, down from 34.5%
in 1991–92. The crop sub-sector alone contributed 22.8% of GDP in 1998–99 compared
with 27.9% in 1992–93 [13]. The national currency of the country is Taka, its exchange rate
is US$1 ¼ Taka 65.73 (as on 25/10/2005).
3. Commercial primary energy resources and use
Indigenous commercial primary energy resources of Bangladesh consist of the known

reserves of natural gas and coal, and a limited hydroelectric capacity. The entire reserves of
exploitable indigenous fossil fuels, with the exception of the coal reserve, are located in the
eastern part of the country. This results in a gap of commercial energy supply between the
east and the west.
Total commercial primary energy consumption in Bangladesh increased at an average
rate of 0.74 mtoe per year between 1992 and 2004 (Fig. 2). The trend is mainly due the
increased consumption of indigenous natural gas and imported oil. The contribution of
hydropower to total commercial primary energy consumption is almost constant. In 2003
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 1. Location, divisions and districts of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh [9].
and 2004, the total national commercial primary energy consumption was 15.8 and
16.8 mtoe respectively [1]. In 2004, the shares of natural gas, oil, coal and hydroelectricity
to total primary energy consumption were 70.8%, 25%, 2.4% and 1.8%, respectively [1].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
18
Commercial primary energy consumption (mtoe)
Coal
16
Oil
Natural gas
14
Hydro-electricity
12
10
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
Fig. 2. Commercial primary energy consumption trends in Bangladesh [1].
Per capita annual energy consumption of commercial primary energy (i.e. fossil fuels and
hydroelectricity) in Bangladesh, in 2003, was 0.114 toe [1]. This is one of the lowest in the
world, compared with a world average of 1.556 toe/capita/year [1,14]. In 2002, the average
consumptions for low-income countries and south-Asian countries were 0.493 and
0.468 toe/capita, respectively [14].
3.1. Natural gas
Natural gas plays an important role in the growth of the national economy. Of power
generation 84.5% [4] and the whole of the urea fertiliser manufacturing are based on
natural gas. Up to June 2004, 22 natural gas fields have been discovered in Bangladesh [15].
The total estimated amount of gas within these fields is 804.71 billion m3, of which
580.78 billion m3 is believed to be recoverable [15]. Up to June 2004, the cumulative total
amount of gas produced was 157.03 billion m3 (Table 2), resulting in a net recoverable gas
reserve of 423 billion m3.
Power plants, fertiliser factories, other industries (e.g. brick factories, tea processing
plants, steel mills and textile factories), commercial organisations (e.g., offices and business
centres) and the domestic sector are the end users of natural gas in the country (Fig. 3).
3.2. Oil
Bangladesh’s only oil deposits, discovered in December 1986 and located at Haripur in
the district of Sylhet, have an estimated reserve of 1.4 Mtonne of which 0.84 Mtonne are
believed to be recoverable [16]. Up to July 1994, the cumulative total amount of crude oil
produced was 0.0784 Mtonne [16]. Since then, oil production ceased because of the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Natural gas fields of Bangladesh [15]
Name of the gas Natural gas reserve and

field production (billion m3)
Total estimated reserve Recoverable Cumulative Net recoverable

reserve production
Bakhrabad 42.447 29.704 17.858 11.846

Habigonj 145.520 109.076 32.340 76.736
Jalalabad 33.839 23.701 5.401 18.300
Kailashtila 77.022 53.915 9.274 44.641
Meghna 4.842 3.370 0.933 2.437
Narshingdi 8.693 6.088 1.427 4.661
Rashidpur 56.690 39.672 9.189 30.483
Sylhet 19.369 13.564 4.915 8.649
Sangu 29.195 24.013 7.748 16.265
Salda Nadi 4.701 3.285 0.987 2.298
Titas 207.421 145.209 63.694 81.515
Beani Bazar 6.881 4.814 0.777 4.037
Fenchuganj 11.440 8.014 0.024 7.990
Begumgonj 1.331 0.934 0.934
Kutubdia 1.841 1.303 1.303
Semutang 6.428 4.248 4.248
Shahbazpur 18.831 13.167 13.167
Bibiana 89.056 67.989 67.989
Moulovibazar 12.714 10.194 10.194
Chatak 19.171 13.422 0.750 12.672
Kamta 2.039 1.416 0.597 3.084
Feni 5.239 3.681 1.119 0.297
Total 804.708 580.779 157.033 423.745
Domestic Commercial
11.65 % 1.15 %
Other industries
18.94 % Power plants
46.51 %
Fertiliser factories
21.75 %
Fig. 3. Consumption of natural gas in Bangladesh in 2003–04 [15].
reduction of pressure in the field and the influx of water into the oil zone. In Bangladesh,
oil is used mainly as a transport fuel, for some electricity generation and for industrial
heating.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3
Coal deposits in Bangladesh [17]
Coal deposit Depth of coal layer (m) Type of coal Area (km2) Reserve (Mtonnes)
Jamalgonj, Jaipurhat 640–1158 Bituminous 11.66 1053

Baropukuria, Dinajpur 118–506 Bituminous 5.25 300
Khalashpir, Rangpur 257–451 Bituminous 5.75 400
Kuchma, Bogra 2381–2876 Bituminous
Dighirpara, Dinajpur 250 Bituminous 15.00
Phulbari, Dinajpur 4150 Bituminous
Takerhat, Sunamgonj 45–97 Lignite 3
3.3. Coal
Substantial amounts of coal reserves, in seven fields [17], have been discovered in the
north-western part of the country (Table 3). The major coal deposits are at Jamalgonj
(in the Jaipurhat district), Baropukuria (in the Dinajpur district) and Khalashpir (in the
Rangpur district). The total amount of coal reserve is estimated at 1.756 Gtonne [17].
Mining work has started only at Baropukuria. The Baropukuria coal mine was
discovered in 1985 by the Bangladesh Geological Survey Department. Coal extraction
from Baropukuria deposit, at an estimated rate of 1.0 Mtonnes/year, is expected to
commence in the financial year 2004–05. Of the extracted coal, 70% will be used in a
250-MW coal-fired power plant [15,17].
3.4. Hydropower
Due to relative flatness of the country, Bangladesh has only a limited hydropower
resource. The only 230 MW (comprising two 40 MW units and three 50 MW units)
hydroelectric power plant, the Kaptai Dam located on the river Karnaphuli at Kaptai in
the Chittagong district, was commissioned on 30 March 1962 [18]. It has a catchment area
of 11 103 km2 and a reservoir capacity of 6.5 109 m3. The plant is operated by the
Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and represents approximately 5% of the
total national electricity generation installed capacity in 2003 [4]. In addition to power
generation, the dam was constructed to provide the additional benefits of flood, irrigation
and drainage and navigation control, as well as enhanced forest resource harvesting. Most
of these objectives have been achieved to various degrees with the exception of irrigation
and drainage control.
BPDB is considering a 100 MW capacity extension of this hydropower plant [19]. The
additional energy will be generated during the rainy season when most of the year’s water
is spilled.
4. Electricity generation and consumption
BPDB was established in 1972 as a public-sector organisation with the responsibility for
power generation, transmission and distribution of electricity throughout the country.
Organisational changes were subsequently introduced to the transmission and distribution
sectors. In 1977, the Rural Electrification Board (REB) was created and in 1991 the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Government of Bangladesh (GOB) established the Dhaka Electric Supply Authority

(DESA) to operate and develop the distribution system in and around Dhaka and bring
about improvements in customer service, collection of revenue and lessen the adminis-
trative burden on BPDB. To increase the efficiency of the distribution system and for
better customer service, the GOB implemented different reform programmes. As part of
such programmes, two companies, the Power Grid Company of Bangladesh (PGCB) and
the Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESCO), were established in 1996 and 1997,
respectively [4]. The distribution network area of DESA has been re-defined, with some
area being allocated to DESCO for better management. In December 2002, all distribution
networks were transferred to PGCB, which is now the sole authority for operation,
maintenance and extension of the distribution network in the country [15].
In order to develop the country’s power sector, power generation and distribution were
opened to both national and foreign private investments in 1996. This was followed by the
formulation of ‘Private Sector Power Generation Policy of Bangladesh’ by the GOB. The
involvement of Independent Power Producers (IPPs) was made effective after October
1996. The country’s first private power plant (with a 110 MW installed capacity) started
feeding power to the national grid in October 1998 [4,15].
4.1. Electricity generation and transmission
In 2003, the total installed electricity generation capacity was 4.68 GW and firm
generation capacity was 3.7 GW [4]. Different types of power plants generate electricity
and synchronise it with the national grid. In addition to grid-connected power plants,
there are some isolated diesel engine power stations at remote areas and islands. The
classification of the total installed capacity of both BPDB and IPP according to plant type
Diesel Engines Combined Cycle Gas

5.09 % Turbines 21.15 %
Steam Turbines
Hydro 47.61 %
4.91 %
Gas Turbines
21.24 %
(a)
Furnace Oil Hydro Diesel

6.2 % 4.9 % 4.4 %
Natural Gas
(b) 84.5 %
Fig. 4. Installed Capacity of power plants in Bangladesh in 2003 [4]: (a) according to plant type; and (b) according
to primary energy source.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
and fuel type are shown in Fig. 4. In 2003–04, the total electricity generated was
20.061 TWh, of which 12.583 TWh was generated by the public sector [15]. Per Capita
electricity generation in 2002–03 and 2003–04 were 144 and 154 kWh, respectively [15].
The Jamuna–Padma–Meghna river system divides Bangladesh into east and west
(Fig. 1). All natural gas fields are situated in the eastern part of the country. In this part,
electricity is generated in gas-fired thermal power stations and a small percentage through
hydropower. In the western part, imported oil is used for the generation of electricity. The
fuel cost per kWh of the electricity generated in the western part is much higher than that
in the eastern part. Low-cost electricity, generated in the eastern part, is transferred to
the western part through the 230kV East–West Interconnector transmission line. BPDB
owns and operate the high-voltage transmission network throughout Bangladesh. The
transmission network is 5976 km long, comprising 230-kV and 132-kV lines. The total
numbers of grid sub-stations in the country are 72, 10 of them are 230 kV and 62 are
132 kV, with a total capacity of 8.827 GVA [4].
4.2. Electricity consumption
Industrial and domestic sectors are the main consumers of the electricity [4]. Only 20%
of the population (25% in urban areas and 10% in rural areas) are connected to grid
electricity, with the vast majority (80%) being deprived of conventional supplies [20]. REB
has been supplying electricity to rural areas through a number of Rural Electrification
Societies, known as ‘Polly Biddut Samity’ (PBS). As of June 2004, 67 of these were
operating commercially in the country. There are 5,394,736 customers in 41,125 villages.
This required the installation of distribution lines with a total length of 173,125 km and
328, 33/11 kV grid sub-stations [21].
5. Renewable energy utilisation
In the context of Bangladesh, the main renewable energy resources are solar energy,
biomass and wind power. There is some potential of mini/micro-hydropower, which could
meet some of the local needs of electricity. No major studies have been undertaken to
explore the potential of tidal, wave and ocean thermal energy resources. In Bangladesh,
many academic institutions, government departments, non-governmental organisations
and private companies, including BPDB, REB, Dhaka University (DU), Bangladesh
Institute of Technology (BIT), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
(BUET), Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC), Local Government Engineer-
ing Department (LGED), Bangladesh Centre for Advanced studies (BCAS), Bangladesh
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
(BRRI), Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), Rahimafrooz and
Grameen Shakti (GS) are involved in R&D programme related to renewable energy
technologies.
5.1. Wind energy
Few systematic wind speed surveys have been undertaken in the country. Bangladesh
have a 724 km long coastline and many small islands (e.g. Saint Martin, Kutubdia,
Swandip and Hatia) in the Bay of Bengal, where strong south-westerly trade wind and sea
ARTICLE IN PRESS
breeze prevail in the summer months and there is gentle north-easterly trade wind and land
breeze in the winter months.
Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) is measuring wind speeds at different
locations in the country at low heights for weather forecasting purposes, which is not
sufficient for assessing the potential of harnessing wind power. A seasonal variation in
wind speed prevails in the country, with a strong potential during April to September, and
very weak potential during the rest of the year. Between June 1994 and June 1995, BMD
measured wind speeds at a height of 20 m at Patenga in the Chittagong district, the most
potential site for wind power harnessing in Bangladesh [22] (Table 4).
More recently, different studies have been undertaken to assess the wind energy resource
of the country. In one such project, BCAS, in collaboration with LGED and the UK’s
Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), established the Wind Energy Study (WEST).
The study was financially supported by the British Government and approved by the
Aid Management Office, Dhaka (AMOD) in September 1995. ETSU provided BCAS
with the necessary technical assistance. LGED helped in the installation of the wind
monitoring masts, and facilitated the collection and despatch of data cards from the
monitoring sites to BCAS headquarters at Dhaka on regular basis. After continuous
measurement through 1996 and 1997 at seven selected sites (Fig. 5), the final report
was published in January 1998 [23]. The average annual wind speed measured in the
seven coastal stations ranged from 2.94 m/s to 4.52 m/s (Table 5). GTZ of Germany
is also collaborating with REB of Bangladesh in conducting a parallel study [24] (Table 6).
Wind speed measurements by WEST (Table 5) and GTZ (Table 6) confirmed that
wind speeds are much higher in summer months (due to monsoon wind) than in winter
months.
For estimating the wind energy potential, long-term systematic wind speed data is
required. Under the Sustainable Rural Energy (SRE) programme, LGED in collaboration
with BUET and BIT Chittagong has started the Wind Energy Resource Mapping
(WERM) project. The study aims at assessing the wind energy potential of the country by
systematic observation of wind regimes in initially 20 different suitable locations, including
the Chittagonj Hill Tracts region, over a longer period of time [23,24].
Table 4
Wind speed measurements at Patenga (at 20 m height) [22]
Year Month Average wind speed (m/s)
1994 June 8.25

July 7.81
August 7.48
September 6.93
October 6.70
1995 January 6.43
February 6.45
March 7.37
April 7.92
May 8.47
1–10th June 8.69
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 5. Coastal regions: prospective area for wind energy utilization.
BPDB is installing a 10 MW grid-connected wind energy farm at Muhuri Dam in the

Feni district. Plans are also underway for a 900 kW scheme at Moghnama Ghat in the
Cox’s Bazar district [4,23].
Small-scale wind turbine generators have been installed by GS and BRAC in coastal
regions of the country. GS installed a 300 W Southeast Air Module (USA) unit and a
1.0 kW LMW (the Netherlands) unit at Chakoria in the Chittagong district. BRAC
installed 11 wind turbine generators in various coastal sites. These systems supply power to
some target groups to improve their standard of living [25].
Seasonal variation in wind speed poses some limitations to wind power generation and
its widespread application in Bangladesh. However, most wind power potential sites in the
country are situated in coastal regions, which are generally not connected to the national
grid. Therefore, wind–solar–diesel or wind–diesel hybrid power generators offer practical
systems for these regions. Four wind turbines, diesel generator and solar PV hybrid power
stations have been installed by GS in the coastal areas of the Barguna district. Three of
these have a capacity of 1.5 kW each, while the fourth has a capacity of 10 kW [26]. Under
the SRE programme with the financial support from the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), LGED installed 10 kW wind-solar hybrid systems at St. Martin
island in the Bay of Bengal in the Chittagong district [23].
LGED and BCAS have been working on assessing the viability of wind pumps in
Bangladesh. LGED installed a number of locally manufactured wind pumps, with a power
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 5
Monthly average wind speeds at 25 m height at seven coastal stations measured by WEST [23]
Year Month Monthly average wind speed (m/s) at the monitoring stations stated
Patenga Cox’s Bazaar Teknaf Noakhali Char Fassiona Kuakata Kutubdia
1996 June 8.75

July 5.87 5.42 5.77
August 5.32 5.33 4.90 4.70 5.20 (4.60) 5.70
September 3.36 3.69 3.46 2.94 3.34 (2.80) 3.77 3.58
October 3.20 3.74 3.30 2.83 3.70 (3.07) 2.18 3.98
November 2.61 2.93 2.29 1.91 1.98 3.23
December 2.97 1.78 1.44 1.35 3.09 (2.38) 3.35 3.38
1997 January 3.25 2.33 1.99 1.31 2.80 (2.19) 3.18 3.67
February 2.66 1.99 1.90 1.90 2.69 (2.02) 3.37 3.29
March 3.13 2.42 2.26 2.38 3.54 (3.09) 4.84 3.53
April 2.88 1.84 1.65 2.25 3.29 (2.28) 4.93 3.11
May 4.96 3.97 3.09 3.99 4.81 (3.71) 6.28 4.89
June 5.83 4.64 3.26 5.00 5.76 (4.42) 7.31 5.90
July 5.67 4.80 4.33 4.92 5.22 (3.94) 7.34 6.17
August 5.13 4.31 4.03 3.85 5.17 (4.01) 5.34
September 2.96 1.83 2.77 3.08 (2.20) 3.97
Annual average 3.95 3.34 2.94 2.96 4.07 (3.21) 4.52 4.21
a
Values in brackets represent wind speeds measured at 10 m height.
Table 6
Monthly average wind-speeds (m/s) at 20 m height at Patenga measured by GTZ [24]
Month Year
1995 1996
January
February
March 6.7
April 7.2
May 7.7 8.0
June 8.1 6.9
July 8.0 8.4
August 7.4 3.5
September 6.8 3.9
October 6.2 3.2
November 4.4 2.6
December 4.2 2.2
output of 385 W at a wind speed of 4 m/s and a tower height of 8.4 m, at different locations
including Tangail, Kustia and Cox’s Bazar districts [23]. BCAS installed a 12-blade rotor
and a 12.5-m high tower wind pump, designed by the Intermediate Technology (IT) Group
of the UK and manufactured in Pakistan, in an agricultural field at Patenga in the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Chittagong district [25]. Daily water delivery has been found to vary, with an average daily
water output, between November and January, of about 8 m3. It appears that suitably-
designed wind pumps can be extensively used for irrigation of vegetables in winter months
in the coastal region. It is also possible to utilise them to harness underground fresh water
for drinking in coastal islands [25].
5.2. Solar energy
The location of Bangladesh is ideal for tapping solar energy effectively. Daily solar
irradiation intensity varies from 3 to 6 kWh/m2 [22], with a maximum during March–April
and a minimum in December–January. Monthly average daily solar irradiation intensities
in different divisions of the country are shown in Table 7 [27].
Currently, BUET, BAEC, BCSIR, DU, BPDB, GS, BRAC, REB and a few other
organisations are continuing their research to improve the performances of solar water
heaters, solar cookers and solar dryers, and expand the use of solar thermal systems to new
application areas. PV power systems are being accepted in Bangladesh gradually, but the
slow progress achieved is due to their high initial capital cost. In 1981, BPDB installed 55
solar-powered warning lights on 11 towers of the East–West Interconnector at Aricha in
the Dhaka district [28]. In 1983, Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA)
installed 125 solar-powered beacon lights on shipping routes [28]. In 1988, BAEC installed
a solar PV pilot scheme at Swandip Island in the Bay of Bengal for powering a beacon light
on top of a watch tower, refrigerators in a veterinary hospital and a microphone and
lighting in a local mosque [29]. Presently, BAEC is operating two solar PV water pumps
for irrigation in the Dhaka and Moulovibazar districts [29].The Centre for Energy Studies
(CES) of BUET is carrying out studies on solar PV utilisation. Low-cost improved lanterns
(of capacity 5, 7.5 and 10 W) for home lighting in rural areas are being designed and tested
at the Renewable Energy Research Centre (RERC) of DU [30].
Table 7
Monthly average daily solar irradiation intensity recorded at different divisions of Bangladesh from 1988 to 1998
[27]
Month Monthly average daily irradiation intensity(kWh/m2) at the division stated
Dhaka Rajshahi Sylhet Bogra Barishal Jessor
January 4.03 3.96 4.00 4.01 4.17 4.25

February 4.78 4.47 4.63 4.69 4.81 4.85
March 5.33 5.88 5.20 5.68 5.30 4.50
April 5.71 6.24 5.24 5.87 5.94 6.23
May 5.71 6.17 5.37 6.02 5.75 6.09
June 4.80 5.25 4.53 5.26 4.39 5.12
July 4.41 4.79 4.14 4.34 4.20 4.81
August 4.82 5.16 4.56 4.84 4.42 4.93
September 4.41 4.96 4.07 4.67 4.48 4.57
October 4.61 4.88 4.61 4.65 4.71 4.68
November 4.27 4.42 4.32 4.35 4.35 4.24
December 3.92 3.82 3.85 3.87 3.95 3.97
Annual Average 4.73 5.00 4.54 4.85 4.71 4.85
ARTICLE IN PRESS
5.2.1. Solar thermal systems

A variety of solar thermal systems have been developed and fabricated in the country,
but these are yet to be commercialised. Examples of such systems include solar cookers,
solar water heaters and solar dryers.
Solar cookers: Box-type and parabolic reflector-type solar cookers have been fabricated
and tested in BCSIR and DU. The use of solar cookers in Bangladesh is possible during
October to May. During the remaining four months of the year (June–September), it is
often cloudy and the solar irradiation is therefore limited [31]. For cooking all over the
year, an auxiliary fuel/energy source will be needed. RERC of DU developed a hybrid
solar–electric box-type solar cooker [30]. One parabolic reflector-type solar cooker for a
student hostel was designed and built by the Institute of Fuel Research and Development
(IFRD) of BCSIR. It has a 48 103 m3 cooking pot and the surface area of the reflector is
about 8 m2 [22].
Solar dryers: The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) of BCSIR has
developed a 1.85 m 0.6 m low-cost cabinet-type solar dryer. R&D work on solar dryers is
continuing at BAU, ANANDO, BRRI and at IFRD of BCSIR [28].
Solar water heaters: In Bangladesh, various types of solar water heating systems have
been designed, built and tested for potential use in hospitals, hotels and industries. These
systems can raise the water temperature to 55–80 1C and have hot water storage capacities
of 0.1–0.5 m3 [30]. Design of such systems ranges from a simple earthen vat covered with
polythene sheets to sophisticated, selectively coated flat-plate collector with double glazing
of toughened glass [30].
5.2.2. Solar PV systems

Solar PV is a proven viable option in remote areas of Bangladesh. Applications of solar
PV in the country include supplying electricity for homes, rural markets, health clinics,
street lighting, water pumping and telecommunication. Solar home systems (SHSs), in
particular, are gaining popularity in the country. Examples of SHSs installed in
Bangladesh are shown in Table 8.
Some of the important solar PV installations in the country to date include the following:
With a joined financing by the French and Bangladeshi Governments, 62 kWp solar PV
project was commissioned by REB in 1996–97 for the electrification of rural homes and
commercial enterprises in the four islands (Karimpur, Natunbazar, Alipur and
Panchabati) of the Narshingdi district [21]. It is the single biggest solar PV project
installed in the country. The project covered an area of 29 km2 with about 8500
households in 21 villages. FONDEM from France carried out the initial design, and
selected the sites, based on a socio-economic study and site surveys conducted by
BCAS. Apex Inginierie of France supplied the solar modules and equipment and
ARMCO, a local engineering firm, installed the entire system. A total of 795 PV systems
of 5 variants, ranging in output from 6 to 92 Wp, were supplied and installed. The
systems can be divided into two broad categories [21]:
J Stand-alone systems: The users are provided with all the components, i.e. PV
modules, storage battery, controller, wiring and the loads (e.g., lanterns, lamps, TVs,
fans and refrigerators).
J Charging station-based systems: All the components, with the exception of the PV
modules, are provided to the users.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 8
Utilisation of solar home systems in Bangladesh [4,30]
Name of organisation Number of systems and locations Total installed

electrical capacity
(kWp)
GS 42,000 all over the country 2150 kW

BRAC 10,456 all over the country 300.545 kW
40 Wp (20%), 50 Wp
(60%) and 75 Wp
(20%)
BPDB 300 at Juraichari, in the Rangamati district 54 kW
LGED In different coastal areas 19.6 kW
SRE Programme of UNDP 33.8 kW
BCSIR 82 1.5 kW
REB In the Narshingdi district 62 kW
Thengamara Mohila Sabuj Sangha 762 30–75 Wp each
(TMSS)
CMES 618 2.85 kW
UBOMUS 400
COAST Trust 352
Integrated Development 601
Foundation
Srizony Bangladesh 1710
Shubashati 592
Singer Bangladesh Ltd. 31
Anando In the Khagrachari, Tangail and Cox’s Bazaar 3.75 kW
districts
This pilot project attracted the attention of a large number of international donor agencies
(e.g. the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, USAID and Canadian International
Development Agency) and acted as a flagship venture for the promotion of solar PV and
other renewable energy projects.
LGED has successfully completed the solar electrification of a market at Ganguita in

the Jhenaidah district. The project was undertaken under the SRE programme of
UNDP and implemented by LGED. The site has been selected for solar electrification
because of its remote location (about 7 km away from the nearest grid connection), to
replace a 5 kW diesel generator operated by a private entrepreneur. This is the first
centralised solar PV system in Bangladesh. The PV system has an installed capacity of
1.8 kWP with a daily energy output of 2 kWh, providing electricity to 45 shops, three
small food processing facilities, a health centre and a bazaar mosque [30]. The
responsibility of operation and maintenance has been entrusted to a local non-
government organisation (NGO), Shubashati. The successful installation of the solar
market electrification project represented a milestone for the green energy movement in
the country.
Another centralised 1.725 kWp solar electrification project was implemented by LGED
under the SRE programme at Nalitabari in the Sherpur district. It provides solar
electricity to 60 houses, and has been operating successfully [30].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
The private Bangladeshi company Rahimafrooz Ltd installed the following solar PV
systems for rural applications [32]:
J solar PV lanterns and vaccine refrigerators;
J small and medium stand-alone systems (o3 kWp);
J centralised solar PV power plant;
J railway signaling systems;
J telecommunication systems; and
J navigation lightning systems.
One of these is the 1.2 kWp solar PV system for powering the telephone exchanges in the
coastal island of Char Fassion and Monpura in the Bhola district, with the financial
assistance of the Government of Finland and the Telegraph and Telephone Board of
Bangladesh [32].
BPDB is currently implementing a three-phase solar PV project for the remote areas of
Chittagong Hill Tracts region. The project consists of [4]:
J 900 SHSs, with a capacity of 120 Wp each;
J 30 sets of street lighting systems;
J 3 sets of submersible water pumps (50 m3/day/pump);
J 9 sets of vaccine refrigerators for health clinics; and
J 3 sets of 10 kWp centralised solar PV market electrification systems for providing
electricity to more than 200 shops in each market.
So far, the first phase of this project has been completed with the installation of 300 SHSs,
10 street lighting systems, one water pump, two vaccine refrigerators and one 10 kWp
centralised market electrification [4].
5.3. Small-scale hydropower
Worldwide small-scale hydropower projects have become more popular because of their
low cost, reliability and environmental friendliness. Bangladesh has carried out a few
surveys on its small-scale hydropower resources as a result of which it has been concluded
that small-scale hydropower projects will be economically viable if combined with
providing the additional benefits of flood and irrigation control, and encouraging tourism.
In 1984, a group of Chinese experts identified 12 potential sites for small-scale hydro-
power generation in Bangladesh. Out of these, only one site at Mahamaya Chara, in the
Chittagong district, has been considered for development of an integrated project for flood
control, irrigation and power generation [24]. A working group has been set up by BPDB
and BWDB to carry out groundwork of the scheme. The main objective of the project is to
protect about 10.5 km2 of land from flood inundation during the monsoon season and
to supply irrigation water during the dry season [4,19]. A dam is thus proposed to be
constructed on the Mahamaya Chara. The reservoir water will be utilised for the
generation of electricity by installing a water turbine at the foot of the dam.
A low cost 10 kWp small hydropower plant was installed by Khoin, a local tribal man, at
Monjaipara in the Bandarban District. A locally fabricated wooden turbine wheel was
employed and the electricity generated was supplied to 40 homes. The unit attracted the
attention of LGED and UNDP. LGED and Khoin carried out a joint study and identified
ARTICLE IN PRESS
eight potential sites for small-scale hydropower generation in the southern hilly areas of
Bangladesh [19,24]. At one of these sites (i.e. Bashkhali thana of the Chittagong district),
the Bamer Chara Irrigation Project has been implemented by LGED for the provision and
control of irrigation water to 3.55 103 km2 of land. A large reservoir has been built to
provide irrigation water during the dry season. Water enters the project area through a
gated spillway and the downstream flow is controlled by a conventional regulator.
Currently, LGED is examining the flow rate in the spillway and exploring the scope for
installing a small hydropower plant at the site. It is estimated that the proposed site has the
potential to generate 20 MW of electricity [19]. Recently BPDB has submitted a proposal
to the GOB for the installation of the following two small hydropower projects [4]: a
10 kW plant at Barkal in the Rangamati district and a 25 kW plant at the Teesta Barrage.
5.4. Biomass energy
Biomass energy is an important source of energy in most Asian countries. Substantial

amounts of fuel wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, dung and leaves are used by
households and industries. Main household applications are cooking and heating, whereas
industrial applications range from food, mineral, textile and metal processing to
miscellaneous applications such as road tarring and tyre re-treading. In addition to these
heating applications, biomass fuels (e.g., bagasse and oil palm residues) are widely used for
electricity generation or the co-production of electricity and steam in industry [33].
Consumption of conventional fuels and biomass in 16 developing countries in Asia is
shown in Table 9. During the last decade, total annual primary energy consumption
growth rate of these countries grew faster than the world average. The average annual
growth rates ranged from 1.5% to 8% compared with the world average of 1.9% [34].
The energy potential of biomass resources has been assessed in some Asian countries (e.g.
China, India, Srilanka, Thailand, and Malaysia) [6,35–37]. No such assessment has been
carried out for Bangladesh. The principal biomass resources in the country are agricultural
residues, animal waste, fuel wood, municipal solid waste and sewage sludge. In this section,
the country’s total amount of available biomass energy resources, in 2003, has been
estimated. Not all biomass residues generated can be utilised for energy. In some instances,
their wide dispersal or low bulk density makes recovery, transport and storage very costly.
Residues may also be more valuable if used for purposes other than energy. One such use
would be recycling residues onto the land, to help restore nutrients or reduce erosion.
Residues might also be recovered for other domestic, industrial or agricultural uses, such as
their use as building materials, for paper manufacturing or as animal fodder and bedding [38].
The total land area of Bangladesh is 1.3017 1011 m2, of which 61.6% is arable land
(Table 10). Bangladesh has a relatively low proportion of forest cover. In 2000, forests and
woodlands represented only 10.2% of the total land area of the country compared with
averages of 17.76% and 29.4% for Asia and the world, respectively [39]. Most of forest
areas are located in the northern and eastern border parts of the country, as well as along
the coast of the Bay of Bengal in the south [39].
Forests in Bangladesh are subject to heavy pressures in terms of both demands on wood
production and competing land uses due to the large, increasing population. Total
plantation area in the country was 3.32 109 m2 in 1990, of which 1.98 109 m2 was in the
northern and eastern hills and 1.13 109 m2 in coastal regions [39]. The estimated planted
forest area in the country in 2000 was 6.25 109 m2 [39] (Table 11). In order to achieve
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 9
Annual primary energy consumption in 16 developing countries of Asia in 1993–1994 [34]
Country Primary energy consumption (PJ/year) Share of

biomass to
total primary
energy (%)
Conventional Biomass Total
fuels primary
energy
Fuel wood Other Total
biomass biomass
Bangladesh 210 141 363 504 714 71

Bhutan 2 12 12 14 86
Cambodia 14 79 3 81 95 86
China 23866 3290 4100 7390 31256 24
India 5822 2603 326 2929 8751 33
Indonesia 1978 818 818 2796 29
Lao PDR 5 42 42 47 89
Malaysia 898 93 3 96 994 10
Maldives 1 1 1 2 55
Myanmar 77 271 271 348 78
Nepal 23 192 64 256 279 92
Pakistan 1066 521 397 918 1984 46
Philippines 507 298 160 458 965 47
Sri Lanka 79 85 10 95 174 55
Thailand 1352 353 132 485 1837 26
Vietnam 260 423 393 816 1076 76
Table 10
Land use in Bangladesh in 2000 [10,39]
Type of land use Area (107 m2)
Agricultural land
Arable landa 8019
Permanent cropsb 410
Permanent pasturec 600
Total 9029
Forests and woodlands 1334
Urban areas and mountains 2654
Total land area 13,017
a
Land under temporary crops.
b
Crops that occupy the land for long periods and need not be replanted after harvest.
c
Land used permanently (X5 years) for herbaceous forage crops.
a sustainable management of forest resources in Bangladesh, the Forest Master Plan of

1993, developed by the Bangladeshi Ministry of Environment and Forest, suggested an
annual planting target of about 1.8 108 m2 during 1993–2002 and 2.1 108 m2 during
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 11
Forest plantation areas in Bangladesh in 2000 by species groups [39]
Species group Area of plantation % of total area according to the type of plantation stated
107 m2 % of total area Industrial Non-industrial
Acacia spp. 32.0 5.1 48 52

Dalbergia 10.7 1.7 100
Eucalyptus 37.3 6.0 48 52
Gmelina 21.3 3.4 48 52
Mahoganies 5.3 0.8 100
Rubber 91.8 14.7 100
Teak 143.9 23.1 100
Other broad leafed 282.5 45.2 48 52
Total 624.8 100.0
2003–12 [40]. Potential areas for industrial plantation totalling about 7.0 109 m2 exist in
the Chittagong and Sylhet divisions [39].
5.4.1. Biomass resources

The economy of Bangladesh depends principally on agriculture. The main crops
produced are rice, sugar cane, vegetables, wheat, jute, pulses, coconuts, maize, millet,
cotton and groundnuts (Table 12). Agricultural crops generate large quantities of residues.
Such residues represent an important source of energy both for domestic as well as
industrial purposes. Other sources of biomass in the country are farm-animal wastes and
poultry droppings produced by the national herds (Table 13), fuel wood from existing
forests, tree residues and saw dust from the forestry industry (Table 14). The 138.1 million
citizens of Bangladesh [43] produce huge amounts of human waste and municipal solid
waste (MSW) annually.
Agricultural residues: There are two types of agricultural crop residues: field residues and
processing residues. Studies in some neighbouring Asian countries [6,34] produced useful
residue-to-yield ratios for several agricultural crops. These ratios have been employed in
this study, together with published productivity figures for the individual crops (Table 12),
in order to estimate the rate of generation of the corresponding residues in Bangladesh
(Table 15). Crop residues can be collected, mostly by bailing, either at the same time or
after the primary crop has been harvested. Not all field residues are recoverable. The
percentage of field residues of a crop to be recycled onto the land depends upon the specific
local climatic and soil conditions [46]. There is no available specific data concerning the
common practices in Bangladesh or the neighbouring Asian countries. However, in
developed countries, it has been established that only 35% of field crop residues can be
removed without adverse effects on future yields [46]. Crop processing residues, on the
other hand, have a 100% recovery factor. Accordingly, it is estimated that the total annual
amount of recoverable agricultural-crop residues in Bangladesh is 41.994 Mtonne, of
which 62.5% are field residues and 37.5% are process residues (Table 15).
Animal wastes and poultry droppings: Manure from cattle, goats, buffaloes and sheep are
the common animal wastes in Bangladesh. The quantity of waste produced per animal
per day varies depending on body size, type of feed and level of nutrition. The annual
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 12
Annual yield of agricultural crops in Bangladesh in 2003 [10]
Crop Annual production ratea
Rice 39.090
Sugarcane 6.838
Vegetables (total) 1.837
Wheat 1.507
Jute 792.000
Pulses (total) 345.000
Coconut 88.000
Millet 57.000
Cottonb 45.000
Groundnut 34.000
Maizeb 10.000
a
Annual production rates for rice, sugarcane, vegetables and wheat are in Mtonne/year. For the rest of the
agricultural crops the production rates are in ktonne/year.
b
Annual production of rates of cotton and maize is not available for 2003, so production rates of 2002
were used.
Table 13
Number of heads of national herds of farm animals and poultry in Bangladesh in 2003 [10]
Species Number of heads (millions)
Farm animals
Cattle 24.500
Buffaloes 0.850
Goats 34.500
Sheep 1.260
Poultry 153.000
Table 14
Annual rates of waste generated by the forests and the forestry industry in Bangladesh
Biomass Annual production rate Moisture content Annual production rate

resource (Mtonne dry matter)
(Mtonne) Reference (% by mass) Reference
Fuel wood 6.932 [39] 20 [6] 5.546

Tree residues 1.821 [41] 1.821
Sawdust 0.118 [42] 20 [6] 0.094
production rates of animal wastes and poultry droppings were estimated by employing
the number of heads of the national herds (Table 13) and the waste generation rate per
head for the individual species as estimated in neighbouring Asian countries (Table 16). In
2003, total population of chicken and ducks in Bangladesh were 140 and 13 million
head respectively [10]. There are two types of chicken, broilers and layers. Individual
population data, however, is not available. The average amount of droppings (on air dry
basis) produced by broilers and layers are 0.02 and 0.03 kg/bird/day respectively [47].
Table 15 1638
Generation and recoverable amounts of agriculture-crop residues in Bangladesh in 2003
Biomass Residues-to- Residues Residues Moisture Residues recovery rate

yield mass ratio generation rate recovery rate content (ktonne dry matter/year)
(ktonne/year) (ktonne/year)
Value Reference (% by mass) Reference
Field residues
Rice straw 1.695 [6] 66,258 23,190 12.7 [6] 20,245
Wheat straw 1.75 [34] 2637 923 7.5 [45] 854
Sugarcane tops 0.3 [34] 2051 718 50 [33] 359
Jute stalks 3 [34] 2376 832 9.5 [45] 753
Maize stalks 2 [34] 20 7 12 [45] 6
Millet stalks 1.75 [34] 100 35 35
Groundnut straw 2.3 [34] 78 27 12.1 [33] 24
Cotton stalks 2.755 [34] 124 43 12 [45] 38
Residues from 0.4 [44] 735 257 20 [44] 206
vegetablesa
Residues from pulsesa 1.9 [44] 656 229 20 [44] 184
Subtotal 75,035 26,261 22,704
Process residues
Rice husk 0.267 [6] 10,437 10,437 12.4 [6] 9143
Rice bran 0.083 [6] 3244 3244 9 [45] 2952
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Sugarcane bagasse 0.29 [34] 1983 1983 49 [6] 1011

Coconut shells 0.12 [34] 11 11 8 [45] 10
Coconut husks 0.41 [34] 36 36 11 [45] 32
Maize cob 0.273 [34] 3 3 15 [45] 3
Maize husks 0.2 [34] 2 2 11.1 [33] 2
Groundnut husks 0.477 [34] 16 16 8.2 [33] 15
Subtotal 15,732 15,732 13,168
Total residues 90,767 41,994 35,870
a
A. K Hossain, O. Badr / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1617–1649
Assuming all residues are process based.

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 16
Generation and recoverable rates of animal wastes and poultry droppings in Bangladesh
Biomass Rate of generation Waste recovery rate

(Mtonne dry matter/year)
(kg dry matter/ Reference (Mtonne dry
capita/day) matter/year)
Animal waste
Cattle 2.86 [48] 25.576 15.345
Buffaloes 2.52 [48] 0.782 0.469
Goats 0.55 [48] 6.926 4.156
Sheep 0.33 [48] 0.152 0.091
Subtotal 33.436 20.061
Poultry 0.02 [47] 1.117 0.558
droppings
Total 34.552 20.619
A conservative estimate of the national production rate of poultry droppings can be

achieved by considering that all the chickens are of broiler type and production rate for
ducks is the same as for chicken. The recovery/collection factors for animal waste and
poultry droppings were considered to be 60% and 50%, respectively [47,48]. Accordingly,
it is estimated that the total annual amount of recoverable animal wastes and poultry
droppings in Bangladesh is 20.619 Mtonne (Table 16).
Human waste and MSW: The total rate of human waste generation by the 138.1 million
citizens [43] in Bangladesh has been estimated as 4.537 Mtonne of dry matter/year
(corresponding to 0.09 kg/capita/day) [48]. Compared with an average MSW generation
rate of 0.4 kg/capita/day in Indian cities [48], in urban areas of Bangladesh the rate is
between 0.4 and 0.5 kg/capita/day [49]. In rural areas of the country, the generation rate is
only 0.15 kg/capita/day [49]. Rural and urban population data are available for 1998 [8].
By assuming a similar rural-to-urban population ratio in 1998 and 2003, ratio, rural and
urban population in 2003 can be estimated as 108.56 and 29.54 million, respectively, in
2003. Considering that human waste and MSW are 100% recoverable, the total annual
amount of the biomass available from these two sources in Bangladesh is 14.793 Mtonne
(Table 17).
Forests and the forestry industry: Deforestation, environmental degradation, the growing
demand for traditional energy and the lack of development in the forestry sector are
serious concerns for the government and the people of Bangladesh. Employment of the
ever-increasing rural labour force is dependent on the growth of rural industries, which are
very much dependent upon the existence of a sustainable supply of biomass fuel, especially
fuel wood. The forest land is unevenly distributed in the 64 districts of the country.
Locations of Bangladesh forest are shown in Table 18. Forest biomass includes tree
components such as trunk, branches, foliage and roots. Tree trunks and main branches
constitute what is commonly known as fuel wood. Twigs, leaves, bark and roots are tree
residues. Total fuel wood production in Bangladesh in 2003 was 6.932, Mtonne [39].
Estimates for the rate of supply of tree residues in recent years are not available; in 1992, it
was 1.821 Mtonne [41]. Both wood processing residues (e.g. sawmill off-cuts and sawdust)
and recycled wood (e.g. that derived from the demolition of buildings, pallets and packing
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 17
Generation and recoverable rates of human waste and MSW in Bangladesh in 2002 [48,49]
Biomass Rate of generationa Waste recovery rate Moisture content Waste recovery
(Mtonne/year) rate (Mtonne dry
matter/year)
(kg/ (Mtonne/ (% by Reference
capita/ year) mass)
day)
Human waste 0.09 4.537 4.537 4.537

MSW
Urban 0.4 4.312 4.312 45.0 [49] 2.372
Rural 0.15 5.944 5.944 45.0 [49] 3.269
Subtotal 10.256 10.256 5.641
MSW
Total 14.793 14.793 10.177
a
Calculation of human waste generation rate is based on dry matter.
Table 18
Forest type and location in Bangladesh [41]
Forest type District
Mangrove forest (tropical

evergreen)
Sundarbans Khulna and Satkhira
Coastal Cox’s Bazaar, Chittagong, Noakhali, Barishal, Patuakhali and adjacent
coastal districts
Hill forest (tropical moist evergreen) Chittagong, Sylhet, Comilla, Rangamati, Bandarbon and Khagrachari
Plain land sal forest (tropical moist Dhaka, Tangail, Mymensingh, Dinajpur
deciduous)
Table 19
Annual generation and recoverable rates of biomass from different sources in Bangladesh
Biomass resource Rate of Waste recovery rate Waste recovery rate

generation (Mtonne/year) (Mtonne dry matter/
(Mtonne/year) year)
Crop residues
Field residues 75.035 26.261 22.704
Process residues 15.732 15.732 13.168
Animal wastes and poultry droppings 34.552 20.619 20.619
Human wastes and MSW 14.793 14.793 10.177
Forests and forestry industry 8.871 8.871 7.461
Total 148.983 86.276 74.129
ARTICLE IN PRESS
crates) are important sources of energy. The annual amount of such recycled wood, on a
sustainable basis, is, however, not known. It has been estimated that only about 20% of
a tree, initially harvested for timber, results in sawn products. The remaining 80% is
discarded, in equal proportions, as forest residues and process residues (i.e. bark, slabs,
sawdust, trimmings and planer shavings) [34]. Ply mills produce about the same amount of
residues as sawmills [34]. In 1998, 0.118 Mtonne of sawdust was available for energy
purposes [42]. Considering 100% recovery rate, the annual amount of recoverable biomass
from forests and forestry industry in Bangladesh is 8.871 Mtonne (Table 14).
5.4.2. Total energy potential of recoverable biomass resources

The total annual generation and recoverable rates of biomass in Bangladesh are 148.983
and 86.276 Mtonne/year, respectively (Table 19). Agricultural residues represent 48.7%
of the total recoverable biomass, followed by a 23.9% contribution from animal wastes
and poultry droppings. Using the lower calorific values of the individual biomass
components, the energy potential of the annually recoverable 86.276 million tonne of
biomass is estimated at 1125.4 PJ (Table 20), which is equivalent to 26.795 mtoe or
312.613 TWh.
5.4.3. Biomass consumption

In Bangladesh, biomass is used as an energy source as well as for non-energy purposes.
It is widely utilised in both rural and urban areas of the country, as a domestic fuel for
cooking and heating. Many commercial and industrial facilities employ biomass for the
provision of process heat. In addition, some quantities of biomass are used as animal
fodder, animal bedding, building material, material for furniture making and as an organic
soil conditioner (i.e. fertiliser). There is no available data for the rates of biomass
consumption for these non-energy uses. It is, however, believed that the amount of
biomass involved represents a small proportion of the total consumption figure, and,
therefore, will not be considered in this study.
The pattern of utilisation of biomass for energy varies from one region of the country to
another, depending on the prevailing socio-economic conditions and the availability of
commercial fuels [51,52]. An estimate for the annual rates of consumption of biomass for
energy in Bangladesh is presented in Fig. 6. Domestic cooking, particularly in rural areas,
represents the largest single consumer of biomass. Table 21 presents statistical data for
total biomass energy consumption in some developing countries in Asia. Although the use
of biomass energy per capita in Bangladesh exhibited an average decreasing trend between
1981 and 1991 and was below the regional average in 1991, the total biomass consumption
has increased as a result of the rapid population growth. Many other developing Asian
countries have experienced similar trends [54].
5.4.4. Biomass energy available for electricity generation

In 1991, the biomass consumption for energy in Bangladesh was estimated as
276.6 PJ (or 6.6 mtoe) [54] (Table 21). At an average annual growth rate of 1.3%, the
consumption in 2003 was estimated to be 319.75 PJ (or 7.613 mtoe). The total available
recoverable biomass energy of the country in 2003 was estimated as 1125.407 PJ or
26.795 mtoe (Table 20). Accordingly, in 2003, 805.657 PJ or 223.794 TWh of biomass
energy was available for the generation of electricity. On the other hand, the total biomass
energy consumption was estimated in 1998 at 435.204 PJ (or 10.362 mtoe) [45]. Assuming
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 20
Energy potential of biomass resources in Bangladesh
Biomass Recovery rate Recovery ratea Lower calorific value Energy content
(ktonne/yr) (ktonne dry (PJ)
matter/yr)
(GJ/ tonne) Reference
Field crop residues

Rice straw 23,190 20,245 16.30 [6] 329.994
Wheat straw 923 854 15.76 [45] 13.459
Sugarcane tops 718 359 15.81 [34] 5.676
Jute stalks 832 753 16.91 [45] 12.733
Maize stalks 7 6 14.70 [45] 0.088
Millet stalks 35 35 12.38 [34] 0.433
Groundnut straw 27 24 17.58 [33] 0.422
Cotton stalks 43 38 16.40 [45] 0.623
Residues from vegetables 257 257 13.00 [44] 3.341
Residues from pulses 229 229 12.80 [44] 2.931
Subtotal 26261 22704 369.700
Process crop residues
Rice husk 10,437 9143 16.30 [6] 149.031
Rice bran 3244 2952 13.97 [34] 41.239
Sugarcane bagasse 1983 1011 18.10 [34] 18.299
Coconut Shells 11 10 18.53 [34] 0.185
Coconut husks 36 32 18.53 [34] 0.593
Maize cob 3 3 14.00 [45] 0.042
Maize husks 2 2 17.27 [45] 0.035
Groundnut husks 16 15 15.66 [33] 0.235
Subtotal 15,732 13,168 209.659
Total agricultural-crop 41,994 35,870 579.359
residues
Other biomass
Animal waste 20,061 20,061 13.86 [50] 278.045
Poultry droppings 558 558 13.50 [47] 7.533
Human waste 4537 4537 10.60 [45] 48.092
MSW 10,256 5641 18.56 [45] 104.697
Fuel wood 6932 5546 15.00 [45] 83.190
Tree residues 1821 1821 12.52 [41] 22.799
Sawdust 118 94 18.00 [45] 1.692
Total 1125.407
a
Moisture content is 20% by mass for residues from vegetables and pulses.
the same average annual growth rate of 1.3%, the biomass consumption in 2003 would
have been 463.492 PJ (or 14.484 mtoe). Based on this estimate, the amount of biomass
energy available in 2003 was 661.915 PJ, which is equivalent to 183.865 TWh. According to
these two estimates and considering that the consumption of biomass for non-energy
purposes is negligible, the annual available biomass energy potential for electricity
generation in Bangladesh is in the range of between 183.865 and 223.794 TWh.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Animal waste, 14%
Fuel wood, 18%
(a) Tree residues, 5% Crop residues, 63%
Non agro-based industry

Agro-based industry, 15.63% and commercial, 3.35%
Domestic cooking
(urban), 16.51%
Domestic cooking
(b) (rural), 64.51%
Fig. 6. Biomass consumption for energy in Bangladesh [53]: (a) according to biomass source; and (b) according to
consumer sector.
Availability of the biomass resources in the individual districts are needed for planning
off-grid decentralised sustainable biomass electricity generation in Bangladesh. Generation
rates of agricultural residues in the districts are not available for all types of crops. Figures
for the rates for rice, wheat, jute, sugarcane, vegetables and pulses have been reported for
1998 [8]. Rural and urban population in 1998, and the number of farm animals and poultry
heads in 1996 [8,55] are the only available data on district level. The corresponding figures
for 2003 have been estimated by assuming that the trend in individual districts followed the
average national trend in the same period. Data concerning biomass generation from
forests and the forestry industry in individual districts are non-existent. Only forestry areas
in 1998 are available [8]. The proportion of the forestry area in individual districts to the
national total was assumed to remain the same in 2003. Accordingly, an approximate value
of the forestry biomass in each district in 2003 was calculated by employing the total
national generation rates of the forestry residues in the country in that year. The rate of
biomass consumption in individual districts has been assumed to be the same as the
national average (i.e. 3.356 GJ/capita/year) and to follow the same pattern as that
presented in Fig. 6(a). Following these assumptions, biomass availability for electricity
generation in all districts has been estimated (Table 22). The detailed results of the two
districts with the highest total biomass energy potentials (i.e. Serajganj and Pabna) are
presented in Table 23.
In many developing countries, the efficiency of utilisation of biomass in traditional
systems is very low. Tables 24 and 25 present reported figures for the efficiencies of typical
household stoves used in Asia [56,57]. A large amount of biomass can be saved annually
in Bangladesh by employing improved (i.e. more efficient) cooking stoves, furnaces,
boilers and other devices consuming biomass fuels. The traditional mud cooking stoves
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 21
Biomass energy consumption in some Asian developing countries in 1991 and the average annual rate of growth in
the period 1981–1991 [54]
Country Population GDP Biomass annual consumption rate

(millions) (US$/
capita)
Total Per capita Per unit of GDP
(PJ) Average (GJ/ Average (GJ/ Average

annual capita) annual US$) annual
growth rate growth rate growth rate
(%) (%) (%)
Bangladesh 116.4 176 276.6 1.3 2.4 1.2 13.5 2.7

Bhutan 1.6 200 11.7 4.8 7.4 2.6 37.2 1.6
Cambodia 8.6 5.4 2.7 0.6 0.0
China 1170.7 337 2017.8 2.7 1.7 1.2 5.1 5.9
India 862.7 370 2823.7 2.7 3.3 0.6 8.8 2.4
Indonesia 187.7 523 1464.8 2.2 7.8 0.2 14.9 3.1
Lao PDR 4.3 310 38.5 2.8 8.9 0.1 28.7
Malaysia 18.3 2449 90.2 2.7 4.9 0.0 2.0 3.3
Myanmar 42.7 243 192.8 2.1 4.5 0.0 18.5 1.0
Nepal 20.1 166 205.7 6.2 10.2 3.3 61.6 1.6
Pakistan 121.5 341 296.2 4.4 2.4 1.1 7.1 1.5
Philippines 63.8 596 381.8 2.2 6.0 0.3 10.0 1.0
Sri Lanka 17.4 455 89.4 2.5 5.1 1.0 11.3 1.6
Thailand 55.4 1334 526.4 0.8 9.5 0.6 7.1 6.6
Vietnam 68.1 721 250.8 2.4 3.7 0.3 5.1
Table 22
Annual biomass availability for electricity generation in individual divisions of Bangladesh
Division Availability of biomass (in ktonne dry matter) according to the source stated
Agricultural wastes MSW Animal wastes Poultry wastes Human excreta

and forestry residues
Barisal 440.61 353.08 940.37 62.13 312.50

Chittagong 4584.69 1108.40 1486.96 118.67 884.38
Dhaka 2240.35 1928.60 2709.72 127.50 1397.85
Khulna 2848.38 659.98 1765.05 67.50 537.45
Rajshahi 12396.90 1273.58 4179.45 150.63 1114.99
Sylhet 150.51 317.26 811.54 32.01 289.41
used in Bangladesh exhibit overall efficiencies of only between 5% and 10% [58].
A number of improved stoves have been developed at the IFRD of BCSIR. These have
been classified as [58]:
improved stoves without chimney, which save 50–55% fuel compared with traditional
stoves,
stoves with chimney, with fuel savings of 60–65% and
stoves with waste heat recovery.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 23
Biomass available for electricity generation in the Serajganj and Pabna districts of the Rajshashi division
Biomass resource Serajganj Pabna
ktonne dry matter/ PJ/year ktonne dry matter/ PJ/year

year year
Farm animal waste 240.10 3.328 224.23 3.108

Poultry droppings 10.73 0.145 8.40 0.113
MSW 107.16 1.989 95.48 1.772
Human excreta 96.49 1.023 81.28 0.862
Agricultural waste 6957.83 113.590 6150.22 100.813
Forests and forestry 151.12 1.773 127.32 1.495
industry residues
Totala 7261.19 118.300 (32.861) 6432.28 105.173 (29.215)
a
Figures between brackets represent biomass energy in TWh/year.
Table 24
Efficiencies of typical household stoves in South Asia [56]
Fuel Combustion efficiency (%) Overall efficiency (%)
Biogas 99 57
LPG 98 54
Kerosene 98 50
Fuel wood 90 23
Crop residues 85 14
Dung 85 11
IFRD has been engaged in a pilot-scale dissemination of improved model biomass-fired

stoves, capable of saving 50–70% of fuel compared with traditional stoves, all over the
country [58]. These improved stoves are gradually gaining popularity.
Biomass briquettes have the main advantages of easy transportation, better handling,
cleaner and more efficient combustion, and higher volumetric calorific value of the fuel. It
also produces a fuel that is suitable for a variety of applications. Briquetting of sawdust
and other agro residues has been practised for many years in several countries. Briquettes
can be produced with a density of 1200–1400 kg/m3 compared with a corresponding
value of 500–700 kg/m3 for common wood. Accordingly, savings of diesel fuel during the
transportation of residues or wood are substantial: a 10 tonne truck can transport 3–4
times more weight of briquette than loose biomass fuel [59]. There are two types of
machines used for briquetting the biomass: piston presses (also known as die and punch
machines) and screw extruders. The screw extruder technology has proved to be successful
in briquetting rice husk and saw dust in Europe, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand
[60]. The machines operating in Bangladesh are of heated-die-type of which a total of 906
biomass briquetting machines are currently in operation [42].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 25
Efficiencies of household stoves in India [57]
Type of stove Biomass fuel Combustion Heat transfer Overall efficiency

efficiency (%) efficiency (%) (%)
Open and three-stone fire Fuel wood 90–92 20 18

places
Solid stoves with or Fuel wood 80–91 15–29 14–24
without chimney
Agricultural residues 77–90 11–14 10–14
Animal waste 82–89 10 9
Portable ceramic or Fuel wood 89 33 29
pottery stoves
Agricultural residues 86 22 19
Charcoal 85 20 17
Animal waste 88 15 13
Portable ceramic/metal Fuel wood 91 24–29 21–26
stoves
Agricultural residues 91 24 22
6. Conclusions
The GOB has recognised the importance of renewable energy in its ‘Energy Planning
Programme’ and the drafting of the ‘Renewable Energy Policy’ [61]. Solar and wind energy
in Bangladesh are characterised by high investment cost, and seasonal and site
dependency. Biomass is a major energy source in Bangladesh, which can be used for
decentralised electricity generation. Worldwide, biomass-to-electricity generation has
gained importance due to employment opportunity, reduction in reliance on fossil fuels
and positive environmental benefits.
The current study indicates that in 2003, the national total annual generation and
recoverable rates of biomass in Bangladesh were 148.983 and 86.276 Mtonne, respectively.
Of the total recoverable amount, agricultural residues represent 48.7%, followed by a
23.9% contribution from animal wastes and poultry droppings. In energy terms, the
national annual amount of the recoverable biomass is equivalent to 312.613 TWh.
Considering the present national consumption of biomass, the total available biomass
resource for electricity generation is in the range of between 183.865 and 223.794 TWh.
The results obtained show that all districts, with the exception of Dhaka, have considerable
amount of available resources of animal wastes, poultry wastes, MSW and human excreta.
Currently, not all districts have the potential to utilise agricultural and forestry residues for
electricity generation. However, with the implementation of the ongoing improved-stoves
installation programme of the GOB and utilisation of more energy efficient devices, it is
expected that most districts will have considerable amounts of these residues for electricity
generation. In 2003, Serajganj had the highest total biomass availability potential of
32.861 TWh, followed by Pabna with 29.215 TWh.
The World Bank has estimated that Bangladesh loses around $1 billion/year due to
power shortages and unreliable power supply [20]. The GOB has a vision to electrify the
whole of the country by the year 2020. Electrification of villages in remote areas usually
leads to large investment and power losses associated with transmission and distribution
ARTICLE IN PRESS
networks. Small- to medium-scale biomass-based electricity generation systems provide a

good prospect for supplying electricity economically and sustainably to rural and remote
areas in Bangladesh. This will make a significant contribution towards the achievement of
the government target of total electrification of the country by the year 2020.
References
[1] British Petroleum. BP Statistical review of world energy 2005. BP Plc, 2005.
[2] Sayigh A. Renewable energy—the way forward. Appl Energ 1999;64:5–30.
[3] World Renewable Energy Network, www.wrenuk.co.uk/home.html#intro [accessed june 2005].
[4] Bangladesh Power Development Board. www.bpdb.gov.bd [accessed June 2005].
[5] Bhuiyan MMH, Asgar MA, Mazumder RK, Hussain M. Economic evaluation of a stand alone residential
photovoltaic power system in Bangladesh. Renew Energ 2000;21:403–10.
[6] Yokoyama S, Ogi T, Nalampoon A. Biomass energy potential in Thailand. Biomass Bioenerg 2000;
18:405–10.
[7] IEA Bioenergy. A sustainable solution. www.ieabioenergy.com/IEABioenergy.php [accessed June 2005].
[8] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. National data bank statistics. www.bbsgov.org [accessed June 2005].
[9] UN Cartographic Section, www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/banglade.pdf [accessed July 2005].
[10] FAO. FAOSTAT—agriculture data. faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection ¼ Land Use&Domain ¼
Land&servlet ¼ 1&hasbulk ¼ &version ¼ ext&language ¼ EN [accessed June 2005].
[11] Sustainable Development Networking Programme. Bangladesh: a very brief history. www.sdnbd.org/
bangladesh.htm [accessed July 2005].
[12] World Market Research Centre. Country report: Bangladesh. USA: Global Insight; 2005.
[13] The Economist Intelligence Unit. Country profile: Bangladesh 1999–2000. The Economist Intelligence Unit,
UK;1999.
[14] World Bank, www.worldbank.org/data/countrydata/countrydata.html [accessed July 2005].
[15] Finance Division. Bangladesh economic review 2005. Bangladesh: Ministry of Finance, Government of the
People’s Republic of Bangladesh; 2005.
[16] Conventional energy resources: petroleum resources in Bangladesh, www.lged-rein.org/conventional_energy/
energy_petroleum.htm [accessed July 2005].
[17] Conventional energy resources: coal reserves of Bangladesh, www.lged-rein.org/conventional_energy/
energy_coal.htm [accessed July 2005].
[18] Conventional energy resources: hydro power energy of Bangladesh, www.lged-rein.org/conventional_energy/
energy_hydropower.htm [accessed July 2005].
[19] Micro hydro resource potentials in Bangladesh, www.lged-rein.org/micro_hydro/index_proihy.htm [accessed
July 2005].
[20] Energy Information Administration. Country analysis briefs: Bangladesh, www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/
bangle.html [accessed June 2005].
[21] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Rural
Electrification Board. www.reb.gov.bd [accessed July 2005].
[22] Sarkar MAR, Obaidullah M, Das DK, Huq AMA. Availability of renewable energy resources in
Bangladesh. In: Training workshop on renewable energy education and application for rural communities in
Bangladesh 1999, 27 November–3 December 1999, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[23] Wind Energy Programme. www.lged-rein.org/wind/index_prowind.htm [accessed July 2005].
[24] Islam M. Assessment of renewable energy resources of Bangladesh. www.sdnbd.org/sdi/issues/energy/
index.htm [accessed July 2005].
[25] Hossain A. Wind energy in Bangladesh. www.sdnbd.org/sdi/issues/energy/index.htm [accessed July 2005].
[26] Grameen Shakti Bangladesh. www.grameen-info.org/grameen/gshakti/programs.html [accessed July 2005].
[27] Renewable energy. www.buet.ac.bd/ces/renewable-energy.htm [accessed July 2005].
[28] Renewable energy in South Asia, www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/renewable/country_
reports/chap_2_1_2.asp [accessed July 2005].
[29] Islam M. Utilization of renewable energies in Bangladesh. www.sdnbd.org/sdi/issuesenergy/index.htm
[accessed July 2005].
[30] Solar energy Programme, www.lged-rein.org/solar/index_prosolar.htm [accessed July 2005].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
[31] Hussain M, Das KC, Huda A. The performance of a box -type solar cooker with auxiliary heating. Renew
Energ 1997.
[32] Sustainable Development Networking Programme. Solar PV system in Bangladesh by Rahimafrooz.
www.sdnbd.org/sdi/issues/energy/index.htm [accessed July 2005].
[33] Koopmans A, Koppejan J. Agricultural and forest residues—generation, utilization and availability. In:
Regional consultation on modern applications of biomass energy 1997, 6–10 January. Kualampur, Malaysia:
FAO; 1997.
[34] Koopmans A. Biomass energy resources for power and energy. In: Options for dendro power in Asia: report
of the expert consultation 1998; 1–3 April. Manila, Philippines: FAO; 1998.
[35] Bhattacharya SC, Salam PA, Pham HL, Ravindranath NH. Sustainable biomass production for energy in
selected Asian countries. Biomass Bioenerg 2003;25:471–82.
[36] Runqing H, Junfeng L. Sustainable biomass production for energy in China. Biomass Bioenerg 2003;
25:483–99.
[37] Perera KKCK, Rathnasiri PG, Sugathapala AGT. Sustainable biomass production for energy in Sri Lanka.
Biomass Bioenerg 2003;25:541–56.
[38] Hall DO, Rosillo-Calle F, Williams RH, Woods J. Biomass for energy: supply prospects. In: Johasson TB,
Kelly H, Reddy AKN, Williams RH, Burnham L, editors. Renewable energy—sources for fuels and
electricity. USA: Earthscan/Island Press; 1993. p. 593–651.
[39] FAO Forestry. Country information: Bangladesh. www.fao.org/forestry/foris/webview/forestry2/index.jsp?
siteId=5081&sitetreeId=18308&langId=1&geoId=31 [accessed June 2005].
[40] Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Forestry Master
Plan;1993.
[41] Hashem MA. Wood fuel utilization in rural industries. In: National training course on ‘Woodfuel in
Bangladesh—Production and Marketing’ 1996; 7–11 December, Bogra, Bangladesh: FAO; 1996.
[42] Moral MNA. Briquetting of biomass in Bangladesh. World Renewable Energy Congress 2000, 1–7 July,
Brighton, UK.
[43] World Bank. Country data profile—Bangladesh. devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?Selected
Country ¼ BGD&CCODE ¼ BGD&CNAME ¼ Bangladesh &PTYPE ¼ CP [accessed June 2005].
[44] Centre for Energy Policy and Technology, Imperial College. Biomass energy flow charts, www.iccept.ic.
ac.uk/research/projects/SOPAC/flowcon.htm [accessed June 2005].
[45] Regional Wood Energy Development Program in Asia. Wood energy database. www.rwedp.org/
d_database.html [accessed May 2005].
[46] Foundation for Alternative Energy. Renewable energy: distant internet education. www.fns.uniba.sk/zp/
fond/dieret/biomass.html [accessed June 2005].
[47] Othman MYH, Yatim B, Salleh MM. Chicken dung biogas power generating system in Malaysia. Renew
Energy 1996;9:930–3.
[48] Narang HP, Parashar DC, Bhattacharya SC, Salam PA. A study of biomass as a source of energy in India.
RERIC Int Energ J 1999;21:11–23.
[49] Biomass Resource, www.lged-rein.org/biomass/resource_biomass.htm [accessed July 2005].
[50] Parikh JK, Ramanathan R. Linkages among energy, agriculture and environment in rural India. Energ Econ
1999;21:561–85.
[51] Alam S. Integrated modelling of a rural energy system: a system dynamics approach. PhD Thesis,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh,1991.
[52] Biswas WK, Lucas NJD. Energy consumption in the domestic sector in a Bangladesh village. Energy
1997;22:771–6.
[53] Bose SK. Wood fuel production programs and strategies of the forest department. In: National training
course on wood fuel in Bangladesh—Production and marketing 1996, 7–11 December. Bogra, Bangladesh:
FAO; 1991.
[54] Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, FAO. Review of wood energy data in RWEDP
member countries. Field document no 47,Thailand;1997.
[55] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Statistical pocketbook. Bangladesh: Bangladesh Bureu of statistics;
2000.
[56] RWEDP and UNEP. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by promoting biomass energy technology in
South Asia. Thailand: FAO; 2000.
[57] Renewables in India. www.teriin.org/renew/estpot.htm [accepted April 2003].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
[58] Banu LB. Technologies for efficient use of wood fuel: improved chulli, compressed husk, briquetting and
other technologies. In: National training course on wood fuel in Bangladesh—production and marketing
1996; 7–11 December. Bogra, Bangladesh: FAO; 1996.
[59] Grover PD. Briquetting of wood and agro residues. Wood Energy News 1995, vol. 10 Regional Wood
Energy Programme in Asia. Thailand: FAO; 1995. p.12–4.
[60] Babu D, Yuvaraj N. Biomass densification—a solid (fuel) solution. TERI Newswire 2001, vol. 7. India:
Energy and Resources Institute; 2001.
[61] Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Draft
Renewable Energy Policy of Bangladesh, 2002.

Khossain 2007

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Khossain 2007

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Khossain 2007

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Prospects of renewable energy utilisation for

Keywords: Renewable energy; Electricity generation; Sustainability; Biomass; Bangladesh

2. Bangladesh: location and economy

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh—a south-Asian country—is located between

3. Commercial primary energy resources and use

Indigenous commercial primary energy resources of Bangladesh consist of the known

Fig. 2. Commercial primary energy consumption trends in Bangladesh [1].

3.1. Natural gas

Name of the gas Natural gas reserve and

Total estimated reserve Recoverable Cumulative Net recoverable

Bakhrabad 42.447 29.704 17.858 11.846

Fig. 3. Consumption of natural gas in Bangladesh in 2003–04 [15].

Jamalgonj, Jaipurhat 640–1158 Bituminous 11.66 1053

4. Electricity generation and consumption

Government of Bangladesh (GOB) established the Dhaka Electric Supply Authority

4.1. Electricity generation and transmission

Diesel Engines Combined Cycle Gas

Furnace Oil Hydro Diesel

4.2. Electricity consumption

5. Renewable energy utilisation

5.1. Wind energy

Year Month Average wind speed (m/s)

1994 June 8.25

Fig. 5. Coastal regions: prospective area for wind energy utilization.

BPDB is installing a 10 MW grid-connected wind energy farm at Muhuri Dam in the

Patenga Cox’s Bazaar Teknaf Noakhali Char Fassiona Kuakata Kutubdia

1996 June 8.75

5.2. Solar energy

Month Monthly average daily irradiation intensity(kWh/m2) at the division stated

Dhaka Rajshahi Sylhet Bogra Barishal Jessor

January 4.03 3.96 4.00 4.01 4.17 4.25

5.2.1. Solar thermal systems

5.2.2. Solar PV systems

Name of organisation Number of systems and locations Total installed

GS 42,000 all over the country 2150 kW

 LGED has successfully completed the solar electriﬁcation of a market at Ganguita in

5.3. Small-scale hydropower

5.4. Biomass energy

Biomass energy is an important source of energy in most Asian countries. Substantial

Country Primary energy consumption (PJ/year) Share of

Bangladesh 210 141 363 504 714 71

Type of land use Area (107 m2)

a sustainable management of forest resources in Bangladesh, the Forest Master Plan of

107 m2 % of total area Industrial Non-industrial

Acacia spp. 32.0 5.1 48 52

5.4.1. Biomass resources

Crop Annual production ratea

Species Number of heads (millions)

Biomass Annual production rate Moisture content Annual production rate

Fuel wood 6.932 [39] 20 [6] 5.546

Biomass Residues-to- Residues Residues Moisture Residues recovery rate

Sugarcane bagasse 0.29 [34] 1983 1983 49 [6] 1011

Assuming all residues are process based.

Biomass Rate of generation Waste recovery rate

A conservative estimate of the national production rate of poultry droppings can be

Human waste 0.09 4.537 4.537 4.537

Forest type District

LGED has successfully completed the solar electriﬁcation of a market at Ganguita in