Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

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Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Electronic waste generation, recycling and resource recovery:

Technological perspectives and trends
Eldon R. Rene a, 1, Manivannan Sethurajan a, 1, Vinoth Kumar Ponnusamy b,
Gopalakrishnan Kumar c, g, Thi Ngoc Bao Dung d, Kathirvel Brindhadevi e,
Arivalagan Pugazhendhi f, h, *
a
Department of Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Engineering, IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, Delft 2601DA, The Netherlands
b
Department of Medicinal and Applied Chemistry, and Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan
c
Institute of Chemistry, Bioscience and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Box 8600 Forus, 4036 Stavanger,
Norway
d
Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
f
Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
g
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
h
College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dr. Jörg Rinklebe The growing population and increased disposal of end-of-life (EoL) electrical and electronic products have caused
serious concerns to the environment and human health. Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing problem because
Keywords: the quantity and the rate at which it is generated has increased exponentially in the last 5 years. The rapid
Resource recovery changes or upgradation in technologies, IT requirements for working or learning from home during COVID-19,
E-waste
manufacturers releasing new electronic gadgets and devices that serves the consumers comfort and a declension
Hydrometallurgy
in services has contributed to an increase in the e-waste or waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
Pyrometallurgy
Biometallurgy generation rates. The current status of e-waste generation, handling procedures and regulatory directives in USA,
Recycling EU, China, India, Vietnam and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are presented in this review. The recent
developments in e-waste recycling methods/recovery of base and precious metals, the advantages and limitations
of hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, biohydrometallurgy and pyrolysis are discussed. Considering the impedi­
ments in the present technologies, the extraction of valuable resources, i.e. precious metals, from e-waste using
suitable biocatalysts shows promising applications. This review also stresses on the research needs to assess the
economic effects of involving different unit operations/process industries for resource recovery, reuse and
recycling.

1. Introduction although the global e-waste flow is not properly monitored, a recent
report from 2020 suggests that, ~7–20% of the e-waste is exported as
Increasing demand for electrical and electronic goods in the national second hand products (e.g. metal scraps, materials for reuse or refur­
and international market has contributed to the generation of huge bish) or e-waste according to the legislations in the country that imports
quantities of electronic waste (e-waste) in both developing and devel­ these items (Forti et al., 2020). According to the authors, the total global
oped countries (Cole et al., 2019; Toral-López et al., 2018). E-waste, also consumption of electrical and electronic products is expected to increase
technically termed as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) annually by approximately 2.5 Mt.
refers to “end-of-life (EoL)” electronic equipment which is a mixture of Due to the shorter lifecycles of electronic products, the recovery of
plastics, metals, and composites. The global e-waste generated in the valuable metals from e-waste is of economic interest (Rienzie et al.,
year 2019 is 53.6 million metric tons (Mt), i.e. 7.3 kg per capita and 2019). However, only few recycling plants have been established in

* Corresponding author at: Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Pugazhendhi).
1
The authors contributed equally as first author to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125664
Received 3 May 2020; Received in revised form 22 February 2021; Accepted 12 March 2021
Available online 16 March 2021
0304-3894/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

e-waste recycling countries, i.e. in countries where the e-waste is biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), polybrominated
commonly shipped. Due to the lack of engineered infrastructure and diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin furans
cost-effective techniques, the handling of e-waste in many developing (PCDD/Fs) are also concomitantly discharged into the environment as a
countries is mainly carried out by the informal sector using improper result of adopting improper or inadequate e-waste processing techniques
and unsafe resource recovery techniques (Ikhlayel, 2018). For instance, (Kiddee et al., 2013; Tue et al., 2016). Interestingly, the electronic
the use of highly concentrated acids and cyanide to leach and recover components are also made up of precious metals (gold, palladium,
precious metals in these informal sectors has caused severe health haz­ platinum, silver), base metals (zinc, copper, nickel, lead) and rare earth
ards for humans and the environment (Baniasadi et al., 2019). There­ minerals (yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, europium, neodymium). Hence,
fore, cost-effective, safe and eco-friendly recycling and/or recovery the recycling sector in various African and Asian countries such as
methods for e-waste processing are urgently needed. Ghana, Nigeria, India, China, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia
A proper recycling system for e-waste collection, segregation and etc. have shown great interest for resource recovery from e-waste
recycle/reuse and recovery at the local and provincial level is urgently (Awasthi et al., 2016).
required because of the inappropriate/illegal disposal practices that E-waste is a concern not only in big countries but also in small
causes severe environmental pollution and health hazards. Metals and countries or regions with an area less than 20 thousand km2 (Zeng et al.,
renewable components present in e-waste are recovered by informal 2015). At present, the annual e-waste produced ranges between 40 and
recyclers who use physico-chemical technologies, leaving behind 50 Mt, which will be enhanced by 500 times in the next ten years,
harmful plastics, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), liquid crystals, particularly in fast developing countries including China and India
harmful vapours/fumes and the contamination of soil and water due to (Wilson et al., 2015). Due to strict environmental regulations and
toxic metals. Thus, recycling of e-waste components is considered as an standards in developed countries, most of the e-waste generated are
resource efficient approach to manage e-waste in order to mitigate the shipped into developing and under developed countries rather than
effects of pollution and encourage the balanced distribution of resources treating them on-site (Ruan and Xu, 2016; Xue and Xu, 2014).
(Needhidasan et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2017). In this review, the present status of e-waste generation, handling
In developing and developed countries, at present, the different procedures and regulatory directives in selected developed and devel­
state, provincial and national governments have framed directives, laws, oping countries (USA, EU, China, India, Vietnam and Gulf Cooperation
and regulations that are aimed at the safe disposal of IT, electrical and Council [GCC] countries) are discussed, with special emphasis on the
electronic components, including batteries, toner cartridges, re­ generation rates and the policies dealing with informal recyclers, pol­
frigerants and chemicals. These regulations will help the manufactures, icies promoting recycling and the recovery of precious and base metals
consumers and retailers to follow good practices in e-waste collection, and directives supporting the manufacturers “take-back” policy. From a
recycling, refurbishing, reusing, treatment, and the safe disposal certain technological viewpoint, the following approaches were reviewed: py­
components (Ari, 2016). Due to scientific and technological advance­ rometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, biohydrometallurgy and pyrolysis. This
ments in recycling and reuse, the plastics from “end-of-life printers” can review also suggests options to follow a preventative approach that will
be used as a source of carbon (reusable), the waste toner powders can be enable the minimization of e-waste generation, and discusses the factors
processed to yield iron and the reusable materials from batteries can be encouraging the recycling of e-wastes.
separated and recycles, thereby minimizing waste generation, disposal
costs and facilitating a closed loop circular economy in the e-waste 2. Overview of e-waste in selected developed and developing
sector (Kumar et al., 2018). The plastic is reused to make battery cases, countries
while the metals, including lead, are smelted, cooled and molded into
parts for new batteries. Many e-waste processing facilities (including E-waste generation is expected to rise by 33% in the coming decade
treatment and metal recovery) are upgrading their existing technologies due to the increase in the use of modern electrical and electronic
in order to enrich and recover the metal content and create more busi­ equipment’s. The developing and developed countries will dispose
ness opportunities (Zhang and Xu, 2019). ~400–700 million and ~200–300 million old-fashioned computers by
Nowadays, the economy of a country is greatly influenced by ur­ the year 2030. Developed countries have intricate, expensive and
banization and the progress in modern technology, which includes the technologically advanced systems with proper regulations to treat their
manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment such as computers, e-waste. The waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) directive
mobile phones, printers, refrigerators, washing machines, television, (Directive 2002/96/EC, 2003) from the European Union (EU) and also
automatic teller machines, telecommunication servers, photocopiers, the e-waste regulations from Japan have assigned the responsibility of
printers and coffee machines (Garlapati, 2016; Sthiannopkao and Wong, recycling of WEEE to the manufacturers (Sthiannopkao and Wong,
2013; Zeng et al., 2016). It is a well-known fact that, all the electronic 2013).
equipment’s contains a lot of toxic/hazardous metals such as lead,
mercury, zinc, cadmium, copper, aluminum, arsenic, among others, 2.1. E-waste in the United States
which directly affects human health and the ecosystem (Fujimori and
Takigami, 2014; Xue et al., 2011). Thus, e-waste comprises of a “cocktail In USA, approximately 13.1 Mt of e-waste is generated every year
of complex substances and components”, and these can be characterized and the per capita contribution is on average 13.3 kg according to a
as conductors, semiconductors, and non-conductors depending on their 2020 report. However, only ~ 1.2 Mt of e-waste generated is properly
electrical conductivity (Xue et al., 2012). With the rapid advancements collected, monitored/documented and recycled according to the U.S.
in science and technology, most of the electronic products have become Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidelines. The USEPA
unwanted and obsolete after being used for only a few years (Garlapati, highlighted that an average American household has more than 20
2016). Thus, proper planning during the disposal of e-wastes as well as electronic equipment’s (Sthiannopkao and Wong, 2013). The USA ex­
the recovery of precious metals from the urban mines is considered to be ports 314,000 to 376,800 tonnes of e-waste every year or 43–52
a sustainable and eco-friendly approach (Quan et al., 2014). container loads every day to other countries. Recycling of electronics is
Nevertheless, it is noteworthy to mention that, e-waste comprises of mainly for precious metals recovery, to reduce the environmental
four major categories of pollutants: (i) halogenated compounds, (ii) impact and for proper handling of toxic/hazardous materials. The U.S.
heavy metals, (iii) radioactive elements, and (iv) miscellaneous sub­ government offers e-waste recycling for residents through curb side
stances such as plastics, ceramics and resins. Moreover, several organic collection, collection events, or take-back program, each state having
pollutants including polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polyvinyl different policies and goals to recycle and reuse e-waste. Hence, the
chloride (PVC), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), polychlorinated state-wide recycling laws cover 65% of the United States population

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

(Electronics Takeback Coalition) (Kumar et al., 2017; Ongondo et al., lead poisoning (Zeng et al., 2016; Na et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2015).
2011). The Chinese government, being aware of the environmental ill-
effects due to e-waste, has enunciated different environmental laws,
2.2. E-waste in the European Union regulations, standards, technical guides and norms associated with the
manufacture of electronic products and e-waste processing (Zeng et al.,
The European Union (EU) produced ~9.3 Mt of e-waste in the year 2016; Ma et al., 2016; Zeng et al., 2013). The Chinese government has
2005 and according to a recent report, Europe tops the list of e-waste been drafting legislation on e-waste, which was commenced by the
generation per capita in the world (16.2 kg). Interestingly, countries in National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and this legis­
EU collectively contributed to an efficient e-waste documentation, lation was also backed up by several government agencies such as the
collection and recycling system, demonstrating the recycling of 5.2 Mt Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) (Zhou and Xu, 2012). The
annually, i.e. with a recycling efficiency of ~43% (Forti et al., 2020). In Chinese government had announced linked laws and regulations of
certain European nations, medicinal plants and herbs are cultivated e-waste management from 1990 to 2009, while the outcome was trivial
inside e-waste areas, such as in an obsolete computer system or televi­ (Cao et al., 2016).
sion set dumping sites. The plants aid in the neutralization of radiation Consequently, China has to confront the environmental destruction
hazards or take up the harmful effects of e-waste. Europe exports and health issues associated with the mounting volume of e-waste
approximately 400,000 tonnes of e-waste and mishandles about 4.7 Mt generated. The Chinese government has hosted its inclusive body of
of waste (United Nations University, 2015). The European Environment Recycling Law on environmental safety for e-waste in 2009; however,
Agency (EEA) reports that 250,000 tonnes to 1.3 Mt of cast-off electrical further enactment is still in process. Moreover, China’s e-waste recycling
products are exported annually, frequently to West Africa and Asia policies has its specific features due to the national economy and the
(Sahajwalla and Gaikwad, 2018; Kumar and Rawat, 2018). public environmental protection responsiveness (Zhou and Xu, 2012).
All these regulations could end up not only with a more environmentally
2.3. E-waste in China well-doing technology and management associated with-waste, but also
lead to a smoother trading of EoL electronic products (e-product) among
China, one of the biggest electronic manufacturers, is growing nations in the upcoming decades.
rapidly as the second largest producer of WEEE next to the USA and is
emerging as the largest dumping ground of WEEE. E-waste disposal in 2.4. E-waste in India
China is causing severe environmental problem as heavy loads of e-
waste is translocated to China through illegal routes from developed India is widely recognized as the most important disposal ground for
countries where there are strict policies for e-waste management. Ac­ e-waste from developed countries. India is one of the rapidly advancing
cording to reports from the year 2013, approximately 5.5 Mt of e-waste information technology (IT) markets across the globe and also the fast-
was handled by China in the year 2013, which is forecasted to become growing personal computer market in the Asia-Pacific region. Mounting
20 Mt in the year 2040, specifying a vast growing potential of e-waste computer waste is the most vital source of e-waste being produced in
production in the following years (Li et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2016). India (Borthakur and Govind, 2018). India is the third largest e-waste
However, the updated report from 2020 reveals more interesting facts: generator (3.2 Mt), after USA and China; however, its per capita
(i) China is one of the top e-waste producer, at 10.1 Mt in the year 2019; contribution is much below (i.e. only 2.4 kg) the global average of 7.3
(ii) the formal e-waste recycling industry is well-regulated in China due kg. The need for IT hardware and electronics in India is projected to
to the updated regulations, government incentives and the expansion of reach up to $400 billion, while the probable production will touch $104
recycling facilities, and (iii) the e-waste collection and recycling effi­ billion. There will be a gap, in the requirement and manufacturing, of ~
ciency in China reached ~40% in 2019 (Forti et al., 2020). Despite all $296 billion by the year 2020 (Awasthi et al., 2016; Park et al., 2015).
the efforts and good measures, several studies have explored the envi­ Mumbai tops the list of cities in India in spawning e-waste annually
ronmental contamination of heavy metals due to e-waste recycling in at 120,000 metric tonnes, followed by Delhi-NCR (98,000), Bangalore
China. This was previously attributed to the fact that, ~60% of the (92,000), Chennai (67,000), Kolkata (55,000), Ahmedabad (36,000),
e-waste was handled in informal recycling centers by non-experts and Hyderabad (32,000) and Pune (26,000), respectively. New Delhi is
ill-equipped workforce (Zeng et al., 2016; Fujimori and Takigami, serving as the center of e-waste recycling in India. Delhi, nowadays, is
2014). regarded as the most polluted city in the world with Delhi High Court
In addition, some industrial projects have begun in certain regions of lately declaring the air pollution in Delhi an ‘emergency’ (Garlapati,
China, that have been affected with e-waste, such as Beijing, Shanghai, 2016; Awasthi et al., 2016). Unregulated and casual e-waste recycling
Guangdong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Tianjin, Hunan, Fujian, Shandong and operations absolutely play a key role in worsening the air quality of
Sichuan. E-waste was mostly imported into China and treated in Guiyu Delhi (Borthakur and Govind, 2017). As per the report, government,
(Na et al., 2016). Most of the precious ingredients in e-waste have public and private manufacturing generate more than 70% of e-waste
motivated recycling in centres lacking proper regulations, i.e. with whereas 15% originates from the households. Televisions, refrigerators
leaching of metals from open acid baths, exclusion of electronic modules and washing machines contribute to the majority of e-waste produced,
from printed circuit boards (PCBs) by heating over a grill, and extracting with computers releasing 20% and mobile phones 2%, respectively.
metals by burning cables and parts. These activities have triggered Besides, 2.5% of India’s total e-waste undergoes recycling under
austere contamination in the adjacent soil, sediments and groundwater poor infrastructure and unregulated legislative agenda which results in
near the vicinity of the recycling sites, such as Guiyu in China (Zeng the waste of waning natural resources, irreversible destruction of envi­
et al., 2013). In 2015, it was reported that the stink of burnt plastic ronment and health of industrial workers. More than 95% of the e-waste
surrounds the small town of Guiyu where the industrial effluents produced is processed by the unregulated sectors and scrap dealers in
blackened some of the rivers in the town. Southern China’s Shantou this market. Thus, all the e-waste generated in India is gathered and
University declared that Guiyu’s air and water is severely polluted by recycled in the informal sectors, causing severe environmental problems
toxic metal particles; hence, residents, including children had unusually (Borthakur and Govind, 2018; Dwivedy and Mittal, 2013). The re­
high levels of lead in their blood. In some specific cases, workers ille­ sponsibility of the e-waste discarder must therefore be increased in India
gitimately dispense old computers, circuit boards and printers to others to overcome the contamination of environment due to improper e-waste
for recycling outside the government nominated recycling centers. recycling.
Anew, several basic recycling processes in Guiyu are poisonous and China and India are importing several tonnes of printed circuit
hazardous to workers health with nearly 80% of children ailing from boards and other e-waste scraps every month, and due to inappropriate

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

Fig. 1. Overview of metal leaching and recovery methods from e-waste.

recycling procedures, environmental pollution related issues are per­ The contribution of e-waste from different products can be summa­
sisting (Cao et al., 2016). India also imports significant quantity of rized as follows: (i) average weight of e-wastes from discarded TV,
second hand PC motherboards from China while some of them are mobile phones, refrigerator, PCs, air conditioner and washing machines
retailed in the used goods markets (i.e. the second hand shops), while = 30, 0.1, 45, 25, 50 and 35 kg/unit, and (ii) the average amount of e-
the others are reprocessed by some industries. Though the Indian and waste discarded per capita = 3.7 kg (Tran and Salhofer, 2018). Ac­
Chinese governments have forbidden improper recycling by compulsory cording to a recent study, the collection, recovery, processing, disposal,
elimination of illegal recycling set-ups, their active measures were un­ as well as the take-back system of waste products has only been initiated
successful to wipe out the polluters and indecorous recyclers. In both in Vietnam in the year 2016 (Yoshida et al., 2016). These legislations
China and India, the implementation of e-waste policy has transformed initiated to identify the key stakeholders in Vietnam. However, the real
from simple prevention of improper recycling services to upgrading management of e-waste in Vietnam is weak due to following reasons:
appropriate recycling infrastructures through the launch of a license
system (Garlapati, 2016; Shinkuma and Managi, 2010; Zhang et al., • Type, size and volume of e-waste generated are unstable and out of
2012). Thus, illegal recycling and performance by non-licensed recyclers official control.
are banned by the current Indian law and the regulator enacts periodic • Lack of a proper framework and specific regulation to support
examination. infrastructure and equipment of e-waste recycler and collectors.
• Lack of subsidies from the government to promote e-waste recycling
activities.
2.5. E-waste in Vietnam

Vietnam produces around 61,000 to 113,000 tonnes of e-waste 2.6. E-waste in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries
annually. However, there are only ~3 out of the total of 15 recycling
facilities that have the required technology and equipment for carrying Among the GCC states, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Kuwait contribute to
out e-waste recycling activities. In 2013, the Vietnamese government the largest per capita producer of e-waste, at 12.5, ~17.0 and ~17.0 kg,
enacted decisions no. 20/2013/QĐ-TTg that enforces producers to be respectively. According to a recent report, the legislations for e-waste
responsible for e-waste collection and treatment. Besides, in 2015, the are not sufficient, and they are not formally implemented in all the
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources of Vietnam issued Cir­ sectors (industrial and domestic). The e-waste recycling sector in GCC
cular no. 36/2015/TT-BTNMT that mentions that all the e-waste have to countries is regulated/managed by many parties, including the non-
be treated as hazardous waste. profit organizations and private companies.

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

Fig. 2. Schematic of precious metal recovery (e.g. gold) using hydrometallurgical options.

A recent paper has summarized the growing trend of e-waste gen­ The major challenge in pyrometallurgical processes is the enhance­
eration in the GCC countries and the authors have provided the ment of purity of the final metal products because e-waste comprises of
following details/statistics (Alghazo et al., 2019): (i) e-waste generation both pure metals and alloys. Pure metallic forms are effortlessly handled
rate in GCC is increasing at an alarming rate of 3–5%, (ii) the total by melting in smelters (Hong and Valix, 2014). Pyrometallurgical
e-waste generation was ~ 52 Mt, while only in the year 2018, it was 857 techniques employ higher temperatures to volatilize specific metals,
kilotonnes (Kt), (iii) presently, the GCC countries have a coordinated which are then condensed and recovered. Most of the industrial recy­
system to share information regarding e-waste generation and develop cling processes have implemented pyrometallurgical processes and heat
policies, laws and regulations to manage e-waste in the Gulf region. treatments. Compared to pyrometallurgical processes, hydrometallur­
gical techniques endow comparatively low capital cost, minimized
3. Technologies for resource recovery from e-waste environmental impacts, fully recoverable leachates and less air pollution
(e.g. no hazardous gases/dusts) (Tuncuk et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2016).
The recovery of base and precious metals from e-waste can be clas­ It is noteworthy to mention that, most the metals (base and precious
sified into three types: hydrometallurgical (chemical), pyrometallurgi­ metals) present in the e-waste can be recycled using this technology;
cal (thermal) and biometallurgical (biological) (Hong and Valix, 2014; however, further processing (downstream) is required using hydro­
Tuncuk et al., 2012) (Fig. 1). Physical methods have gained popularity metallurgical or electro-chemical treatments in order to refine or sepa­
in e-waste recycling as a pre-treatment strategy. The physical separation rate the desired metal of interest. The Kaldo process is the most
processes applied for the treatment of e-waste entail magnetic separa­ commonly employed method to treat e-waste, and it involves the
tion (MS) (Li et al., 2016), eddy current separation (ECS) (Jujun et al., following steps: (i) water washing, (ii) pressure acid leaching, (iii)
2014), air current separation (ACS) (Bedekovic, 2015), corona electro­ reductive smelting, (iv) oxidative blowing and refining, and (v) elec­
static separation (CES) (Xue et al., 2012) and vacuum metallurgy sep­ trolytic refining (Hait et al., 2009). The advantage of this process
aration (VMS) (Zhan and Xu, 2014). Contrary to the conventional include: (i) high recovery rates for precious metals such as gold and
chemical leaching technologies, biohydrometallurgical strategy is silver, (ii) easy to scale-up and operate because its furnace design and
largely regarded as a “green technology” for the extraction of metals configuration is well established, and (iii) high treatment capacity (Xu
from e-wastes (Kim et al., 2016). et al., 2021).

3.1. Pyrometallurgy 3.2. Hydrometallurgy

Pyrometallurgy is a conventional technology wherein non-ferrous Hydrometallurgy is the extraction of metals from solid resources by
and precious metals are leached from WEEE. The pyrometallurgical using chemicals. Hydrometallurgy consists of two stages: (i) leaching,
technique pre-treats the wastes by roasting, disassembling and then where the metals are solubilized by aqueous chemicals at low pH, and
smelting of the abundant metal fraction. Pyrometallurgical approach (ii) recovery, where the leached metals is recovered from the poly­
engaging the smelter has been a customary tool for the recovery of metallic pregnant leaching solution (Sethurajan et al., 2017; Sethurajan
precious metals and copper from the EoL electronic appliances (Ilyas et al., 2018) (Fig. 2). Hydrometallurgical techniques are advancing
et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2016). Smelting is the most vital process for rapidly; additionally, they are deemed to be well-established and effi­
pyrometallurgy and some of the modern smelting equipment’s used in cient. From an economic view-point, printed circuit boards, telecom
pyrometallurgy includes Outokumpu flash smelting, Noranda reactor servers and automatic teller machines contain large amounts of precious
system and the Mitsubishi continuous smelter (Cui and Zhang, 2008; metals and therefore, such components are more cost-efficient to be used
Zhang and Xu, 2016). as raw materials in hydrometallurgical processes (Sethurajan et al.,

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

2019). Hydrometallurgical techniques may utilize huge amounts of mechanism (Sethurajan et al., 2018).
poisonous, highly acidic or alkaline or inflammable components with Bioprecipitation, is also one of the simple, yet useful strategy for the
the release of large volumes of solid wastes and effluents. Hydrometal­ recovery of metals from the leachate. The metabolites produced by the
lurgical methods implicate the suspension of the metallic parts of microorganisms react with the metal ions and precipitate the desired
e-wastes in either acidic or alkali solutions, based on the desired re­ metal. A major advantage of bioprecipitation is the possibility of selec­
covery of precious metals (Cui and Zhang, 2008). tive recovery of metals from the poly-metallic leachate (Sethurajan
Majority of the hydrometallurgical processes used for the extraction et al., 2018; De Michelis et al., 2010; De Michelis et al., 2010). Bio­
of metals from e-waste perform cyanide, thiourea, thiosulfate and halide reduction and bioaccumulation have not been studied intensely, but
leaching of valuable metals (Hong and Valix, 2014; Tuncuk et al., 2012). they can also be considered as a potential option for resource recovery.
Hydrometallurgical techniques have been extensively studied to recover Over the past few years, biohydrometallurgical strategy has garnered
copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) by leaching and precipita­ great interest for metal recovery, since it is simple, eco-friendly, and
tion. Apart from base metals such as copper and zinc, precious metals cost-effective (Chen et al., 2015).
such as gold, silver and platinum have also been successfully extracted In recent years, several studies have reported the possibility of cop­
from e-wastes (Petter et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2020). per extraction from printed circuit boards (PCB) and shredding dusts
Recently, it has also been proved that ionic liquids could be efficiently (Işıldar et al., 2016; Işıldar et al., 2019; Marra et al., 2018). Critical
extracted from e-wastes (Dupont and Binnemans, 2015; Dupont and metals such as cobalt could also be successfully bioleached from the
Binnemans, 2015; He et al., 2019). waste batteries (Baniasadi et al., 2019; Mishra et al., 2008; Naseri et al.,
WEEE also contains significant amounts of critical metals such as 2019). There are also a few studies that have reported the bioleaching of
cobalt, indium and gallium and rare earth elements (REE) such as neo­ REE from WEEE (Marra et al., 2018). Precious metals (such as gold)
dymium, dysprosium, praseodymium and samarium. In order to recover extraction from the electronic wastes have also been reported in many
these elements from e-wastes, hydrometallurgy was found to be efficient recent studies (Işıldar et al., 2016; Son et al., 2020; Brandl et al., 2008;
(Rabatho et al., 2013; Hu et al., 2015; Nayaka et al., 2016; Krištofová Rienzie et al., 2019). Heterotrophs such as Chromobacterium sp. and
et al., 2016). Hydrometallurgical techniques require high amount of Pseudomonas sp. are known to produce cyanides and the biogenic cya­
chemicals and impose noteworthy environmental impacts, particularly nides can be used leach out gold from the e-waste.
during the leaching process. Besides, they also require higher energy Biohydrometallurgy can also be used in the ex-situ/on-site recovery
input, followed by remanufacturing, recycling and reuse (Cui and of heavy metals from contaminated sediments (Fonti et al., 2016). It is
Zhang, 2008). noteworthy to mention that, although biohydrometallurgy of e-wastes is
The development trend in hydrometallurgy can be summarized as a proven strategy at the lab-scale level, it still requires further research at
follows (Jia et al., 2020): (i) in recent years, one or more processes and the pilot-scale to reach the required technology readiness level (TRL).
mechanisms have been applied in hydrometallurgy, including leaching, The limitations of biohydrometallurgy are that the bacterial leaching
solvent extraction, biohydrometallurgy, electro-hydrometallurgy, ion method is slow and unlike other approaches, once the bioprocess is
exchange, precipitation, adsorption, and cementation, (ii) focus of the initiated, bioleaching cannot be rapidly stopped.
academic community and industries are inclined towards the develop­
ment of cleaner and lower-cost processes, (iii) the application of most of 3.4. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
the advanced analytical instruments and techniques such as, XRD, SEM,
EDS/EDX, IR, XPS, CV NMR, Raman Spectroscopy, TEM, Mossbauer, The thermal cracking (pyrolysis) of e-waste is beneficial if the aim is
XAFS and CT has helped to understand the mechanisms, rate limiting to recover energy and materials in order to promote a waste to energy
steps, and the quality of final product, (iv) the application of ionic liq­ approach. Most of the studies on the thermal conversion of e-waste is
uids instead of toxic lixiviates, offers flexibility and choice in selection, limited to bench-scale and pilot scale tests due to limited information on
depending on the viscosity, conductivity, hydrophilicity, hydrophobic­ the thermo-conversion kinetics, activation energy and yield of e-waste
ity, polarity, and hydrogen bonding ability, and (v) in the field of components (Kantarelis et al., 2011). According to the authors, the
e-waste management, the recovery of precious metals and rare earth leftover residues after the pyrolysis step would contain metals and or­
elements should focus in scaling up hydrometallurgy based technologies ganics, which can be separated to recover high grade metals.
from the lab-scale to the semi-industrial and full scale in order to support In a lab-scale test, pretreatment by crushing the e-waste was done
circular economy in the (urban) mining sector. prior to pyrolysis in order to enhance the recovery of metals (Chen et al.,
2015). The authors ascertained the effect of particle size and pyrolysis
3.3. Biohydrometallurgy temperature on the metal recovery and reported that, in order to recover
high amounts of metal (Cu = 92% and Sn = 99.8%), at the expense of
Biotechnology is an emerging and promising technology to extract low energy, the particle size and pyrolysis temperature should be 4.0 cm
metals from primary and secondary resources. The utilization of mi­ and 330 ◦ C, respectively. In another novel application, microwave
croorganisms for the recovery of metals is a relatively economic process assisted pyrolysis showed good metal recycling/recovery potential than
for recovering precious metals from secondary resources (Garlapati, the conventional pyrolysis (Huang et al., 2020). After adopting this
2016; Sun et al., 2016). Biohydrometallurgical processing is an alternate strategy, the key results of this study were as follows: (i) Cu recovery
route for the recovery of metals, specifically, from low-grade and lean efficiency = 96% using a two-stage acid leaching process, (ii) Au re­
grade ores, shales and secondary resources (Anjum et al., 2012). covery efficiency = 80%, and (iii) size reduction is not required if the
Biohydrometallurgy consists of two important phases: (i) bio­ e-waste is pretreated using microwave pyrolysis.
leaching, and (ii) biorecovery. Bioleaching is the mobilization of metals
from the solid phase to the liquid phase with the help of microorganisms, 3.5. Advantages and limitations of the technologies
by any one of the three mechanisms, i.e. acidolysis, complexolysis and
redoxolysis (Sethurajan et al., 2018). Acidithiobacillus sp. and Leptospir­ A comparative analysis of the important advantages and limitations
illum sp. are the most studied bacteria for bioleaching metals from of these technologies are discussed as follows (Kaya, 2019).
low-grade ores and secondary resources. Organic acid producing fungi
has also been reported to have a good leaching efficiency. On the other (i) Pyrometallurgy
hand, microbial recovery of metals from the leachate can be done either Advantages: (i) the PCB can be used without any pretreatment,
by biosorption or by precipitation. In biosorption, live or dead biomass (ii) very fast processing time, (iii) produces Cu rich final product
can be used to adsorb the metals on their cell wall for its own defense that can be separated and processed further.

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

Fig. 3. Different stakeholders involved in an e-waste management plan.

Limitations: (i) energy intensive, (ii) high investment cost, (iii) form, irrespective of the discarded electronic or electrical appli­
corrosion resistant reactor/furnace design is required, (iv) low ance, (ii) very short processing time, (iii) reduces the volume of
efficiency in the conversion/recovery of metals, (v) downstream the e-waste, (iv) produces gases, oil and even metal containing
hydrometallurgical and electrometallurgical techniques are char that can be processed further.
required to reach higher yields. Limitations: (i) energy intensive, high investment cost, (ii) re­
(ii) Hydrometallurgy quires further treatment of the toxic gases produced, (iii) low
Advantages: (i) easy to apply, manage, high selectivity, fast metal recovery rates and less purity of the final product, (iv) re­
reaction kinetics, and good extraction efficiency for different quires post-treatment to increase the recoverability of the metals
metals, (ii) single/multi-stage leaching can be done in two stand- from e-waste.
alone reactors/vessels, at a low cost, (iii) low gas emission, less
operational temperature, (iv) no slag generation and high re­ 4. Preventative approach to minimize e-waste generation
covery rates.
Limitations: (i) protection of workers/safety is required due to The problem of e-waste can be eradicated by offering technical
the use of toxic chemicals (lixiviates), (ii) produces large quan­ support to local manufacturers and importers of electronic spare parts.
tities of leachate, (iii) special corrosion-resistant equipments are The use of biodegradable and environment friendly products shall be
required, (iv) high cost for the selective recovery of the desired promoted as the first option and electronic devices must be fabricated
metal, (v) requires multiple chemicals to recovery different accordingly to warrant clean, benign and environmentally comprehen­
metals. sive recycling (Iqbal et al., 2015). The second option could be to abolish
(iii) Biohydrometallurgy the use of toxic and hazardous chemicals during the manufacturing of
Advantages: (i) considered as an upgraded, modern and green electronic devices and to protect the general public and workers from
technology, (ii) both precious and base metals can be recovered the discharges arising from the recycling of e-waste. Such a preventative
from e-waste, (iii) low operational temperature, energy require­ and green chemistry approach will create new products that will help to
ment, low investment/operating cost, (iv) selective leaching of reduce or eliminate the use of hazardous chemicals (Cao et al., 2016;
metals can be achieved by using different microorganisms. Zhang et al., 2012).
Limitations: (i) difficulty in maintaining the purity of the inoc­ The prospective threat posed by e-waste to public health and the
ulated microorganism, and reproducing the results in lab-scale environment must be taught to the recyclers, manufacturers, scrapers
and pilot-scale bioreactors, (ii) the microorganisms require nu­ and the general public. Recycling workers must be suitably trained and
trients and carbon source to support its growth, (iii) toxicity of educated about the possible occupational health and safety issues (Xue
specific metal components present in e-waste can affect the ac­ et al., 2012; Zhou and Xu, 2012). Media publicity will also create
tivity of the microorganism, (iv) long processing time compared awareness to the public about the negative impacts of e-waste. Legis­
to other technologies for e-waste refining. lations should also promote the requirement for eco-friendly recycling of
(iv) Pyrolysis e-waste in order to safeguard the natural resources and the viable use of
Advantages: (i) the e-waste can be used in its "as available" existing resources (Iqbal et al., 2015). For example, the EU Waste

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E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

Fig. 4. Flow chart illustrating the recovery of precious metals from e-waste.

Framework Directive (WFD) introduced the integrated waste manage­ could recover recyclable elements contained in the e-waste: lead, tin,
ment strategy wherein prevention was recommended as the preferred copper, silicon, carbon, iron and aluminum. The various unit operation
option followed by reuse, recycling, recovery, treatment and proper involved in this recovery scheme can be summarized as follows:
disposal (Ikhlayel, 2018).
• Mechanical separators: Used to crush and separate computer parts and
5. Recycling of e-waste all types of e-waste.
• Pyrometallurgical treatment: After mechanical separation, the non-
Presently, technological advances and recycling practices have been ferrous metal components are subjected to pyrometallurgical treat­
established for domestic and global e-waste recycling (Zhang et al., ment. Metals such as lead and tin are separated in this step, while the
2012; Li et al., 2015). Recycling of e-waste is mandatory in order to precious metals such as gold, silver and the platinum group metals
reduce the environmental burden, manage the existing natural resources (PGM) are casted as bars.
efficiently and above all, for economic reasons. Recycling and reuse of • Electrometallurgical treatment: Used for recovering high purity copper
e-waste and other urban ores are imperative for improving the resource and precious metal slime.
efficiency (Ruan and Xu, 2016; Prabaharan et al., 2016). Proper treat­ • Treatment of liquid waste: In the last stage, the acidic wastewater is
ment of WEEE for metal recovery is essential for decreasing the carbon suitably neutralized and treated before final discharge.
and material footprint. Although recycling can result in the recovery of
metals or other electronic components, due to the high manual labor 6. Future research directions
costs and strict environmental protocols, developed countries are
reluctant to recycle e-waste (Zhou and Xu, 2012; Ilyas et al., 2013; Future research directions in resource recovery from WEEE or e-
Zhang and Xu, 2016). waste can be aimed at new technology development, process optimi­
In order to promote e-waste management, i.e. recycling of e-waste zation, understanding the mechanism of biocatalyst-mediated metal
components, at the national level, developing countries should provide recovery processes and the use of new materials, chemicals that can
more subsidies to the e-waste recyclers. Fig. 3 shows the subsidies for facilitate a bio-circular economy. Some of the emerging research topics
each part of the stakeholders and the responsibilities of different include, amongst others: (i) decomposition of waste high-impact poly­
stakeholders in the e-waste management system, including the govern­ styrene (HIPS) resin from e-waste using supercritical water oxidation
ment, producers (retailers), recyclers, collectors and customers. Fig. 4 is process and recovering resources (Li and Xu, 2020); (ii) application of
the recommended WEEE recovery system for precious metal, which new adsorbents and the selective recovery of precious metals from the

8
E.R. Rene et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 416 (2021) 125664

leaching solution (Bui et al., 2020) (iii) characterization of the resi­ insight and expertise on the research topic and for the assistance that
dues/leaching solution generated, risk assessment and toxicity charac­ greatly improved the manuscript.
terization studies for all the pilot-scale demonstration technologies
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