TROCKERS

“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

TROCKERS WORK
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION &
MATRICES

MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION

MATHEMATICAL
COMPILED BY TARAKINO N.P. (Trockers)
INDUCTION

NOTES

Definition: It is a method of proof in which a statement is proved for one step in a process,
and it is shown that if the statement holds for that step, it holds for the next.

STEPS

i. Base Case/Initial Stage

Show it is true for and give a conclusion of this stage.
ii. Assumption/Hypothesis Stage
Suppose/ assume the statement is true for .
iii. Thesis Stage
Stating the result for
iv. Proof Stage
Proving true for . Use the thesis stage and the hypothesis stage to get the
required result. Give a conclusion of this stage.
v. Conclusion Stage
State four conditions clearly:

Areas to consider

 Divisibility
 Series/Summations
 Matrices
 Integration
 Differentiation

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

 Factorial Notation
 Composite Functions
 Binomial etc

DIVISIBILITY

DIVISIBILITY
Examples

1. Prove that DIVISIBILITY

is divisible by 3 for all .
2. Use the principle of Mathematical Induction to verify that for n, any positive
integer, is divisible by 5.

Suggested Solutions

1. Let denotes the statement that is divisible by 3 for all .

When : , which is divisible by 3 or we can say 9 is a multiple

of 3. is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. .

(Assumption/Hypothesis Stage)

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

HINT

is divisible by 5

is divisible by 4

is divisible by 3

is divisible by

SUMMATIONS/SERIES

Examples

1. Prove by induction that: for al

2. Prove by induction that:
for all positive integral values of

Suggested Solutions

1. Let denotes the statement that for al

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis

Stage)

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:
a)
b)

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

2. Let denotes the statement that:

For all positive integral values of ,

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e.

(Assumption/Hypothesis Stage)

Then for :
(Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

a) The summation of k terms

b) The summation of (k+1) terms

(Bracket Expansion)

(Factorisation)

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

MATRICES

DIVISIBILIT
Y
Examples

DIVISIBILIT
1. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then
Y
for all .

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Suggested Solution

1. Let denotes the statement that:

If then for all .
When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis

Stage)

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:
a)

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

INTEGRATION

DIVISIBILITY

DIVISIBILITY
Example

1. Use Induction to prove that

Suggested Solution

1. Let denotes the statement that:

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis

Stage)

Then for :
(Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

a) . Then use the method of integration by parts.

Choose to be an expression which varnishes after performing 1 or more
derivation.

Let and

Now use

(Since )

;which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

DIFFERENTIATION

DIVISIBILITY

Examples

DIVISIBILITY

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

1. Prove by Induction that .

2. Use Mathematical Induction to prove that if

Suggested Solutions

1. Let denotes the statement that for al

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis Stage)

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:
a) . Then use the Product Rule.

Let and

Now use .

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

2. Let denotes the statement that if for al

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis

Stage)

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:
b)

(Use the Product Rule)

which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

FACTORIAL NOTATION

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Example

Prove by Induction that =(n+1)!-1 for all

Suggested Solution

2. Let denotes the statement that: = (n+1)!-1 for all

When :

Since is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. =(k+1)!-1 (Assumption/Hypothesis

Stage)

Then for : =[(k+1)+1]!-1

(Thesis Stage)

Proof

Note:
a)
b)

; which is true for

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS AND SEQUENCES

DIVISIBILITY
Examples

1. If , find: DIVISIBILITY
i)

ii)

iii)
iv) Suggest a formula for
v) Prove your result in (iv) by Mathematical Induction.
2. Given that a sequence is defined by

Prove by induction that

Suggested Solutions

1. i) (Use the Product Rule)

ii)

iii)

iv)
v) The proof has been worked out on the differentiation section.

2. for al

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

When :
the given condition
is true for (Base Case/Initial Stage)

Assuming that is true for : i.e. (Assumption/Hypothesis Stage)

Then for : (Thesis Stage)

Proof

(Since )

(Since )
; which is true for

is true for . (Proof Stage)

Since is true for (Conclusion Stage)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Prove that is a multiple of 3 for all positive integers of n.

2. Prove by Mathematical Induction that is a multiple of 5 for all natural
numbers n.
3. Prove that is a multiple of 7.
4. Prove that is a multiple of 7, when n is odd.

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

5. Prove by Mathematical Induction that is divisible by 6 for all natural

numbers n.
6. Prove by induction that: for any .
7. Prove by induction that:
for all

Hence Evaluate

.
8. Prove by induction that:
for al
9. Prove by induction that:
for all
10. Use Mathematical Induction to prove that:
for all
11. Use Mathematical Induction to prove that:
for all
12. Prove by induction that for any

13. Prove by induction that for any ;

14. Prove by induction that:

for all positive integral values of

15. Prove by induction that: for all

16. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then

for all .

17. Prove by induction that .

18. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then

for all .

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

19. Prove by Mathematical Induction that for all .

20. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then

for all .

21. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then

for all .

22. Prove by Mathematical Induction that if then

for all .
23. Use Mathematical Induction to prove that if

24. Use Mathematical Induction to prove that if

25. Prove by Induction that .

26. If , show by Induction that .

27. Prove by Induction that if

28. Given that a sequence is defined by
Prove by induction that
29. Given that , find:
i)
ii)
iii) Suggest a formula for
iv) Prove the result in (iii) by Induction.

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

MATRICES

NOTES

 A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.

 Each entry in the matrix is called an element.
 Matrices are classified by the number of rows and columns that they have.
 Let be the matrix with rows and columns then called an matrix said

 is called the order of matrix .

 If then the matrix is called a square matrix.
 The element of can be denoted by .
 is the row in which the element is found and represent the column in which the
element is found

Example

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

1. Given that

a) State the order of

b) List the elements and .

Suggested Solutions

1. a) Since has and 3 thus it is of order

and .

MATRICES - ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES
DIVISIBILITY

 Addition and subtraction of matrices is defined if and only if the matrices are of the
same order.
 The sum/difference of matrices and is the matrix obtained by adding/subtracting
the elements in corresponding positions of matrices and
 If you multiply the matrix by a scalar then every element of is multiplied by

Note: If are matrices then the following results are true:

i.
ii. but

Example

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

1. Given that and

i) Prove that
ii) Find

Suggested Solutions

1. i)

Since and

Now

but (proven)

ii)

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

MATRICES - MULTIPLICATION

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES
DIVISIBILITY

 Let be matrices. Then the multiplication of is possible if and only if

then number of of is equal to the number of of .
 If is an matrix and is an matrix, then the product exist if
and only if .
 will be an matrix.

Note:

1. The product

Example

1. Given that and

i) Prove that
ii) Find

Suggested Solutions

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
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1. i)

(proven).

ii)

SPECIAL MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

DIVISIBILITY

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
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 An Identity Matrix is a special matrix in which if you pre-multiply or post-multiply

any matrix by it, remains unchanged. i.e.
 The identity matrix of an is represented by where is the number of rows
or columns since it is a square matrix

 The general matrix of an identity matrix is given by:

 For example: is an identity matrix for a matrix and

is an identity matrix for a matrix.

 The Zero Matrix is a matrix whose elements are all Zeroes.

 The Zero Matrix is represented by e.g. a matrix is given by

 Adding to any matrix, say leaves unchanged and pre-multiplying or post-

multiplying with leaves unchanged
 i.e. and

MATRICES - TRANSPOSING

DIVISIBILITY
NOTES

DIVISIBILITY

 The transpose of a matrix is found by inter-changing rows and columns of

matrix . i.e.
 The transpose of matrix is represented as

 If then .

 The elements in the diagonal column does not change i.e.

Examples

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

1. Given that .

Suggested Solution

1.

MATRICES - DETERMINANTS

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

DIVISIBILITY
 Determinants play a major role in finding the inverse of the matrix and also in
solving a system of linear equations.

DETERMINANTS – 2X2 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY
NOTES

DIVISIBILITY
 Suppose is any Matrix such that then the determinant

of can be written as or det or .

Examples

1. Given that and ;find the determinant of and

the determinant of

Suggested Solutions

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
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1. det
det

DETERMINANTS – 3X3 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

 Suppose is any Matrix such that then the

determinant of can be written as or det or

 Several techniques can be employed to find the determinants for

Matrices i.e.
i) The Basket weave formula
ii) The method of cofactors
iii) Multiplying by its Adjoint Matrix.

DETERMINANTS – The Basket Weave Formula

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

DIVISIBILITY
 We add the first and the second columns of as follows:

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

DETERMINANTS – The Method of Cofactors

DIVISIBILITY

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

 This method can be applied to all Matrices.

 Suppose is any Matrix such that then to find the

determinant you choose a row or column to work with; for instance we are going to
choose the row containing the elements .
 When choosing the row or column to work with, choose the one with 1 or more
zeroes because it is easy to simplify.
 We multiply each element in the chosen row/column by the determinant of a
matrix which remains when the row and the column containing are
deleted from This is illustrated as follows:


 represent the row in which the element from the chosen row/column is found
represent the column in which the element from the chosen row/column is
found
 If is even then is even and if is odd then is odd. For example:
i.
ii.
iii.

 .

Examples

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

2. Given that ; find the determinant of using the both methods.

Suggested Solutions

a. The Method of Cofactors

1.

b. The Basket Weave Formula

1.

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
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INVERSE OF MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY
2x2 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY
NOTES DIVISIBILITY

DIVISIBILITY
 If , then ; where is the determinant.
 where is the identity matrix.
 If , which is not defined and in this case, does not exist
and the matrix is described as singular or non-invertible.
 If exist, then the matrix is described as being non-singular or invertible.
 If we have two matrices then

Examples

1. Find the inverse of

Suggested Solutions

1. Det
Now .

3x3 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES
DIVISIBILITY

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

 For any matrix the Adjoint and determinant are defined and satisfy:

 If is said to be invertible and exist i.e.

.
 If is said to be non-invertible and does not exist.

Examples

1. Find the inverse of .

Suggested Solutions

1. We begin by finding the Minors of matrix , followed by the Cofactors of matrix

then the Adjoint and finally .
i. The Matrix of Minors
 For each of every element of matrix , ,we define the minor, of
to be the determinant of the matrix which remains when the row and the
column containing is deleted from
 represent the row in which the element is found and represent the
column in which the element is found

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

ii. The Matrix of Minors

 We define the cofactors of as follows:

a. if is even.
b. if is odd.

 Hence the following pattern of signs is produced; .

 Now is the matrix of cofactors of matrix and it differs from matrix by

the above pattern of signs

iii. The Adjoint

 The Adjoint of is or , which is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors

of .

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 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

iv. The Inverse

 We now compute

 Now

Hence .

 N.B. This is the other method of computing the determinant of any

matrix.

Now .

MATRICES -Solving Systems of Linear Equations

DIVISIBILITY

2x2 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY
DIVISIBILITY

NOTES

DIVISIBILITY

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

 In general if:

 Then the equations can be re-written as follows:

 Now we find the inverse of a matrix and pre-multiply both sides of the
equations by it, i.e.

Examples

1. Use the matrix method to solve the following system of linear equations.

Suggested Solutions

1. The equations can be written in matrix form as follows:

Now let .

Det

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Now .

Pre-multiplying both sides by the inverse yields

3x3 MATRICES

DIVISIBILITY

NOTES
DIVISIBILITY

 In general if:

 Then the equations can be re-written as follows:

 Now we find the inverse of a matrix and pre-multiply both sides of the
equations by it, i.e.

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+263772978155/+263717267175
 TROCKERS
“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

Examples

1. Solve the following system of linear equations.

Suggested Solutions

2. The equations can be written in matrix form as follows:

Now let then

(see the whole solution under the inverse for 3X3 matrices)

Pre-multiplying both sides by this inverse:

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“Do not worry too much about your difficulties in Mathematics, I can assure you that mine are
still greater.” Albert Einstein.

PROVERBS 16V3

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