Tomberlin Et Al 2017

Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 110(1), 2017, 19–36
doi: 10.1093/aesa/saw086
Review
Special Collection: Filth Fly–Microbe Interactions
A Review of Bacterial Interactions With Blow Flies

(Diptera: Calliphoridae) of Medical, Veterinary,
and Forensic Importance
Jeffery K. Tomberlin,1,2 Tawni L. Crippen,3 Aaron M. Tarone,1 Muhammad F. B. Chaudhury,4
Baneshwar Singh,5 Jonathan A. Cammack,1 and Richard P. Meisel6
1
Department of Entomology, College Station, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, Texas 77843-2475 ([email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected]), 2Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected], 3US Department of
Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, 2881 F&B Rd, College Station, Texas 77845
([email protected]), 4USDA-ARS, SRU, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE ([email protected]),
5
Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA-23284 ([email protected]), and 6Department of
Downloaded from http://aesa.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on January 13, 2017

Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, 3455 Cullen Blvd, Houston, Texas 77204-5001 ([email protected])
Subject Editor: Dana Nayduch

Received 20 September 2016; Editorial decision 27 October 2016
Abstract
Blow flies are commonly associated with decomposing material. In most cases, the larvae are found feeding on
decomposing vertebrate remains; however, some species have specialized to feed on living tissue or can sur-
vive on other alternate resources like feces. Because of their affiliation with such septic environments, these in-
sects have close associations with microbes. Historically, a tremendous amount of research focused on these
insects due to their veterinary importance. Within the past 40 yr, efforts have expanded this research to include
areas such as systems ecology, forensics, and even wound debridement (maggot) therapy. Initial research ef-
forts examining the relationship between microbes and these insects were hampered by the technology avail-
able. However, with the advent of high-throughput sequencing and modern molecular techniques, new ave-
nues of research examining these interactions have opened up. The purpose of this article is to highlight the
research exploring the interactions between microbes and blow flies with regards to blow fly biology, the appli-
cation of such information to benefit humanity, and potential future pathways of research.
Key words: interkingdom communication, veterinary entomology, medical entomology, trophic interaction, succession
Blow Fly Biology remains (Fig. 3; Hall 1948, Payne et al. 1968), while some are
known to cause myiasis (Broce 1985). The larvae pass through three
Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) (Figs. 1 and 2) are medium- to
stadia prior to pupating and emerging as adults. Total development
large-sized calyptrate flies, many of which are easily recognized for
time can vary depending on species and environmental conditions
their metallic blue or green coloration. They occur throughout the
encountered; in general, completion of development from egg to
year and have a global distribution except in areas of extreme cold.
adult takes between 8–14 d. Adult blow flies frequent carrion (Hall
This particular family of fly is of great medical, veterinary, and fo-
1948, Payne 1965, Pechal and Benbow 2016), wounds on verte-
rensic importance due to the resources they utilize and their associa-
brates (Sanford et al. 2014), feces (Mann et al. 2015, Brodie et al.
tion with people (Sanford et al. 2014), pets (Anderson and Huitson
2016), and even flowers (Fig. 4; Brodie et al. 2015). These resources
2004), livestock (Axtell 1986), poultry (Axtell and Arends 1990),
are used as sites for locating and securing mates, obtaining nutrition
and aquaculture (Fig. 3; Esser 1991, Aak et al. 2011). Globally, well
to meet the requirements of oogenesis, or supporting the develop-
over 1,000 species from 150 genera have been described (Shewell
ment of offspring. Because of the environment in which they inhabit,
1987). Of these, 54 species in 17 genera occur in North America
and their association with humans and other animals, a tremendous
(Whitworth 2006).
amount of research has been conducted to examine various aspects
The larvae of these flies are vermiform, and outside of the
of their biology, including:
Hawaiian genus Dyscritomyia, which larviposits (Wells et al. 2002),
adults deposit large numbers of eggs on a resource. In some cases, • Development (Byrd and Butler 1996, Byrd and Allen 2001,
the resulting larvae of these flies inhabit decomposing vertebrate Boatright and Tomberlin 2010, Owings et al. 2014)
C The Authors 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.
V
All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected] 19
20 Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 2017, Vol. 110, No. 1

Fig. 1. Adult hairy maggot blow fly, Chrysomya rufifacies, resting on vegetation (photo credit: Heo, C.C.).
• Genetics (McKenzie and Whitten 1982, Warman et al. 2000,

Concha et al. 2010, Concha et al. 2011, Sze et al. 2012, Anstead
et al. 2015, Kotze et al. 2015)
• Ecology (Stensmyr et al. 2002, van der Niet et al. 2011, Benbow
et al. 2015)
• Role as vectors (Greenberg 1973)
• Control (Klassen and Curtis 2005)
• Behavior (Spivak et al. 1991, Boulay et al. 2015, Boulay et al.
2016, Brodie et al. 2016, Liu et al. 2016)
These data have been applied in various ways including, but not
limited to, forensics (Smith 1986, Haskell and Williams 2008, Byrd
and Castner 2010, Tomberlin and Benbow 2015), and maggot ther-
apy (Sherman et al. 2000).
Blow Fly Attraction to Bacteria

Research during the early 20th century that explored microbial in-
teractions with blow flies was conducted from a veterinary perspec-
tive due to key species causing myiasis of livestock (Tillyard and
Seddon 1933, Mackerras 1936). Lucilia sp. (Cragg 1956), such as,
but not limited to, L. sericata (Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae)
(Hobson 1935) and L. cuprina (Wiedemann) (Diptera:
Calliphoridae) (Barton Browne 1958), were notorious for causing
sheep strike in the United Kingdom and Australasian regions, re-
Fig. 2. Adult secondary screwworm, Cochliomyia macellaria, resting on
spectively, while Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) (Diptera: vegetation (photo credit: Heo, C.C.).
Calliphoridae) was decimating cattle in the United States and south-
ward (Bishopp et al. 1917, Hall et al. 2016). Gravid flies of C. homi- subsequent oviposition. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from
nivorax are attracted to larval-infested wounds and the navels of wounds appear to play a role in attracting gravid flies and stimulat-
newborn livestock, where the flies oviposit (Bushland 1960). ing oviposition (Bromel et al. 1983, Hammack and Holt 1983,
Infested wounds appear to release odors resulting in attraction and Hammack et al. 1987, Hammack 1991). During the early 1920s,
Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 2017, Vol. 110, No. 1 21

Fig. 3. Blow fly larvae decomposing fish carrion in Alaska, USA (photo credit: T.L. Crippen).
researchers began speculating that bacteria were regulating blow fly incubated with each of the Morganella–Proteus–Providencia spe-
attraction and colonization of sheep (Hobson 1935), but until re- cies and the combination of these four species. Significantly more
cently, technological barriers limited the ability of researchers to ex- oviposition occurred when a combination of Bacillus species was
plore these interactions and their relevance to the ecology and used than Proteus or a combination of Bacillus sp. and Proteus sp.
biology of this diverse group of flies. (Eddy et al. 1975). According to these authors, many of the results
DeVaney et al (1973) showed that bacteria-produced factors in were not consistent in their studies. For instance, peak attraction
bovine blood were highly attractive to primary screwworm (C. homi- of incubated blood was sometimes after 7 d of incubation and
nivorax). They determined cultures of several Gram-negative bacteria sometimes after 14 or 21 d. Similar inconsistent results were ob-
isolated from screwworm larval rearing media, homogenized third in- tained with homogenized screwworm larvae (Eddy et al. 1975).
stars of C. hominivorax, and infested wounds on sheep produced at- Most likely, these variations were caused by un-even presence of
tractive odors. These results suggested bacterial contamination of bacteria in the test materials used.
oviposition substrates was a prerequisite for attraction and oviposi- The above work was followed by Hammack et al. (1987) using a
tion by gravid flies (DeVaney et al. 1973, Eddy et al. 1975). These steam distillate of culture medium inoculated with P. rettgeri to as-
workers showed that the source of odors in incubated bovine blood sess the attraction of C. hominivorax adults. Results showed that fe-
that was attractive to gravid flies was bacteria (and compounds pro- males with previtellogenic ovaries and males were not attracted.
duced by them). Olfactometer tests showed that the blood containing Gravid mated females of 10–12 d old were most strongly attracted.
Providencia (previously Proteus) rettgeri was the most attractive. These results confirmed that P. rettgeri produces an attractant for
Comparatively, Morganella (previously Proteus) morganii was some- screwworm flies, and that this attractant lures females rather than
what more attractive than Proteus vulgaris and significantly more so males, and older females than younger ones, and more mated than
than Proteus mirabilis. They also compared the attraction of these virgin females (Hammack et al. 1987). Later, Hammack (1991) ex-
bacteria species alone with the four species in combination, and amined factors affecting oviposition by C. hominivorax using host-
found that the combination was considerably more attractive than P. originated fluids in laboratory bioassays. She reported that fresh
mirabilis, M. morganii, or P. vulgaris alone, but there was no signifi- blood (with no attractive odor) was as attractive for oviposition as
cant difference between this combination and P. rettgeri (Eddy et al the other attractive fluids tested including fluids from screwworm-
1975). They also tested a combination of 12 Bacillus species against infested wounds and cultures of P. rettgeri. However, she noted that
the combination of four species mentioned above. Results from these oviposition varied depending on the substrates to which the blood
studies showed that the Bacillus combination trapped only 3% while was applied, suggesting that an interaction exists between olfactory
the Morganella–Proteus–Providencia combination trapped 34% of cues and tactile stimuli to bring about oviposition (Hammack
the flies. Eventually, the cultures of P. rettgeri were found to be 1991). More recent work indicates color could also play an im-
the most attractive (Eddy et al. 1975). portant role in blow fly foraging behavior (Brodie et al. 2014,
Screwworm flies normally deposit more egg masses when they Brodie et al. 2015).
have a suitable substrate such as horse meat, liver, bovine blood, Chaudhury et al. (2002) continued the above research on screw-
etc. Eddy et al. (1975) compared oviposition on substrates worms using eight species of bacteria that were isolated from

Fig. 4. Adult blow flies on flowers in Alaska. Blow flies have been suggested as pollinators and by recent evidence they can digest pollen (Brodie et al. 2015)
(photo credit: T.L. Crippen).
screwworm-infested animal wounds. The species of bacteria were: (Chaudhury et al. 2016). These tests showed that significantly more
Enterobacter cloacae, E. sakazakii, Klebsiella oxytoca, P. mirabilis, flies landed on substrates containing P. mirabilis than on substrates
P. vulgaris, P. rettgeri, P. stuartii, and Serratia liquefaciens. Both fer- with other species of bacteria. Substrates treated with K. oxytoca at-
tile and sterile (irradiated) male and female C. hominivorax were tracted the least flies. Substrates containing bacteria incubated for
tested in a cage bioassay system for assessing attraction and oviposi- 72 h attracted significantly more flies than those incubated for 24,
tion using bovine blood inoculated with all eight species of bacteria 48, or 96h period. In 3-h duration oviposition tests, substrates with
and incubated for varying time periods. Substrates incubated for P. rettgeri attracted significantly more flies to oviposit than the other
48–72 h attracted more (>50% of flies were attracted to the re- four species. The most oviposition events were recorded from sub-
source) 7-d-old fertile females than did the substrates incubated for strates treated with all five species of bacteria. At least 72 h of incu-
24 and 96 h (<25% attraction). Significantly more fertile females bation seems to be required to obtain the most active volatiles.
were attracted to these substrates than sterile females (<20% attrac- These results suggest that C. macellaria uses similar chemical cues as
tion) of the same age group. Males of all tested age groups were C. hominivorax from bacteria volatiles as an oviposition attractant,
unresponsive (<1% attraction). Oviposition tests lasting for 1 h re- supporting the generalizability of at least some blow fly interactions
sulted in significantly more oviposition in treated substrates com- with microbes.
pared to untreated control. Results indicate volatiles from five Interestingly, several of the key microbial players in the
individual species of bacteria (K. oxytoca, P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris, Cochliomyia studies also appear in the Lucilia system where myiasis
P. rettgeri, and P. stuartii) were responsible for attracting more fe- manifests in association with animal feces in wool. The larvae of
males resulting in more oviposition than volatiles from the remain- sheep blow flies L. cuprina and L. sericata are the primary cause of
ing three species (E. cloacae, E. sakazakii, and S. liquefaciens) sheep myiasis in Australia, Europe, and New Zealand. The re-
(Chaudhury et al. 2010). Volatiles from the same five species sponses of these two species are similar and attraction to host and
were also tested in a two-choice bioassay to study landing response subsequent oviposition appear to involve volatile chemicals resulting
and oviposition of the secondary screwworm, C. macellaria from bacterial decomposition. Emmens and Murray (1982) selected
four species of bacteria isolated from the fleece of Merino sheep, sp. to similar classes of molecules. In some instances, these bacterial
namely, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, E. cloacae, and cues/signals are clearly important to numerous organisms (see Davis
P. mirabilis for their study. Extracts from cultures of these bacteria et al. 2013), indicating that the blow fly system is a useful model for
were incorporated into nutrient agar and exposed to females of dissecting insect and animal interactions with microbes.
L. cuprina in cages. Odors from the cultures of bacteria attracted At the time the aforementioned studies were conducted, the eco-
L. cuprina females to oviposit but the attraction was not consistent logical relevance of the VOCs was not known. However, within the
for all the cultures. The order of the bacterial species with respect past decade it was determined that these volatiles are associated
to decreasing overall response was P. mirabilis with highest number with bacterial activity, specifically bacterial communication and
of eggs laid, followed by E. cloacae, B. subtilis and least being decision-making (i.e., quorum sensing (Lee et al. 2007)). More re-
P. aeruginosa (Emmens and Murray 1982). In another experiment, cent research is beginning to work toward bridging the nutritional
extracts from unsterile sheep fleeces treated with these four species ecology of bacteria with blow fly behavioral ecology, as many of
of bacteria singly stimulated oviposition of L. cuprina equally dur- these volatiles are by-products of the break-down of essential amino
ing 24-h period; however, with increasing length of incubation, the acids (Liu et al. 2016). Specific examples of VOCs include dimethyl
cultures of P. mirabilis, E. cloacae, and B. subtilis became contami- disulfide, which is produced by the breakdown of methionine
nated with increasing numbers of P. aeruginosa resulting in greater (Hayward et al. 1977), is a recognized by-product of vertebrate car-
responses of the flies (Emmens and Murray 1983). The maximum rion decomposition (Vass et al. 2002, Paczkowski et al. 2015), and a
number of eggs was deposited over 4-d-old cultures. This response regulator of blow fly attraction to such resources (Urech et al.
was significantly associated with the presence of P. mirabilis and 2004). Other by-products include isobutyl amine and phenylacetic
E. cloacae but not B. subtilis. The relatively lower oviposition re- acid, which are produced by the degradation of valine (Richardson
sponses to P. aeruginosa in pure culture as seen in these experi- 1966) and phenylalanine (Erdmann and Khalil 1986), respectively.

ments and in previous studies (Emmens and Murray 1982) was Indole is produced when tryptophan is broken down (Sasaki-
thought to be due to different culturing methods used; however, Imamura et al. 2010). In many cases, the response of blow flies to
the collective results obtained from these studies indicate that the these volatiles is sex and ovarian-status specific. Males responded to
effects of attractants are enhanced when bacteria are mixed. This dimethyl disulfide, which is produced late in the decomposition pro-
was also evident in studies with the screwworm flies described in cess (Paczkowski et al. 2015), a time when virgin females are at-
the previous section (Chaudhury et al. 2010). Others have treated tracted to the resource (Mohr and Tomberlin 2014, 2015),
baits with P. mirabilis cultured in a commercial medium or a gut potentially for a protein meal necessary for oogenesis. In contrast,
mucus mixture and examined their level of attraction to blow flies gravid flies respond to phenylacetic acid, which could indicate the
in New Zealand sheep pastures (Morris et al. 1998). Females of L. presence of beneficial bacteria for resulting offspring (Liu et al.
cuprina, Calliphora stygia (F.) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), and 2016). Interestingly, males do not respond to phenylacetic acid.
Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were at- However, this could be biologically relevant, as the ability to secure
tracted to media culture. The gut mucus culture was significantly a mate would be highly unlikely as virgin females would be absent.
less effective. This is the first published record of sheep blow flies Additionally, female blow flies typically mate only once. Females
being attracted to bacterial odors in the field (Morris et al. 1998). were highly attracted by phenylacetic acid and isobutyl amine, while
In a study of interkingdom swarming signals, Ma et al. (2012) used males offered no response or were repelled (Liu et al. 2016). These
P. mirabilis isolated from the salivary glands of L. sericata and results are significant, as they indicate the presence of beneficial bac-
identified several interkingdom signals between P. mirabilis and teria (see discussion of Proteus mirabilis below), and that blow flies
blow flies that influence blow fly attraction (Tomberlin et al. 2012, are potentially responding to microbial activity in relation to nutri-
Liu et al. 2016). tional value of the resource they are attempting to access.
Research during the early to mid-twentieth century, as well as
more recently, determined blow flies respond to compounds associ-
ated with decomposition, such as indole (Hobson 1936, Hobson
1938, Dethier 1947). Grabbe and Turner (1973) extracted and frac- Role of Bacteria in Growth and Development
tionated bovine blood that had been inoculated and incubated; com- Many bacteria have a mutually-beneficial relationship with their
pounds isolated from the various fractions included phenol, p- hosts. Flies have been shown to be dependent on bacteria and their
cresol, indole, skatole, and ethanethiol. They found that a dilute metabolic products for growth and development, as the immature
aqueous mixture of indole, skatole, phenol, and p-cresol was attrac- stages of many fly species fail to develop in the absence of bacteria
tive to screwworm flies in the laboratory. Similarly, Chaudhury (Schmidtmann and Martin 1992, Zurek et al. 2000). In most studies,
et al. (2012) found that an aqueous slurry of media remaining after flies show the best survival rates in unsterilized or mixed bacterial en-
larval development to be attractive to gravid screwworm flies. The vironments, but some bacteria species enhance the development and
volatiles collected from these waste media using solid phase mi- survival rates of different fly species: Escherichia coli and
croextraction method yielded five electrophysiologically-active Lactobacillus plantarum in the face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer
chemicals: dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, phenol, p-cresol, (Diptera: Muscidae) (Hollis et al. 1985); Streptococcus sanguis,
and indole (Chaudhury et al. 2014). A synthetic blend of these com- Staphylococcus sp., and E. coli in the house fly, Musca domestica L.
pounds was attractive to females of both primary and secondary (Diptera: Muscidae) (Schmidtmann and Martin 1992, Watson
screwworms (Chaudhury et al. 2014) as well as to female L. sericata et al. 1993, Zurek et al. 2000); Acinetobacter sp., Flavobacterium
(Chaudhury et al. 2015). Further research is necessary to identify odoratum, Citrobacter freundii and Serratia fanticola in the stable
and relate the many VOCs to the species of bacteria that produce fly, Stomoxys calcitrans L. (Diptera: Muscidae) (Lysyk et al.
them, and determine their specific roles as attractants, arrestants, 1999, Romero et al. 2006); and bacteria from families of
and stimulants in host location, feeding, mating, oviposition, and Pseudomonadaceae, Corynebacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, and
other life processes of blow flies. However, it is again worth noting Bacillaceae in the horn fly, Haematobia irritans L. (Diptera:
the similarities in attraction between Cochliomyia sp. and Lucilia Muscidae) (Perotti et al. 2001).
Perhaps the increased survival rates seen with mixed bacterial en- associated with blow fly larvae and the larvae themselves has been
vironments are because different bacteria are more advantageous conducted (Cazander et al. 2009a, Cazander et al. 2009b, Cazander
at different stages of growth dependent on the metabolites they et al. 2010, Barnes and Gennard 2011, Cazander et al. 2012, Barnes
produce and the nutritional needs of the arthropod at that stage. and Gennard 2013, Cazander et al. 2013). Two of these antimicro-
Zurek et al. (2000) collected third-instars of house fly larvae from bials, phenyl acid acid (noted above) and phenylacetaldehyde, were
two common sources found at animal production facilities. They identified from P. mirabilis isolated from larvae of C. hominivorax
found that Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus sp., Clavibacter michiga- (Erdmann and Khalil 1986). Genetic and microscopic evidence indi-
nese, Corynebacterium aquaticum, Lactococcus garviae, cating that P. mirabilis can reside in L. sericata salivary glands
Microbacterium esteraromaticum, Microbacterium lacticum, (Singh et al. 2015, Blenkiron et al. 2015), which are relatively mi-
Microbacterium liquefaciens, Ochrobacter anthropic, crobe free, supports the concept that these two species coevolved to
Sphingobacterium spiritivorum, Sphinomonas capsulataa, kill other microbes. However, it should be noted that while many
Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus lentus, Streptococcus san- bacteria are suppressed by ES, some were able to survive pupation
guis, Xanthobacter flavus, and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, all sup- of C. macellaria, indicating some level of "resistance" to being di-
ported larval growth to some extent to the pupal stage, whereas gested by the larvae (Ahmad et al. 2006). This ability to persist in
Corynebacterium seminale, Gordona amarae, Microbacterium barkei, the alimentary canal of the insect through development is cause for
Morganella morganii, Providencia rettgeri, Providencia stuartii, and concern as these flies could serve as mechanical vectors for these path-
Serratia marcescens did not. Streptococcus sanguis and ogens, as well as creating an environment in which antibiotic resis-
Sphingobacterium spiritivorum supported larval development through tance is developed and amplified in some circumstances (Wei et al.
eclosion as adult flies, whereas Bacillus sp. and Staphylococcus epider- 2014a,b), but also provides further support for the concept that cer-
midis did not. tain flies and microbes act as mutualists to compete against others.

As suggested by optimal foraging theory, an inferior competitor
(potentially blow fly larvae in the case of carrion) could avoid such
challenges simply by eliminating the competitor (potentially bacteria).
Greenberg (1968) previously determined a five log reduction of
Molecular Techniques for Evaluating
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria exposed to conditions ex- Bacterial–Blow Fly Interactions
perienced in the midgut of larval Calliphora vicina Robineau- Like all other organisms, development and survival of blow flies
Desvoidy (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Mumcuoglu et al. (2001) observed also depends on their associated microbiome. Hence, to better un-
similar interactions between L. sericata and E. coli. They determined derstand how bacteria associated with blow flies regulate physiology
only 18% of E. coli ingested by L. sericata larvae was present in the and behavior of blow flies, the first step is to understand the micro-
hindgut. Reducing bacterial counts could free up nutrients for larval biome associated with the fly species that colonize carrions.
use as well as decrease the likelihood of becoming infected and killed. However, our current understanding of bacteria associated with
In fact, larvae of C. macellaria developed significantly faster (7.8 and blow fly species is limited (Thompson et al. 2013, Wei et al. 2014a,
7.7 d) and had greater survivorship (88% and 94%) on sterile blood Singh et al. 2015, Pechal and Benbow 2016). This is mainly because
agar or a modified Harris rearing media, respectively, than those pro- culture-based methods used in the past were not able to discover the
vided the same diets inoculated with bacteria, such as E. coli majority of bacteria associated with insects (Thompson et al. 2013).
O157:H7 (9.1 d and 35.7%), Providencia sp. (9.7 d and 17.3%), E. New culture-independent sequencing technologies (i.e. next-
faecalis (8.2 d and 75.5%), Ochrobactrum sp. (8.4 d and 81%), generation sequencing technologies) are capable of performing com-
or a mixture (9.3 d and 27.5%; Ahmad et al. 2006). prehensive surveys of bacteria (both rare and abundant) in a cost ef-
While some bacteria are harmful to fly larvae, one in particular, fective and timely manner. To do this, the first step is the selection
Proteus mirabilis, has been considered beneficial. Blow fly coloniza- of DNA extraction methods that give relatively unbiased esti-
tion of vertebrate carrion results in increased pH, which is hypothe- mates of the presence of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
sized to reduce competing or pathogenic bacteria, due to P. mirabilis bacteria. Bacterial DNA from different life stages of blow flies
activity (Barnes et al. 2010). This bacterium is able to persist in the can be extracted either by using organic extraction methods
digestive tract of L. sericata through immature development to the (Zheng et al. 2013, Singh et al. 2015) or by using commercial
adult stage (Wei et al. 2014a). Additionally, the bacterial mortality kits (Iancu et al. 2016).
recorded by Greenberg (1968), which was previously discussed, was Extracted DNA can be used either for amplification and se-
suspected to be due to pH-specific activities of by-products, or "mir- quencing of targeted marker loci (e.g., 16S ribosomal DNA (16s
abilicides", produced by P. mirabilis (Barnes et al. 2010). rDNA) for prokaryotes, 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) for eu-
Furthermore, what is most interesting is that beetle species that colo- karyotes) or for direct whole genome shotgun sequencing (i.e. meta-
nize carrion after blow flies, decrease the pH and their excretion/se- genomic sequencing). In marker gene sequencing approaches,
cretions (ES) kill P. mirabilis (Barnes et al. 2010). One could different variable regions of targeted loci are amplified using bar-
speculate that by doing so, such modifications would reduce beetle coded universal primers and then barcoded-amplified products are
competition with fly larvae utilizing the same resource. These obser- pooled and sequenced using next-generation sequencing platform of
vations paint a picture of microbial warfare among insects compet- choice (e.g., Hiseq/Miseq (Illumina Inc. USA), Ion PGM System
ing for a resource, with different microbial tolerances as a (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA)). On the other hand, in the metage-
mechanism by which different organisms can come to dominate or nomic sequencing approach, DNA from the whole community is
be excluded from ephemeral carrion resources (Janzen 1977, sheared and then directly sequenced using next-generation sequenc-
Burkepile et al. 2006). In this instance, P. mirabilis and L. sericata ing platform of choice (e.g., Hiseq/Miseq (Illumina Inc. USA)). Both
seem to be in alliance against other insects (like carrion beetles) and approaches have some advantages. Marker gene-based sequencing
bacteria (those killed by "mirabilicides"). approaches are comparatively cheap, provide information on both
Since this initial work, a tremendous amount of research explor- rare and abundant microbial taxa, and are easy to analyze (as user
ing the antimicrobial properties of the ES produced by bacteria friendly bioinformatics pipelines are freely available (e.g., QIIME
(Caporaso et al. 2010), mothur (Schloss et al. 2009), RDPipeline Enterobacteriaceae. It can be an opportunistic pathogen living in
(Cole et al. 2014)). Metagenomic sequencing approaches provide in- soil, water, and sewage, causing diarrhea with fever and tachycar-
formation not only on microbial community structure but also on dia, and leading to low blood pressure. The other Proteobacterium,
microbial function, and avoid PCR-based biases associated with Ignatzchineria was first isolated as the dominant species in the ante-
marker gene approaches (Lee et al. 2012). Recovery of rare taxa re- rior portion of the digestive tract in larval Wohlfahrtia magnifica
quires high sequencing depth in metagenomic sequencing Schiner (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) flesh flies (Toth et al. 2006, Gupta
approaches, which ultimately increases sequencing cost, and compli- et al. 2011). This species has been associated with myiasis, but was
cates already complicated metagenomic data analysis pipelines not generally associated with severe human disease until reports in
(Sharpton 2014). One method for balancing the advantages of both which it was isolated in cases of bacteremia and urinary tract infec-
methods is to use single-molecule information to extrapolate the tion (Maurin et al. 2007, Roudiere et al. 2007, Barker et al. 2014,
metagenomic gene content by using prior knowledge of sequenced Le Brun et al. 2015). Neither the mechanism nor the epidemiology
bacterial genomes (Langille et al. 2013). Given the importance of of an Ignatzchineria infection has been defined and the cases were
blow fly interactions with microbes, we predict many more studies all associated with a corresponding fly larvae infestation where
of microbial communities in blow flies in the coming years. Ignatzchineria was isolated concurrent with other bacteria, such as
Enterococcus and Providencia (Le Brun et al. 2015). Lactobacillus
is a Firmicute that is a member of the lactic acid bacterial group.
These bacteria constitute a major portion of the microbiota of the
Bacteria Associated With Blow Flies gut and other body sites. They produce alcohol and lactic acid from
Blow flies and other filth flies (e.g., Sarcophagidae and Muscidae) sugars which lowers pH and that controlled fermentation is ex-
use decaying organic matter for nutrition and larval habitat and ploited by industry in the production of items such as yogurts, beer,

thus often interact with and transmit pathogens of human disease. sourdough bread, cider, other fermented foods and animal feeds. It
The US Federal Drug Administration identified 21 filth fly species as is worth noting that this genus was also found in high relative abun-
significant threats to human health (Olsen 1998). These flies are syn- dance in the remarkably microbe-depauperate L. sericata salivary
anthropic and thus have preferential associations with human popu- gland, along with Proteus (Singh et al. 2015). In combination, the
lations, increasing the risk for pathogenic bacterial transfer (Polvony metabolic by-products of these two groups would be expected to
1971, Greenberg 1973). Many bacteria, pathogens included, can ex- neutralize one another, which may be important to salivary gland
ist in biofilms (i.e., complex structures composed of components function. Lactobacillus can also inhibit the activity of other microor-
that include proteins, glycoproteins, DNA, and carbohydrates that ganisms by producing bacteriocins with antimicrobial and antifun-
are constructed by microbes as a habitat (Costerton 2007)) in facili- gal properties (Inglin et al. 2015).
ties such as hospitals that flies can easily interact with just by con- In contrast to their role in transmission of bacteria, blow flies
tact, and can lead to large numbers of human bacterial infections may also actively participate in the eradication of pathogens. Early
(Barraud et al. 2009). Additionally, these flies can harbor and trans- on, the ES of blow flies were determined to contain bactericidal sub-
fer antibiotic resistant bacteria, some with multidrug resistance stances (Greenberg et al. 1970). Lucilia sericata larvae are used to
(Graham et al. 2009). Despite the importance of the blow fly to car- debride wounds and contain substances with antimicrobial proper-
rion decomposition and to pathogen dispersal, very little has been ties (Blueman and Bousfield 2012), such as a DNAse capable of
done to investigate their microbiomes. In addition to studies noted degrading genomic bacterial DNA (Brown et al. 2012). Flies also
above, Caballero et al. (1996) documented by culture technique the produce insect defensins (i.e. lucifensin; Cerovsky et al. 2010) with
bacterial content of C. hominivorax during sheep myiasis. The most antimicrobial properties, and some bacteria that flies carry are capa-
prominent genera were Escherichia, Proteus, Providencia, ble of killing other bacteria, such as Proteus sp., which produce mir-
Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. Singh et al. (2015) compared abilicides (i.e. phenylacetic acid and phenylacetaldehyde; Erdmann
the bacterial community structure associated with different stages of and Khalil 1986). Additionally, larvae express lysozymes in their
L. sericata and L. cuprina from colony raised flies reared on beef midgut, which kill bacteria during their passage through the midgut
liver, using metgenomic analyses. They determined that the majority (Valachova et al. 2014). Some of these compounds appear to have
of bacteria came from the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and selective capabilities; the ES of L. sericata was more effective against
Bacteriodetes. Proteobacteria is a Gram-negative phylum that con- Gram-positive bacteria, like Staphylococcus aureus, than against
tains many pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Wolbachia, Gram-negative bacteria, like Proteus sp. and Pseudomonas sp.
Bordetella, and Salmonella. Bacteria from this phylum encompass a (Jaklic et al. 2008). Many questions remain about how these com-
wide variety of metabolic capabilities, including chemoautotrophs pounds are deployed. For example, do flies use ES compounds to se-
that utilize hydrogen gas, ammonia, and methane during the decom- lectively control the microbial community structure in their
position of organic matter. The Firmicutes are a group of Gram- environment to their own advantage, such as to deter predators and
positive bacteria with low –G þ C content. Many are very resistant competitors or attract mates?
to environmental desiccation and often produce endospores to sur-
vive extreme conditions. This phylum contains pathogens such as
Clostridia and Bacilli. Bacteriodetes are Gram-negative rod shaped
bacteria that are also widely distributed in the environment. While
Horizontal and Vertical Transmission
they can be opportunistic pathogens but most are not pathogenic. Microbes have limited ability for dispersal by self-propelled motility
Most bacterial genera identified in the Singh study were shared (e.g. flagella, axial filament, or gliding); and instead rely on other
amongst the two fly species (L. sericata and L. cuprina) investigated means for spatial and temporal transmission. Horizontal transmis-
(Singh et al. 2015). Providencia, Ignatzchineria, and Lactobacillus sion of microbes is the passage of the symbiont from one host to an-
constituted several of the most dominant populations shared be- other unrelated host, and vertical transmission of microbes is the
tween the two species. Providencia, already noted above as a key passage of the symbiont from parents to offspring (Fine 1975). A
component of the blow fly microbiome, is a member of the family well-studied alpha-proteobacteria that is vertically transmitted
among a variety of arthropods, including some blow flies, is In an interesting study by Pechal (2012), the microbiome associated
Wolbachia (Stouthamer et al. 1999, Baudry et al. 2003, Mingchay with decomposing swine carcasses that were accessible to flies or in
et al. 2014). Studies suggest that a benefit of vertically-transmitted which the flies were excluded was characterized over five days. They
infection is the prevention of more virulent infection, by horizontally demonstrated significant changes in the bacterial community during
transmitted organisms (Lively et al. 2005). Wolbachia also has the decomposition between insect access and exclusion carcasses. When
capability to cause reproductive isolation between infected and flies were not present, Proteobacteria was a dominant taxon
uninfected flies, although no such evidence for Wolbachia-induced throughout the 5-d sampling period, whereas relative abundance of
reproductive isolation has been documented in blow flies (Baudry Firmicutes decreased as decomposition progressed. However, when
et al. 2003, Mingchay et al. 2014). flies were present, the opposite occurred, as Proteobacteria de-
Horizontal transmission of pathogenic bacteria by the exterior creased over time and Firmicutes became the dominant taxon by the
surfaces and mouthparts, of flies, along with internal transfer via fe- fifth day of decomposition. At the genus level, Psychrobacter and
ces and vomit has long been known to occur in many fly species Moraxella were dominant for both exclusion and access carcasses.
(Förster et al. 2007, 2009; Pava-Ripoll et al. 2012). Blaak et al. But other bacterial succession patterns differed as decomposition
(2014) demonstrated the horizontal acquisition of Escherichia coli progressed. Without insect access, Aeromonas and Shewanellaceae
with extended-spectrum antibiotic resistance to most beta-lactam were detected only on the first day, Peptostretpococcus was detected
antibiotics by blow flies at a poultry facility. Horizontal transmis- only on the fifth day and Proteus transitioned to the dominant taxon
sion of various bacteria in blow flies was recently assessed in a meta- by the third and fifth day. When insects were present, Providencia
genomic study of L. sericata and L. cuprina, that characterized and was dominant on the first and third day, but Bacillales was domi-
compared the bacteria on adult flies and the fresh liver before they nant by the fifth day. Proteus and Corynebacterium were present on
oviposited on it, followed by the resulting larvae and the aged liver the third day of decomposition, but by the fifth day, Psychrobacillus

after larval development (Singh et al. 2015). Of the 138 genera and Ignatzschineria were the dominant taxa and Clostridium sensu
found, adult flies had 23 unique genera, larvae had 6, fresh liver had stricto (10%) was also detected. Additionally, Pechal and Benbow
14, and aged liver had 40. There were 15 genera shared by all, of (2016) investigated the internal microbiome between Calliphora ter-
which Proteus, Enterococcus, and Lactobacillus (all described raenovae Macquart (Diptera: Calliphoridae) utilizing streams where
above) were the most dominant. Thirteen bacterial genera were decomposing salmon carrion was a readily available resource or
found on the aged liver that were not present on the fresh liver, but streams without carcasses. Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and
were present on the adult flies; thus representing horizontal transfer Proteobacteria were the dominant phyla found increased on the C.
from the adult flies to the liver; the dominant bacteria of these was terraenovae larval samples. They shared microbial communities
Staphylococcus. Additionally, four bacteria were found associated with their food resource (salmon carrion); for example, Firmicutes,
with the larva that were present on the liver, but not on adult flies, dominated by Vagococcus, Clostridium, and the candidate family
representing horizontal transfer from the liver to the larvae; the Tissierellaceae increased due to this interaction.
dominant bacteria of these were Vagococcus and Lactococcus. No We know from previous studies that both Proteus and
bacteria were found shared between only adults and larvae and not Providencia are important players in the attraction of blow flies
liver, so while vertical transmission could have occurred it is not (Hammack et al. 1987, Chaudhury et al. 2010, Ma et al. 2012,
possible to isolate that from horizontal transmission in this experi- Tomberlin et al. 2012), but what we do not know is the extent to
mental design. Interestingly there were many bacteria (88 genera) which these bacteria are transported by the flies and seed the carcass
present on the liver that were not transferred to the larvae. Perhaps as a result of the fly interaction or the interkingdom communication
larval ES or environmental conditions (i.e. temperatures within the with the bacteria already associated with carcasses. While the micro-
larval mass) prevented the transfer of more genera to the larvae. biome of the fly was not analyzed in the Pechal (2012) study, it is in-
Dispersal strategies for bacteria include many routes, such as the teresting to note that an insect-associated genus, Ignatzschineria, was
avoidance of elimination during insect development discussed above, not a dominant member of the bacterial community on exclusion car-
the most prominent being physical interaction with a contaminated casses, but was in the later stages of the accessible carcasses, eluding
host; the exchange through contact with airborne droplets or light to the likelihood that the insects played a role in the presence of this
weight particles containing bacteria that can remain airborne for long genus on the carcass. On the other hand, Proteus was dominant in
periods, such as fungal spores; and fecal to oral, wound or mucosal the later stages of the exclusion carcass, indicating the bacteria were
surface transmission. There is also indirect contact with an environ- already present on the carcass or came from the environment and
mental substance or surface, or a host, such as a fly that retains the that the blow fly species that secondarily colonize the remains may
microbe after it was acquired by contact with a contaminated host or be responding to its olfactory cues to select oviposition sites on the
other surface (Barro et al. 2006). Ebert (2013) reviews the many sym- resource. This observation is interesting, given the non-intuitive re-
bionts, microbes among them, that utilize multiple methods of trans- sponse of Proteus to the presence of insect colonization, considering
mission (mixed-mode transmission), not just exclusively one (single- the empirical evidence to suggest a mutualism between Proteus and
mode transmission). Combinations of these strategies can enhance the some blow flies. This result would suggest that such mutualism may
likelihood of persistence depending on the ecological conditions and be more complex than the simple laboratory experiments would sug-
plays a role in increased genetic drift and the evolution of virulence gest. Alternatively, it may be the case that other members of the car-
and genome architecture (Moran and Baumann 2000, Ebert 2013). rion insect community are capable of eliminating Proteus, even in the
Symbionts can persist within a population under a wider range of eco- presence of their hypothesized mutualists.
logical conditions if they have mixed versus single modes of transmis-
sion (Lipsitch et al. 1995a, Lipsitch et al. 1995b).
The interdependence between insects and bacteria is more amal-
gamated than simply for growth augmentation. Blow fly oviposition Microbial Genomes
is also induced by metabolic products of bacteria, some of which While bacterial community studies are invaluable for providing in-
were noted above (Hammack et al. 1987, Chaudhury et al. 2010). formation regarding common and important members of blow fly
associated communities of bacteria, there can be additional valuable features of that strain. First, there are two high quality reference ge-
information gleaned from the whole genomes of specific species and nomes for the species and the blow fly derived strain is much more sim-
strains isolated from blow flies and blow fly resources. One area ilar to the BB2000 strain used to study self-recognition during
where this endeavor is important relates to bacterial community swarming of P. mirabilis (Gibbs et al. 2008, Cardarelli et al. 2015)
studies. For example, algorithms can be used to predict community than is was to the original reference genome obtained from a clinical
function from the community structure information provided by the strain of the species. Second, it is clear that the fly-derived strain con-
16S rDNA gene (Langille et al. 2013). This is done by extrapolating tains lineage specific insertions and deletions. It remains to be seen if
from the presence of specific taxa (via 16S sequences) to the gene there are genes relevant to fly interactions in those regions of the ge-
compositions of entire genomes and communities using microbial nome, but such a hypothesis will be important to test. It is clear that P.
genome databases to provide a prediction of metabolic potential es- mirabilis and other bacteria often have a core genome (composed of se-
timated from the types and predicted functions of genes in the sequences shared by all members) as well as numerous auxiliary compo-
quenced genomes associated with 16S sequences. This capability nents (composed of sequences not shared by all members of the species
enables researchers to extend their interpretations of 16S data to the and sometimes unique to one strain; Collins and Higgs 2012).
expected functionality of the community, facilitating the ability to Evolutionary comparisons, such as those described below, of fly-
ask questions like, does the community have the ability to catabolize derived and non-fly-derived bacteria will help to determine if core ge-
a specific amino acid or produce a specific antibiotic? Such capabil- nome components, auxiliary components, or both components of bac-
ity with blow fly bacteria communities may allow us to expand our terial genomes are important to fly–bacterial interactions.
understanding of the specific biological processes involved in fly–mi-
crobe interactions. However, the quality of a result from any appli-
cation that relies on a database will depend greatly on the content of

the database. Thus, it is imperative that genomes of additional blow Microbe Evolution in Hosts
fly-derived bacteria be sequenced and deposited into relevant data- Evolutionary analyses of bacteria are a promising avenue for eluci-
bases to enable the best results from functional predictions. This dating fly–microbe interactions. The approaches can take two differ-
task is most important when there are blow fly associated bacteria ent forms: studies of naturally-occurring microbes and experimental
for which there is no known genome sequence, such as the evolution of microbial populations in the laboratory. Both
Ignatzshineria commonly found with blow flies. Genome sequences approaches have been under-utilized to understand fly–microbe in-
for strains from this genus would enhance our ability to understand teractions in general, and within blow flies in particular. We high-
mechanisms by which these bacteria interact with flies. light areas where evolutionary approaches can be applied to
Even in instances where a bacterial genome has been sequenced for improve our understanding of the effects of bacteria on blow fly be-
a particular taxon, it may still be important to produce additional ge- havior and physiology.
nome sequences for blow fly-derived strains. For example, the genus Evolutionary analyses can reveal the long-term relationships be-
Proteus, and specifically P. mirabilis, has been noted numerous times tween hosts and bacteria, as well as environmental factors that af-
in this review as important bacteria that interact with blow flies. fect survival and reproduction of host-associated bacteria. When
Proteus sp. are also important to medicine and ecology (Drzewiecka bacteria coevolve with their hosts for millions of years, the phyloge-
2016), and numerous strains of the genus, including P. mirabilis, have netic relationships of host and bacterial species are congruent
been sequenced (Pearson et al. 2008, Sullivan et al. 2013, Mac Aog ain (Munson et al. 1991, Page 2003, Moeller et al. 2016). Discordant
et al. 2016). Recently, an L. sericata-derived strain of P. mirabilis was evolutionary relationships of hosts and bacteria can then be used to
sequenced and assembled (Yuan et al. 2016), revealing some interesting reveal adaptations of a bacterial species to a particular host diet or
Fig. 5. Comparisons of phylogenies of host flies and their associated bacteria can inform our understanding of the habitats in which flies live. Phylogenies show
the evolutionary relationships of nine fly species and bacterial samples taken from each of the nine flies. On the left, the phylogenies of the flies and bacteria are
in perfect congruence, demonstrating that the bacteria have evolved within each species and without horizontal transmission between species. On the right, the
phylogenies of the flies and bacteria are discordant, suggesting that fly habitat is a better predictor of bacterial association than evolutionary ancestry. Three can-
didate habitat categories are defined for each fly species based on the evolutionary relationships of their associated bacteria.
life history (Fig. 5). For example, the gut microbial communities in allow for the identification of specific mutations that promote colo-
mammals and insects are associated with the host diet, and not nec- nization, and the targeting of the products of those genes could re-
essarily congruent with the phylogenetic relationships of the hosts duce the ability of pathogenic bacteria to be vectored by blow flies.
(Muegge et al. 2011, Yun et al. 2014). As described above, the pre- In addition, host-specific adaptation should result in an evolved bac-
ferred substrate for oviposition differs across blow fly species, and teria strain that affects fly physiology differently than the ancestral
we therefore expect blow fly species that oviposit in the same sub- strain. Aside from immune-related genes (see below), little is known
strate to have associated microbial communities that resemble each about specific fly traits that regulate bacterial proliferation. It would
other. In addition, the microbial communities associated with blow thus be informative of fly traits involved in bacterial interactions to
fly species whose larvae are blood-feeding parasites of birds compare the phenotypes of blow flies fed ancestral and derived
(Protocalliphora sp.) should differ from blow flies whose larvae de- strains of host-evolved bacteria.
velop in carrion or flesh (Sabrosky et al. 1989).
Comparisons of host-associated bacteria across blow fly species
have tremendous potential to resolve cryptic variation and similari- Comparative Genomics of Blow Flies to Study
ties in life history strategies across species. While the larval habitats Ecological Interactions Between Bacteria and
of blow flies are easily characterized, the breadth of adult diet Hosts
choice and greater adult mobility can expose the flies to bacteria
Genome sequences of blow flies will also improve our understanding
whose origin is more difficult to determine. For example, a female
of interactions with bacteria and the specific aspects of fly physiol-
bias in visits to oviposition sites could result in sexually dimorphic
ogy responsible for regulating bacteria. For example, comparisons
microbial communities within blow fly adults (Mohr and
of gene content and sequence evolution in the genomes of related fly
Tomberlin 2014), which may translate into variation in the bacte-

species can reveal long-term fly–bacteria interactions. The fly innate
rial communities of their offspring and in traits dependent on bac-
immune system includes effector proteins that suppress bacteria
teria. Adult females will also use a variety of nutrient resources for
growth or kill microbes, such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs).
oogenesis, ranging from pollen (Brodie et al. 2015) to carrion,
These AMPs are promising candidates for treatment of bacteria in-
which will differ considerably in their microbe contents (Fridman
fections, especially those that are resistant to existing antibiotics
et al. 2012, Metcalf et al. 2013, Shade et al. 2013, Aleklett et al.
(Bexfield et al. 2004, Cerovsky et al. 2010, Poppel et al. 2015). The
2014, Pechal et al. 2014). Differential resource use may also enable
genes encoding effector proteins vary in copy number across
fly-associated bacteria to exchange genes with bacteria from a di-
Drosophila sp. and they have expanded along the house fly lineage
verse pool of community members (Akhtar et al. 2009, Crippen
(Sackton et al. 2007, Scott et al. 2014, Sackton et al. 2016). In addi-
and Poole 2009), which may alter bacterial phenotypes compared
tion, genes encoding immune system proteins involved in recogniz-
to more commonly studied "standard" strains of the same bacterial
ing bacteria are more likely to evolve under positive Darwinian
species. Thus, E. coli from a fly may not contain the same gene
selection in Drosophila and have also experienced a copy number
content as common laboratory strains that are well studied but
expansion in house flies (Sackton et al. 2007, Scott et al. 2014,
raised continuously in monoculture, and cannot be expected to
Sackton et al. 2016). Both of these patterns suggest that the fly im-
demonstrate the same traits as their "domesticated" conspecifics.
mune system evolves in an arms race to suppress bacterial infections,
This logic is also at play in P. mirabilis strains described above,
rapidly changing to keep up with a diverse community of rapidly
where the clinical strain that was originally sequenced was not con-
evolving bacteria. These observations make blow flies an ideal sys-
sidered a sufficient reference genome to study self-recognition, as
tem to study fly interactions with bacteria, given their associations
the strain used to study that system exhibited a different gene con-
with numerous bacteria taxa.
tent compared to the clinical strain (Sullivan et al. 2013).
The growing number of genome sequences of blow flies and their
Community analyses from a broad sampling of blow flies and their
close relatives will allow for similar comparative analyses of gene
larval substrates could therefore identify specific aspects of fly be-
content and sequence evolution to elucidate specific aspects of blow
havior, diet, and life history that affect the microbial communities
fly physiology involved in host–microbe interactions. The expansion
found across species. These approaches could also produce candi-
of immunity-related genes in the house fly genome suggests that
date bacterial species that affect blow fly behavior and physiology
house flies live in a more pathogen-rich environment than
in a sex-, diet-, or life-stage-specific manner.
Drosophila, and require a more diverse immune repertoire to sup-
Culture-dependent and DNA sequencing approaches have re-
press infections (Scott et al. 2014). The selection pressures on the
vealed which bacteria taxa are associated with blow fly larvae and
blow fly immune system are expected to differ depending on expo-
adults (see above), and genome sequencing has identified inter-strain
sure to microbes, which will depend on larval habitat and adult be-
differences between blow fly associated and other P. mirabilis
havior. Comparisons of immune-related genes across blow fly
strains (Yuan et al. 2016). However, we do not know which specific
species and between blow flies and other filth flies could therefore
genetic changes in Proteus and other bacteria genomes are responsi-
reveal differences in the diversity and abundance of microbial patho-
ble for successful colonization of blow fly salivary glands and diges-
gens and other bacteria encountered across the fly life cycle.
tive tract. Laboratory experiments in which microbes evolve within
Additionally, these analyses have the potential to identify cryptic dif-
hosts are especially revealing of the aspects of host physiology that
ferences in larval and adult habitats between species.
have the greatest effects on bacterial survival (Brockhurst and
Koskella 2013, Hoang et al. 2016). For example, E. coli populations
in the guts of laboratory mice evolve higher growth rates and re-
duced motility (Giraud et al. 2008, Lee et al. 2010). Evolution ex-
Functional Genomics as a Tool to Understand
periments involving bacteria within blow fly larvae and adults Blow Fly–Bacteria Interactions
therefore have tremendous potential to reveal specific bacterial traits Sequenced blow fly genomes also open up new possibilities for ex-
that are adaptive to the fly digestive tract or salivary glands. periments that interrogate the effect of bacteria exposure on fly
Sequencing of bacteria strains that evolved within blow flies would physiology. Numerous studies on blow flies and their relatives have
demonstrated that the expression of genes encoding AMPs is up- and Firmicutes (30–70%; dominated by Enterococaceae,
regulated upon exposure to bacteria, but sequenced genomes now Lachnospiraceae, and Ruminococaceae)) and less so by
allow for the identification of novel recognition and effector compo- Proteobacteria (5–25%; dominated by Enterobacteriaceae) and
nents of the immune system and other genes involved in the physio- Actinobacteria (<10% dominated by Bifidobacteriaceae).
logical response to bacteria exposure through genome-wide analyses Interestingly, the absence of these gut microbes resulted in a thinner
of gene expression (Joyner et al. 2013, Nayduch et al. 2013, Poppel layer of olfactory cilia, a reduced epithelial cell turnover rate and a
et al. 2015, Sackton et al. 2016). For example, 47 expressed AMPs reduced expression of many genes associated with the olfactory sig-
were identified in a high throughput RNA sequencing experiment in nal transduction pathway. Thus, the microbial community structure
which L. sericata larvae were infected with P. aeruginosa and S. au- may indeed influence the odor sensory capabilities of its host. Flies
reus (Poppel et al. 2015). The activities of 23 of these AMPs were use the olfactory sensilla and receptors on their antenna and maxil-
tested against a panel of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria, and lary palps to smell odors and locate resources (Shanbhag et al. 1999,
their effects varied across AMP–bacteria combinations and de- Wasserman and Itagaki 2003). We know that the area around
pended on which other AMPs were present in the treatment (Poppel mouthparts can be heavily contaminated with bacteria (Barro et al.
et al. 2015). Additional experiments could determine which AMPs 2006). Could the bacteria present around the antennae and fly
(or combinations of AMPs) are best suited to be used as antimicro- mouthparts, as well as their gut microbiome, affect development of
bial agents for wound therapy or provide targets for pest control odor perception organs in the fly? Could raising flies under certain
measures. lab conditions or on specific resources, which affect the community
The power of genomic approaches to identify previously unchar- structure of the gut microbiome, change adult olfactory capabilities
acterized components of the blow fly response to bacteria can be in- and ultimately the behavior of the fly being investigated? What im-
creased by comparing multiple species or different strains within a pact would this have on the olfactory capabilities of wild flies that

species (Sackton and Clark 2009, Sackton et al. 2010), assaying exist in different ecoregions and are exposed to a differential range
gene expression in flies carrying mutations in genes involved in of microbes? How much are the host’s olfactory capabilities and be-
host–bacteria interactions (Broderick et al. 2014), or considering havior related to their gut microbial community structure? These
different diets, life stages, and sexes (Jacobs et al. 2016). These are open questions that will be important to study.
approaches will only become more feasible as the genomes of addi-
tional blow flies are sequenced and the tools for targeted mutagene-
sis become more tractable in nonmodel organisms (Sander and
Joung 2014). Proteomic Responses in Hosts and Microbes
Our understanding of the bacterial perspective of fly–microbe in- Transcriptomic analyses have potential to identify blow fly genes in-
teractions will also benefit from improvements in functional geno- volved in clearance of bacteria (e.g., AMPs) because those genes are
mics. For example, the effects of specific bacterial gene products on transcriptionally up-regulated upon exposure to microbes. However,
blow fly physiology could be assessed through exposing flies to mu- genes encoding other components of the fly immune system do not ex-
tant bacteria or the metabolic products that differ between mutant perience changes in expression upon infection, and instead the gene
and wild type bacteria (Ma et al. 2012, Tomberlin et al. 2012, Liu products react to bacterial exposure through modifications to the pro-
et al. 2016), and measuring blow fly gene expression genome-wide teins themselves. For example, information about bacterial infection
in various tissues. In addition, the molecular nature of phenotypic in flies is communicated through the Toll, IMD, JAK/STAT, and JNK
plasticity in bacteria strains could be interrogated through genome- pathways via the cleavage, phosphorylation, and degradation of sig-
wide expression analyses of bacteria grown in different conditions naling proteins, which ultimately leads to the up-regulation of effector
(including exposure to flies and even harvested from within flies) to genes that directly respond to the bacteria (Lemaitre and Hoffmann
identify novel genes whose expression is associated with variable re- 2007, Buchon et al. 2014). Proteomic approaches are therefore neces-
sponse to environmental cues. These differentially expressed genes sary to characterize the physiological response of blow flies to bacteria
could be candidates for attracting or repelling blow flies. Likewise, mediated by the immune system. Some of these proteomic techniques,
expression of bacterial genes when fly-derived species are competing including the combination of two dimensional electrophoresis with
with those that are 1) the same species, but not fly derived, 2) con- mass spectrometry (Marouga et al. 2005, Samyn et al. 2006) and
trolled in maggot therapy, 3) differentially competitive within flies iTraq (Dong et al. 2007, Evans et al. 2007), are greatly facilitated by a
(like the Proteus – Salmonella competition in blow flies studied by sequenced genome in order to determine the potential proteins present
Greenberg (1965) and Greenberg et al. (1970)), or 4) in blow fly in the sample. The growing number of blow fly and bacteria genomes
habitats but are not commonly associated with blow flies, would be in this system will improve our ability to apply proteomic technologies
useful for understanding the ecology and molecular mechanisms un- to understand the blow fly response to bacteria as proteomic analyses
derpinning microbial interactions in the wild. are enhanced by prior genomic knowledge (Samyn et al. 2006).
For example, in mammals we know that compositional and Applying this approach to different blow fly species exposed to vari-
structural shifts of gut microbes and their associated metabolites can ous bacterial taxa and strains will allow for the identification of fly
affect behaviors, such as neurodevelopmental disorders (Hsiao et al. and bacteria species-specific interactions, which are candidate evolved
2013), and that the nasal cavity, also a rich source of indigenous differences across blow flies in response to the variation in substrates
microbiota, can influence health and disease (Yan et al. 2013). in which they develop and diets they consume (see above).
But how much influence do the nasal and gut microbe community A similar logic applies to the microbial side of the equation, as
structures have on the olfactory capabilities and resulting behavior protein studies have revealed critical aspects of several host–microbe
in animals? Francois et al. (2016) evaluated the development of interactions (Shao et al. 2002, Zhang et al. 2005, Chisholm et al.
olfactory epithelium in the nares and nasal cavities of germfree 2006, Lee et al. 2008, Schmidt and Völker 2011), including the role
mice. In normal pathogen-free mice, although individual variability of pathogen proteins in evading immune detection, virulence, com-
exists, they determined that the olfactory epithelium was primarily munication, and survival. As an example Yersinia and Pseudomonas
occupied by Bacteriodetes (15–60%; dominated by Bacteriodaceae) virulence is regulated in part by proteases (Shao et al. 2002)—
enzymes that cleave other proteins. Thus, while mRNA studies can mRNA and proteomic levels described above. However, metabolic
provide valuable information regarding interactions between bacte- shifts can also be studied. It is possible to assay basic metabolic re-
ria and hosts, there are also levels of regulation independent of RNA sponses of flies and bacteria with any number of commercially avail-
that are equally valuable. As the genomes of blow flies and their mi- able panels and tests, such as Biolog plates (Garland and Mills 1991,
crobial associates are produced, these applications will become Garland 1997, Smalla et al. 1998, Choi and Dobbs 1999, Dobranic
more feasible—opening up new areas of inquiry. and Zak 1999, Classen et al. 2003, Bochner et al. 2011), which can
be used to evaluate metabolic profiles of both bacteria and eukary-
otes. Given the connections between bacterial signaling molecules
and essential amino acids, the metabolic profiles of both bacteria
Metabolic Studies and flies will be useful in dissecting their interactions. Some work
Metabolic consequences of insect–microbe interactions are important has already been done with this tool in carrion ecology (Pechal et al.
for understanding the mechanisms underpinning them. As an exam- 2013), using plates that included molecules found to be of impor-
ple, this review has demonstrated the importance of indole to a num- tance in previous blow fly studies (Ma et al. 2012, Tomberlin et al.
ber of blow fly–microbe interactions. This amino acid-derived 2012). However, individual blow flies and bacteria are small com-
molecule is also important to bacterial signaling and mammalian reg- ponents of that complex system, making it difficult to assign meta-
ulation of inflammation. In this era where we are learning through bolic responses to specific bacteria. Further, and more specific,
studies of bacteria communities that bacteria impact and are associ- dissection of blow fly interactions with bacteria using these and sim-
ated with a wide array of eukaryotic phenotypes, it will be necessary ilar tools will be useful in determining and differentiating among hy-
to step beyond bacterial community structures to the mechanisms un- potheses regarding the mechanisms regulating them.
derpinning the importance of certain community members on eukary- In addition, mass spectrometry (MS) and other chemical analysis

otic traits. Thus, it will be important to determine if indole is the techniques can be used to investigate the specific impacts of the pres-
exception or the rule when attempting to understand interactions ence or absence of key bacteria noted in this review on metabolic re-
among bacteria and eukaryotes (Lee et al. 2015). It will be important sponses of flies. Nano-scale ion MS has been used to evaluate
to answer the following (and related) questions: Are molecules like in- metabolic roles of specific bacteria in vivo (Lechene et al. 2007, Li
dole a common means used by many bacteria to regulate interactions et al. 2008). In the blow fly system, it is also useful to observe advances
with eukaryotes or is indole a special molecule with properties that in the study of the chemistry of decomposition. Forensic studies of the
are distinct from other metabolites important to the system? Are there VOCs found during decomposition are commonly conducted, as signa-
many or few metabolites important to fly–microbe interactions? Are tures of human and animal decomposition are useful in death investiga-
regulatory metabolites important to fly interactions distinct to certain tions (Vass et al. 2002, Statheropoulos et al. 2005). This literature
clades of bacteria or are they common across taxa? How do flies alter demonstrates a complex array of products produced during decomposi-
the physiology of bacteria (and vice versa)? The answers to some of tion, including known fly attractants—many of which are chemically
these questions can be elucidated, in part, through genomic studies of similar to other components of the system and include many compo-
fly-derived bacteria described above. However, these studies will need nents produced by the numerous microbes associated with decompos-
to be paired with in vivo experimental manipulations to fully appreci- ing remains. In order to more fully dissect the chemical signatures of
ate the greater picture of their interactions. decomposing remains, two dimensional (through the use of double gas
Repeating previous experiments, augmented with modern chemi- chromatography separation steps) MS has been used to enhance the
cal and biological techniques, to enhance our metabolic understand- distinctions among similar molecules (Stadler et al. 2012, Perrault et al.
ing of blow fly interactions with bacteria would be helpful. For 2015). Such advanced chemical analysis approaches will also be useful
example, in the 1960s and 1970s Bernard Greenberg and his col- in gnotobiotic dissection of the fly–bacteria interactions in relation to
leagues studied the competitive dynamics of bacteria associated with and independent of decomposition processes. As noted above the muta-
flies (Greenberg 1973). One particular focus was the competition be- tion of a single P. mirabilis gene impacts L. sericata biology, yet the
tween Proteus and Salmonella within filth flies (Greenberg 1965, chemical impact of that mutation alters the concentrations of numer-
1968, 1969, Greenberg and Klowden 1972). In this system, the im- ous molecules produced by the bacterium, including several known
pact of specific bacteria on the health and success of the fly (and vice and potentially novel fly attractants derived from essential amino acids
versa) becomes important. Therefore, they conducted gnotobiotic ex- (Ma et al. 2012, Tomberlin et al. 2012, Liu et al. 2016). The potential
periments on M. domestica and L. sericata to determine the impact of impact of such bacterial mutations on internal interactions with hosts
P. mirabilis (as compared to a mixed bacterial community) on the per- could also be numerous. Therefore, to fully appreciate the impacts of
sistence of Salmonella in flies, finding that exclusion by P. mirabilis mutations within a species or metabolic shifts due to presence of differ-
was more effective in L. sericata than in house flies (Greenberg et al. ent bacteria on the complex metabolite repertoire of eukaryotes, it will
1970). This strategy is critical in blow fly studies, as these flies are as- be useful to employ modern chemical analyses to screen for novel com-
sociated with numerous bacterial species (Singh et al. 2015). ponents regulating blow fly–microbe interactions. Doing so will assist
Therefore, it is necessary to break the impact of a fly associated com- in breaking down the roles of particular bacteria in blow fly interac-
munity into its individual components in order to dissect the role of tions. Expanding the approach to mixtures of key species and whole
specific taxa in community functions. Recently, this strategy has also communities will allow for the determination of the degree to which
been used to dissect the impact of specific bacteria on blow fly life his- single species versus communities are important to such interactions.
tory (Crooks et al. 2016). This approach is feasible in blow flies as
many of their bacterial associates can be cultured.
Now it is possible to conduct these experiments and investigate
molecular changes in bacteria and flies associated with gnotobiotic
Future Endeavors
flies as compared to sterile and nonsterile flies at a level of detail Technological and conceptual advances have set the stage for fur-
that was not possible when Greenberg and his colleagues were con- thering our understanding of how blow flies interact with bacteria
ducting their experiments (Graf 2016). This can be done at the and other microbes. The ability to sequence and assemble genomes
rapidly and cheaply has opened the door to developing a more com- Akhtar, M., H. Hirt, and L. Zurek. 2009. Horizontal transfer of the tetracycline
prehensive genetic, physiological, and metabolic framework for the resistance gene tetM mediated by pCF10 among Enterococcus faecalis in the
types of studies described above that surpass the community sam- house fly (Musca domestica L.) alimentary canal. Microb. Ecol. 58: 509–518.
Aleklett, K., M. Hart, and A. Shade. 2014. The microbial ecology of flowers:
pling information provided by the small number of 16S rDNA se-
An emerging frontier in phyllosphere research1. Botany 92: 253–266.
quencing studies described in the previous section. These proposed
Anderson, G. S., and N. R. Huitson. 2004. Myiasis in pet animals in British
advances can be determined through genomic studies of both the mi-
Columbia: The potential of forensic entomology for determining duration
crobes in this system and the flies. Pairing such studies with organis- of possible neglect. Can. Vet. J. 45: 993–998.
mal studies of behavior and physiology will deepen our Anstead, C. A., P. K. Korhonen, N. D. Young, R. S. Hall, A. R. Jex, S. C.
understanding of how blow flies interact with bacterial symbionts. Murali, D. S. Hughes, S. F. Lee, T. Perry, A. J. Stroehlein, et al. 2015.
In conclusion, due to their close association with decomposing Lucilia cuprina genome unlocks parasitic fly biology to underpin future in-
organic matter, blow flies also have close associations with numer- terventions. Nat. Commun. 6: 7344.
ous bacteria that thrive in these environments. Research has shown Axtell, R. C. 1986. Status and potential of biological control agents in live-
that bacteria are the initial colonizers of such material, and their stock and poultry pest management systems, pp. 1–9. In R. S. Patterson and
D. A. Rutz (eds.), Biological control of muscoid flies. Entomological Society
degradation of these materials results in the production of VOCs
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Stratiomyidae), suggesting that blow flies might be a good model Barnes, K. M., and D. E. Gennard. 2011. The effect of bacterially-dense envi-
system for studying such interactions. The bacterium P. mirabilis is ronments on the development and immune defences of the blowfly Lucilia
commonly found throughout numerous systems, and a compound it sericata. Physiol. Entomol. 36: 96–100.
Barnes, K. M., and D. E. Gennard. 2013. Rearing bacteria and maggots con-
produces, indole, is rapidly being identified as a compound that has
currently: A protocol using Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) as a
enormous effects on the behavior of many higher animals.
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From basic research aimed at understanding the underlying
Barnes, K. M., D. E. Gennard, and R. A. Dixon. 2010. An assessment of the
mechanisms by which these two groups of organisms interact, nu- antibacterial activity in larval excretion/secretion of four species of insects
merous areas of application can arise. These systems can be mim- recorded in association with corpses, using Lucilia sericata Meigen as the
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derived VOCs in terms of resource location can advance forensic en-
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blow flies are attracted to a carrion resource. These applications rep-
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tablishment of blow fly interactions with bacteria as a model system Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina. Aust. J. Zool. 6: 241–247.
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evolution, and their applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
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Acknowledgment partial characterisation of two antibacterial factors from the excretions/se-
cretions of the medicinal maggot Lucilia sericata and their activity against
A.M.T. and J.K.T. would like to thank Texas A&M University and Texas
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Microbes Infect. 6:
A&M AgriLife Research for providing support to develop this manuscript.
1297–1304.
We thank Robert Alaniz at Texas A&M for helpful discussions regarding
Bishopp, F. C., J. D. Mitchell, and D. C. Parman. 1917. Screw-worm and
gnotobiotic research and Natalie Gasz at Deakin University for reviewing this
other maggots affecting animals. US Department of Agriculture Farmer’s
manuscript. AMT is funded by the National Institute of Justice grant 2015-
Bulletin 857.
DN-BX-K020. JKT, TLC, AMT, and BS were also funded by the National
Blaak, H., R. A. Hamidjaja, A.H.A.M.V. Hoek, L. D. Heer, A.M.D.R.
Institute of Justice grant 2010-DN-BX-K243. Points of view in this document
Husman, and F. M. Schets. 2014. Detection of extended-spectrum beta-lac-
are those of the authors do not necessarily represent the official position or
tamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli on flies at poultry farms. Appl.
policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Environ. Microbiol. 80: 239–246.
Blenkiron, C., P. Tsai, L. A. Brown, V. Tintinger, K. J. Askelund, J. A.
Windsor, and A. R. Phillips. 2015. Characterisation of the small RNAs in
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Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 110(1), 2017, 19–36

A Review of Bacterial Interactions With Blow Flies

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Subject Editor: Dana Nayduch

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• Genetics (McKenzie and Whitten 1982, Warman et al. 2000,

Blow Fly Attraction to Bacteria

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