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(LEARN AND EARN – L&E PROGRAMME)

DIPLOMA IN MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY


COURSE BOOK
LIST OF SUBJECTS

SEMESTER: I NO. OF SUBJECTS: 5

DETAILED
Sl. No. SUBJECT NAME CONTENT PAGE
NO.

1 ENGLISH COMMUNICATION 2

2 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 34

3 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - I 96

4 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 191

5 ENGINEERING DRAWING 213

NOTES:

1
Subject Title : ENGLISH COMMUNICATION

Subject Code: S1. T1


═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Writing Skills
2.0 Reading Skills
3.0 Listening Skills
4.0 Group Discussion
5.0 Presentation Skills

NOTES:

2
1.0 Writing Skills
 Writing skills are an important part of communication.
 Good writing skills helps to communicate the message with clarity and ease to a far larger
audience than through face-to-face or conversations.
 Correct Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation are key in written communication

Error Analysis
 In order to master English proficiency, four skills are necessary. They are listening,
speaking, reading and writing.

 Among these four skills writing is the hardest skills to be developed but very much needed
to communicate one’s thoughts.

 Without proper knowledge of grammar rules, one might not be able to create
grammatically correct sentences.

 It is inevitable that learners make mistakes and commit errors in the process of learning.

 Error analysis is a significant mechanism for improving writing skills

 Error is a noticeable deviation from the grammar rules.

Error Analysis is a technique which aims to describe and explain the systematic nature
of deviations or errors generated in the learner’s language.

Types of Error
Grammatical-(prepositions, articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives, verb tenses
and possessive case)

Syntactic (nouns and pronouns and word order– sentence structure)

Lexical or Semantic (word choice)

Capitalization and spelling

Examples of Errors
Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb of the sentence.

In number: singular vs. plural


In person: first, second, or third person

NOTES:

3
Example: He walk every morning.
Correction: He walks every morning.

Example: Anna and Mike is going skiing.


Correction: Anna and Mike are going skiing.

Verb Tense Errors

Occur when an incorrect time marker is used.

Example: I was working on my paper since 6:00 am.


Correction: I have been working on my paper since 6:00 am.

Example: I go to the store and I bought milk.


Correction: I went to the store and I bought milk.

Verb Form Errors


Occur when a verb is incorrectly formed.

Example: I will driven to the airport next week.


Correction: I will drive to the airport next week.

Singular/Plural Noun Ending Errors


Often occur when there is confusion about which nouns are countable and which aren’t.

Example: I have turned in all my home works this week.


Correction: I have turned in all my homework this week.

Word Form Errors


Occur when the wrong part of speech is chosen.

Example: I’m happy to live in a democracy country.


Correction: I’m happy to live in a democratic country.

NOTES:

4
Sentence Structure Errors
Refer to a broad range of errors that occur for a variety of reasons: a word (often a to be verb) is
left out; an extra word (often a duplicate subject) is added; word order is incorrect; or clauses that
don’t belong together are punctuated as one sentence.

Noun/Pronoun errors

Pronouns take place of nouns in sentences. The pronoun has to agree with the noun that is
replacing.

Example: Tom and John are friends and he went to movie last week

Correction: Tom and John are friends and they went to movie last week.

Punctuation Errors

1. Apostrophe for plurals: Apostrophe is used to form contractions (It is – It’s) and to indicate
possession ( Mary’s book), but not to form plurals.
Example: The boy’s will go to the school tomorrow.
Correction: The boys will go to school tomorrow.

2. Comma Splice: When the comma is used to separate independent clauses, there must be a
conjunction connecting them. If the conjunction is not there, it is called comma splice. The
comma splice can be fixed by using a period instead of the comma or by adding a coordination
conjunction.

Example: The car costs $10000, I am going to buy it.


Correction: The car costs $10000. I am going to buy it.
Correction: The car costs $10000, and I am going to buy it.

2. Missing commas: Without commas, sentences can become run-on sentences.

When the comma is missing, the well-intentioned statement can turn into unintended meaning.

4. Unnecessary commas: A comma should never separate a subject from its verb.

Example: The laptop on the table, is mine.


Correction: The laptop on the table is mine.

Don’t interchange a hyphen and dash


Hyphens: Used to combine words.

NOTES:

5
Example: up to date
Correction: up-to-date
Dash(--): A dash is longer than hyphen and commonly used to indicate a range or a pause.
6. Run-on sentences: A run-on sentence is an ungrammatical construction in which two or more
independent clauses are improperly joined without a conjunction or appropriate punctuation.

Example: I have to go to the store I need to buy milk.


Correction: I have to go to the store. I need to buy milk.

7. Quotation Marks: Used to denote a quotation from another source. Full stops or periods and
commas should be inside the quotation mark.

Example: “Hurry up, we are running late”.

Correction: “Hurry up, we are running late.”

Sentence Fragments: Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that don’t have one
independent clause.

Example: When we got in the car. We rolled down the windows.


Correction: We rolled down the windows when we got in the car.

Wrong word usage: There are variety of words and phrases that are commonly confused and
misused in sentences. Using them incorrectly can change the meaning of the sentence.

Example: I excepted the offer for a higher position in the company.


Correction: I accepted the offer for a higher position in the company.
Some common confusing words are:

Affect vs. Effect


It’s vs. Its
Later vs. Latter
Than vs. Then
Their vs. There
Weather vs. Whether
Where vs. were
Your vs. You’re

NOTES:

6
Spelling Mistakes:

Wrong: Seperate, tommorow


Correct: Separate, tomorrow

Capitalization: The most common rule about capitalization is that the first letter of a sentence
in upper case. Should not use upper case letter un necessarily.

Always capitalize the name of a person, a company, days of the week and months, holidays and
institutions.

Exercises
Correct the errors in the following sentences
1. Shari was addictive to chocolate; she ate it every single day
2. I feel very healthily today.
3. I noticeable that you are not wearing a tie today.
4. My professor read my paper, she said it was excellent.
5. Slow children, crossing.
6. Let’s eat Grandpa.
7. We talks to the girl.
8. There are many peoples living in the room.
9. i went to england last month.
10. I like ice cream chocolates fruits and desserts.
Paragraph Writing
 A paragraph is a group of sentences organized on a main topic
 The cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on one idea
 A paragraph has three main parts;

 An introduction
 A body of the paragraph
 A conclusion.

Elements of a Paragraph
A good paragraph has the following elements.
Topic Sentence
A sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph. It is often located at the
beginning of the paragraph.

NOTES:

7
Supporting Sentences

All sentences in a paragraph should support the topic sentence. A combination of details,
examples, statistics and quotations can be used to illustrate the idea.

Logical Order

The sentences need to be in an order that makes sense. This can be of chronological order,
order of importance or logical presentation of detail.

Concluding Sentence

The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should summarize the main idea
by reinforcing the topic sentence.

Unity

Unity in a paragraph means that the entire paragraph should focus on one single idea. The
supporting details should explain the main idea. The concluding sentence should end the
paragraph with the same idea.

EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A
nutritious diet includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy,
fruits and vegetables and grains. Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a healthy
lifestyle. Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week. These
two aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis, will maintain a healthy
lifestyle.

Paragraph Organization
Paragraph organization refers to the way sentences are ordered and structured to create a unified
and cohesive body of text.

The principal features to consider in paragraph organization are:

 The topic sentence and controlling idea

 Supporting details

 Organizational patterns

 Signal words

NOTES:

8
Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is an important feature of a paragraph. It has two parts:

 Topic: the subject or issue being discussed.

 Controlling data: a point, opinion or feeling about the topic.

Example: Snow skiing is a challenging sport with important requirement.

Snow skiing is the topic, and the predicate of the sentence expresses the point or opinion about
the topic.

Supporting Details
The topic and controlling idea are developed with supporting details

Types of supporting details

 Facts: statistics or evidence from research that can be verified


 Opinions: statements, quotes etc.
 Definitions: explanations of what a term or concept means
 Examples: illustrations that show how something is or how it is done
 Anecdotes: narrative accounts of one time or recurring events
 Descriptions: a visual or sensory depiction of a person, place, event, activity, or idea.

Organizational Pattern
Along with having topic sentences and supporting details paragraphs are also organized to achieve
a certain purpose.

Listed below are some common patterns for organizing a paragraph

 Cause and Effect : for showing how one thing leads to another
 Chronological Order: for narrating events that occurred over time
 Classification: for grouping things together according to their features
 Compare and contrast: for showing how things are similar or different
 Definition and example: for defining a term or idea then expanding it with examples
 Description: for listing details
 Episode: for presenting details or information about a specific event or anecdote

NOTES:

9
Signal words
Signal words or transition words are phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next.

Listed below are signal words associated with different paragraph organizational pattern.

 Cause and effect : because, consequently, on account of


 Chronological order : after, at last, as long as, at the same time, since, second
 Classification : categories, classes, elements, groups, kinds, types
 Compare and contrast : another, both, however, likewise
 Definition and example: defined as, concept, e.g, for example
 Description: above, across, behind, below, near, such as
 Episode: a few days/weeks later, around the same time, as a result of
 Listing : additionally, also, as well as
 Order of importance : main, finally, least, major, primary
Exercise
Write a paragraph for the given topics

1. Computer 6. Cricket
2. My city 7. Water pollution
3. Diwali 8. Internet
4. Republic day 9. Global warming
5. Mahatma Gandhi 10. Punctuality
Correspondence
A correspondence is any written or digital communication exchanged by two or more parties.

Correspondence may come in the form of:

 Letters
 Emails
 Voicemails
 Circulars
 Notices
 Memos, or
 Post cards
Notices
 A notice is usually a straight forward written communication giving some information or
instruction to an individual or a group or the public
 A notice may be issued inside an organization or sent outside it

NOTES:

10
 The main function of a notice is to inform or making people aware of upcoming news,
events of actions
 Notices are needed to be pasted, clipped or published at a place where intended people can
see it
Purpose of Notices
 Announce social events
 Report on matters of interest to staff
 Inform staff of new procedures
 Advertise posts for internal appointment
 Remind staff of company procedures

Format of Notice
A notice has three parts- head, body and authority /contact person

Head – Main topic or issue of the notice

eg. Notice-Dance competition


Notice- Sports competition
Body – All information is provides here.

Authority/contact person- Name or signature of notice issuing authority is included in the end.

Notices-Example
Delhi Public School, New Delhi
Notice
Date: 18 Feb 2015

Meeting of Science society

On the occasion of National Science and Technology Day, the school has decided to organize a
fair. All office bearers are requested to attend a meeting in the School Library on 20th Feb 2015
at 10 A.M. to discuss the arrangements for the fair.

(Signature)

Vikram Singh

(Secretary, Science Society)

NOTES:

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Exercises

1. You are Sidharth, head boy of KIGL international school. Your school is publishing annual
magazine next month. Write a notice for your school notice board and invite write ups from
the students.

2. You are secretary of Mahatma Gandhi library. There are changes in membership fees and
book rental charges from next month. Write a notice for library notice board to provide all
these information to the members.

Office Memorandum

 A memorandum is a document typically used for communication with in the organization

 Memorandums can be as formal as business letter and to present a report

Uses of Memorandum

 To give information to someone

 To issue an instruction

 To request for help

 To give suggestions

Format of Memorandum

MEMORANDUM

TO: _____________________________
FROM:__________________________
DATE:__________________________
SUBJECT:________________________
(MESSAGE)_______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

NOTES:

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Memorandum-Example
To: All Staffs

From: Dr. Jeff John, President

Date: 12 March 1999

Subject: Annual Company Picnic

The annual company picnic will be held at Memorial Park on May 27, 1999. The event will be
catered by Fresh Air Barbeque, with desserts by Nancy’s Sweet Things. Immediate family
members are invited. Pease plan to join us! RSVP with Mrs. Taylor by May 1, 1999.

Exercises
1. Write a memo up to three paragraphs long for the below scenario.

You are an administrative assistant. You want to tell 10 people about an upcoming training
seminar.

2. The Hard drive in your computer is full of valuable files and data.Write a memo to Joseph
Magellan, your supervisor, requesting that your hard drive
be replaced with greater capacity( or that a second hard
drive be added to your system.

OFFICE CIRCULARS

 A circular is in the form of a letter addressed to all


office branches or departments of a company

 It is drafted in such a way that the information is useful and understandable to all
concerned

 The purpose of a circular is to circulate the information in it

 Whenever the management has to inform anything to the entire organization or department
, it uses office circulars

EFFECTIVE CIRCULARS
 The Circular must be written in simple language.

 Should be avoided technical terms

 It has to be clear, precise, and complete

NOTES:

13
 Circulars should bear a reference number which is self explanatory of the
purpose/department for which it is issued

PQR Limited
New Delhi
February1, 2011
Circular No. HR/02/2011/5
To all employees

A four-hour computer training program has been arranged for all employees on Sunday, 5
February 2011, in the office premises. The program will start at 10 A.M. All employees
are required to attend the programme.

Sd/

Arvind Sahni
Human Resource Manager
Exercises
1. Draft a circular letter to customers and dealers announcing the opening of a new branch

2. Draft a circular announcing price increase for products.

3. Write a circular letter to remind about timings to late comers.

BUSINESS LETTERS

 A business letter is usually a letter from one company to


another, or between such organizations and their customers,
clients and other external parties.

 Business letters are used for different purposes; like placing


orders, making inquiries, making credit request, requesting
claims and adjustment, to apologize for a wrong or simply to
convey goodwill etc.

Objectives and Functions


 Building goodwill- To sell the good reputation and friendliness of a company

 Records and reference-Serves as records and reverence of previous transactions

 Building and maintaining business relation

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 To exchange business information

 Widening the approach-A business letter can send to any place instead of sending business
representatives.

 An Authoritative proof- business letter serves the purpose of evidence

BUSINESS LETTER TEMPLATE FOR COVER LETTERS


Your Name and Address
(2 line spaces, minimum)
Date
(4 line spaces)
Company Address:
Name, Title, Company, Complete Mailing Address
(2 line spaces)
Salutation:
Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms., or first name if you know the person well
Follow the salutation with a colon. If using the first name only, it may be followed with
a comma
(2 line spaces)

Body:
Type single space, with two line spaces between paragraphs
Devote one paragraph to each important point
(2 line spaces)
Closing:
Sincerely, Yours sincerely
If two-word closing, only the first word is capitalized
(4line spaces, within which your written signature appears)
Signature:
Full name typed
Below your name, your job title
Never precede a written or typed signature with a title (Mr., Mrs., Mr., Dr.)
(2 line spaces)
Enclosure (if there is one)
cc: (John Doe)

NOTES:

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BUSINESS LETTER

Carter Web Design


24 Sea Side Drive
Fort Lauderdale, FL33302
(954)3276

January 20, 2011

Mr.Marshal M Smith
Mass Spectrum Plastics
142 South Seabay Drive
Sea Island, FL 33617

Dear Mr. Smith,

Thank you for inquiring about our Web services. Carter Web Design specializes in creating
websites. Your satisfaction is our priority. We work on projects of any size from large to small.
Our prices ranges from $75 an hour to design a basic logo to $150 an hour to design and
implement a fully featured website.

Our staff includes seven web designers who will help you to turn your image of a perfect website
into reality. We can fulfill any of your Web design needs, from developing high-end graphics and
animation to incorporating video and sound.

We realize that your organization may not be clear on what your Web needs are. Our talented,
insightful staff will work with you to develop a vision and implement your strategy.

I have enclosed a brochure that explains the four website design packages we offer. Choose the
one that is right for your needs and give us a call anytime at 1-800-543-6677. We will be glad to
set up a free consultation.

Sincerely,

Sarah Carter, President

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Exercises
1. You are a sales representative of your company. Write a letter to Mike Mason of ABC
Enterprises, introducing one of your new products or services.

2. You are a Supermarket owner. Write a letter to MN Productions (which manufactures


pens) to complain about the poor quality of the pens.

Email
 An email is fastest means of communication
stands for electronic mail.
 It is a method of composing, sending, storing
and receiving message over an electronic
system.
 By making use of emails, executives and
personnel can effectively communicate with
their counterparts anywhere in the world, irrespective of their location.

Email-Guidelines for writing


1. Subject : Give the message a subject/title.

2. Subject contents : Keep the subject short and clear. Eg. Delayed Shipment, Laboratory
Equipment Order etc.

3. Greetings : Start the message with a greeting. Eg. Dear Mr. /Ms. Raj,

4. Purpose : Start with a clear indication of what the message is about in the first paragraph.
Give full details in the following paragraph(s). Make sure that the final paragraph indicates
what should happen next.

5. Action : Any action that you want to do should be clearly described, using politeness
phrases. Eg. “Could you… “ or “ I would be grateful if …”

6. Attachments : If you use an attachment , make sure the file name describe the content.eg
‘QA report 2012.doc’.

7. Endings : End the message in a polite way. Common endings are Yours sincerely, Best
regards etc.

8. Name : Include your name at the end of the message.

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Email-Format
Date: ______________________
To:_________________________
CC:_________________________
BCC:________________________
Subject:_____________________
Dear Sir/Madam,
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Yours sincerely,
(Name)
Exercises
1. You are Mr Deepak, the librarian of KV AFA. Write an email to Rana book depot,
Hyderabad requesting them to cancel your order for English literary books and Children's
story book. Give reasons for cancellation of the order.

2. Send an email to John Smith to tell him that the goods he ordered are now in stock and
ready for him to collect.

2.0 Reading Skills


Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it, and understand its meaning.

To be able to accurately understand written material, need to be able to:

 Decode what they read

 Make connections between what they read and what they already know

 Think deeply about what they have read.

Reading Comprehension Exercises


HENRY FORD
Henry Ford is famous for making cars easier for most people to buy. He did this by
producing the cars using an assembly line.

Henry Ford was born in 1863 in Michigan. He had 4 siblings, and his family owned a
farm. He worked on the farm when he was young, but he soon discovered that he loved taking
things apart to see how they worked, then putting them back together again. He worked on
watches a lot, and ended up helping many people fix their watches. In 1879, when he was 16 years

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old, he moved to Detroit to start working with machines, though he did come home and work on
the farm a little, too.

Ford got married to Clara Bryant in 1888, and worked on a saw mill. He eventually
became an engineer. Ford worked for the Edison Illuminating Company and even got to meet
Thomas Edison! Edison encouraged him to keep working on his plans for his horseless carriage,
powered by a motor. Ford’s gasoline -powered horseless carriage was called the Quadricycle.

He sold the Quadricycle and started his own company to continue his work making
vehicles. He did not stay with the first company for very many years, but eventually started the
Ford Motor Company. He spent many years developing cars, which were made only a few at a
time.

Ford was not the first person to create a car, but he was the one who began to make them
accessible to a lot of people in the United States. His “Model T” car, released in 1908, was easy to
drive and to repair, which made many people want one. He needed to make a lot of cars very
quickly. His company, Ford Motor Company, hired skilled workers to work on an assembly line.
The car would move through the line, and each worker had a job along the line. One worker might
put on the steering wheel, while at a different spot on the line, another worker put on tires. Every
Model T was painted black. The company could make many cars at a time this way, which made
them cheaper to produce.
In addition to using the assembly line to produce cars, Ford was also known for paying his
workers fair wages. Henry Ford died in 1947, but his company is still around and making cars
today.

Answer the following Questions

1. Henry Ford was born in ________.


a) 1963 b) 1863 c) 1683 d) 1886
2. When Ford working at Edison Illuminating Company he met_______.
a) Bill Gates b) Isac Newton c) Marconi d) Thomas Edison
3. Ford’s gasoline-powered horseless carriage was called _________.
a) Quadricycle b) Electrical engine c) Horse engine d) Quadruple
4. Ford’s Model T car was released in ______________.
a) 1908 b) 1808 c) 1708 d) 1608
5. Every Model T was painted _______.
a) Red b) Black c) Orange d) Whilte
6. Ford was died in the year _______
a) 1947 b) 1547 c) 1957 d) 1967

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19
EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS

Earthquakes are the sudden shock of the earth’s surface that result in the earth shaking and
rolling. They can be felt over large geographical areas for brief moments of time. This is a natural
way for the earth to release stress. Did you know that more than a million earthquakes shock the
world each year? Let’s look at what causes this unpredictable phenomenon.

There are nearly 20 tectonic plates that are along the earth’s surface that continuously
move past each other. When these plates stretch or squeeze, huge rocks form at their edges and the
rocks shift causing an earthquake. You can visualize an earthquake by holding a pencil
horizontally in the air and applying force to both ends by pushing down on them. Eventually, the
pencil will break somewhere between the two pencil ends to release the stress placed on it. This is
exactly how the earth’s crust reacts to produce an earthquake. The plates move and put forces on
each other so the earth’s crust breaks for this stress to be released in the form of energy. This
energy then moves at a terrifying rate through the earth as an earthquake.

A seismograph is an instrument used to record the strength of the earthquake. It also


measures how long the earthquake occurs. Other significant terms to know concerning the topic of
earthquakes include the “epicenter” which is the point on the earth’s surface above the source of
the earthquake; “seismic waves” which is the energy created by the quake that causes building
, structures, and the earth to move horizontally; and the Richter scale, a measurement of an
earthquake’s intensity.

The points on the Richter scale correspond to the amount of shaking of the earth (ten times
the amount of shaking and 33 times the amount of energy). It has been reported that the energy
released by a large earthquake may be equal to 10,000 times the energy of the first atomic bomb
and cause anxiety-ridden victims to panic. Following is a chart that shows the types of
earthquakes and the rating of each on the Richter Scale:

Richter scale
Minor Earthquake
Moderate Earthquake
Strong Earthquake
Major Earthquake
Great Earthquake

If you live in a region of the world that has been known to have a history of earthquakes, it
is devised that you assemble a well-equipped safety and emergency kit. It is also imperative to
have an established disaster plan so everyone remains safe. During an actual earthquake, it is

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20
advisable to get under a sturdy piece of furniture where nothing can fall on you and to stay clear
of glass windows and larger objects. If you are outdoors, you need to stay far away of buildings,
trees, and power lines. If you are in a car, it is important to drive to a safe area and stay in the car
until the trembles stop.

There may be aftershocks, movements after the earthquake. Check for personal injuries
and damage to your home when all movement has subsided. Depending on the strength of the
earthquake, you may be horrified and need someone for reassurance. It is urgent that you remain
calm. You may be able to reassemble some of the items that were tossed about and repair the
disorder that has occurred during this disaster at a later time.

Tsunamis are formed by the displacement of water, either a landslide, volcanic eruption or
by the slippage of the earth’s plates, rock about 15-200 kilometers (50,000-650,000 feet) deep that
carry the continents and seas of the earth on an underground ocean of hot, semi-solid material.
Tsunamis are large ocean waves that flow straight avoiding any winding and circular turns like
most every day waves. Tsunamis travel up to 965 kph (600 mph), thus capable of causing severe
damage with their treacherous speed alone. They travel the fastest in deeper water, yet hit near the
shoreline at 48-64 kph (30-40 mph)

Answer the following questions

1. What are earthquakes?


2. How many Tectonic plates are moving along the earth’s surface?
3. Which instrument is used to record the strength of the earthquake?
4. What is epicenter?
5. What are seismic waves?
6. What is Richter Scale?
7. Richter scale rating 7 indicates ________.
8. What are aftershocks?
9. What is Tsunami?
10. Tsunamis travel up to_____________.
11. What is the speed of Tsunami waves near the shoreline?

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOURCES

What are sustainable energy sources? Sustainable energy sources are often regarded as
including all renewable sources (naturally replenished) such as sunlight, wind, rain, and
geothermal heat. Included in this definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind,
ocean, hydropower, biomass (energy from plants), geothermal (energy from inside the earth), and
biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources. These resources usually also include
technologies that improve energy efficiency. Fossil fuels are not considered sustainable energy

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21
sources because human consumption of fossil fuels creates a decrease in this type of fuel, not a
constant or continual growth.
Solar Energy: The Latin word for sun is “solar” and thus solar energy is a powerful
source of energy coming from the sun. For billions of years, the sun has produced energy. It is
estimated that the sunlight that shines on the Earth for one hour is capable of meeting the energy
demands of the whole world for an entire year! Can you imagine that?

Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, most commonly heat and
electricity. John Herschel, a British astronomer in the 1830s, used a solar collector box to cook his
food while on an African expedition exploring differing terrain. Today, people use solar energy as
an integral part of their lives and for all sorts of things ranging from heating water in homes to
space heating in buildings, from drying farm products to generating electrical energy, and even
heating their swimming pools!

Photovoltaic is the process of using solar energy directly to make electricity using specific
devices. Electricity can also be produced indirectly from steam generators which use solar thermal
collectors in heating a working fluid. How does solar energy actually work? The sun’s light is
harnessed by passive solar systems for heating or cooling buildings, flat plate solar collectors, and
solar concentrator power systems. The sun’s heat is used to create steam, which then turns a
turbine to produce electricity.
The drawbacks to solar energy are the large area required for collection and the manner in which
it comes to the surface of the earth.

Wind: Wind is classified as sustainable because wind will continually be produced as long
as there is the sun shining on the Earth in orbit. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun. Today, wind energy is used to generate electricity.

The modern use of wind turbines originated in the 17th century when the Dutch used wind
power to recover hundreds of thousands of acres of land by draining the Rhine River Delta. For
the next 300 years, this design was used to pump water, grind grain, and to saw wood. Now,
through advances in the fields of aerodynamics and composite materials, modern electric power
generating turbines was invented. These machines vary in size from as small as one meter to a
hundred meters in rotor diameter, and from 100-1000 kilowatts in power output. Wind energy cost
is determined by the cost of installing the wind turbine and the amount of energy produced. The
use of wind -generated electricity is growing around the world.

Biomass: Organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy is
considered biomass. This type of fuel includes wood, wood waste, straw, manure, sugar cane, and
additional byproducts from a variety of agricultural processes.

NOTES:

22
By undergoing the process of photosynthesis, the chlorophyll in plants with the help of energy of
the sun converts the carbon dioxide from both the water and air from the ground into
carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these
carbohydrates are burned, they change back into carbon dioxide and water to release the sun’s
energy.
In addition to the typical process of burning, biomass can be changed into liquid fuels or
cooked in a process called “gasification” to make combustible gases. Scientists are exploring
which crops in these contemporary times are best suited for energy generation. More efficient and
cleaner ways to use biomass are also being studied.

Hydropower: Hydropower is a clean, renewable energy source which converts kinetic


energy from water (acting as potential energy that is stored) into electricity by turning a turbine.
The amount of available energy in water is determined by the flow of the water and the fall of the
water. This is one of the oldest sources of harnessing a source of energy by humans. In fact, water
wheels were used over 2000 years ago. Electrical power can be generated from the oceans in the
forms of tidal power, wave power, ocean thermal conversion, ocean currents, ocean winds, and
salinity gradients. Most of these have a disadvantage. Specific to note are the river -based
hydroelectric dams that have been known to upset the natural wildlife of the region. Tidal-based
hydroelectric plants can cause widespread wildlife problems as the time span between low and
high tides is disrupted, and boats are left stranded in low tides.

Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy, heat from the earth, is used as an efficient heat
source in small applications like greenhouses. This heat energy can be found almost anywhere
from the dirt in our own backyards to remote wells in countries like Indonesia. In most cases,
mineral water is heated from the earth. Using geothermal energy is affordable, sustainable, and a
good choice for the environment.

Answer the following

1. What causes Wind?


2. Give some examples for sustainable energy sources.
3. Fossil fuels are not renewable energy sources. True or False
4. What is photovoltaic?
5. What are the drawbacks of solar energy?
6. How wind is produced?
7. Wind turbines are capable of generating from ________ power output.
8. What is Biomass?
9. What is photosynthesis?
10. What is Hydropower?
11. What is Geothermal energy?

NOTES:

23
TYPES OF ROCKS

Mount Rushmore is an amazing sight, with the faces of four presidents carved into a giant
rock mountain. But even a small rock you find in your yard is pretty amazing. After all, most
rocks have been around for millions of years. Some are billions of years old!

Rocks come in many sizes. A grain of sand can be considered a very tiny rock. Small,
smooth rocks you can hold in your hand are called pebbles. A boulder is a very large rock that is
detached, or separate from, other rocks. Some boulders are so big you can climb on them.

A scientist who studies rocks is called a geologist. Geologists will tell you that there are
three main kinds of rocks on earth, and each kind started in a different way. The three types have
long names that are a little difficult to say. The first type of rock is igneous, which you pronounce
“ig-knee-us.” Igneous means “fire rocks,” which is a good description of how they were formed.
Most come from deep inside the earth’s core where it is so hot that rocks are in a liquid form
called magma. Magma that cools very slowly inside earth’s crust creates one kind of igneous rock.
Another kind of igneous rock forms after a volcano erupts. Liquid magma is called lava when it
reaches the earth’s surface and blasts out of a volcano. When the lava cools, it creates igneous
rock.
About a quarter of the rocks on earth are igneous. The most common type is granite.
Granite has big clumps of crystals that are either gray, white, pink, or red. Granite is often used as
a building material, and can be found in everything from kitchen counters to bridges. Another
kind of igneous rock is obsidian, which you pronounce “ub-sid-ee-un.” This is a shiny black
volcanic rock with sharp edges that was often used for knife blades and arrowheads.

The second major type of rock is sedimentary, pronounced “said-uh-men-tare-ee.” It


means “sitting rock.” This type of rock is formed from igneous rocks that break down into smaller
pieces and fall to the ground or to the bottom of a lake or river. After many years, layers of these
tiny pieces of rock pile on top of one another. The layers eventually cement together to form
sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock also can be created from the shells of tiny sea creatures that
fall to the bottom of the ocean and get smashed together under the weight of the water.
Sedimentary rocks formed close to the shore have mostly sand in them, such as sandstone.
Sedimentary rocks formed farther from the shore have more clay in them, such as shale or
limestone. Just as they did billions of years ago, sedimentary rocks still form in the same way
today. The third major type of rock is metamorphic, pronounced “met-uh-more-fic.” metamorphic
means “changed form,” and that is exactly what these rocks are. They start out as either igneous or
sedimentary, but over time extreme heat or pressure causes them to change into a different kind of
rock. For example, limestone eventually can turn into marble.
Metamorphic is the least common type of rock.

NOTES:

24
Answer the following questions

1. Why Mount Rushmore is famous?


2. What is a boulder?
3. A scientist who studies rocks is called__________.
4. There are _______ main kinds of rocks on earth.
5. Igneous means ________.
6. What is Lava?
7. An example for Igneous rock is ___________.
8. Sedimentary means ________.
9. An example for Sedimentary rock is __________.
10. Metamorphic means __________.
11. An example for Metamorphic rocks is _________.

3.0 Listening Skills


Listening is a language modality. It is one of the four skills of a language i.e. listening,
speaking, reading and writing. It involves an active involvement of an individual. Listening
involves a sender, a message and a receiver. It is the psychological process of receiving, attending
to constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. Listening
comprises of some key components, they are
• discriminating between sounds
• recognizing words and understanding their meaning
• identifying grammatical groupings of words,
• identifying expressions and sets of utterances that act to create meaning,
• connecting linguistic cues to non-linguistic and paralinguistic cues,
• using background knowledge to predict and to confirm meaning and
• recalling important words and ideas.

PROCESS OF LISTENING
The process of listening occurs in five stages. They are hearing, understanding, remembering,
evaluating, and responding
HEARING – It is referred to the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory
receptors of the ear; it is physical response; hearing is perception of sound waves; you must hear
to listen, but you need not listen to hear (perception necessary for listening depends on attention).
Brain screens stimuli and permits only a select few to come into focus- these selective perception
is known as attention, an important requirement for effective listening.
UNDERSTANDING- This step helps to understand symbols we have seen and heard, we
must analyze the meaning of the stimuli we have perceived; symbolic stimuli are not only words
but also sounds like applause… and sights like blue uniform…that have symbolic meanings as

NOTES:

25
well; the meanings attached to these symbols are a function of our past associations and of the
context in which the symbols occur. For successful interpersonal communication, the listener
must understand the intended meaning and the context assumed by the sender.
REMEMBERING- Remembering is important listening process because it means that an
individual has not only received and interpreted a message but has also added it to the mind”s
storage bank. In Listening our attention is selective, so too is our memory- what is remembered
may be quite different from what was originally seen or heard.
EVALUATING- Only active listeners participate at this stage in Listening.At this point
the active listener weighs evidence, sorts fact from opinion, and determines the presence or
absence of bias or prejudice in a message; the effective listener makes sure that he or she doesn’t
begin this activity too soon ; beginning this stage of the process before a message is completed
requires that we no longer hear and attend to the incoming message-as a result, the listening
process ceases.
RESPONDING- This stage requires that the receiver complete the process through
verbal and/or nonverbal feedback; because the speaker has no other way to determine if a message
has been received, this stage becomes the only overt means by which the sender may determine
the degree of success in transmitting the message.

Importance of Listening Skill

Good listening skills make workers more productive. The ability to listen carefully will allow a
person to:

• understand assignments in better way and to find what is expected from him.
• build rapport with co-workers, bosses, and clients;
• show support;
• work better in a team-based environment;
• resolve problems with customers, co-workers, and bosses;
• answer questions
• find underlying meanings in what others say.

4.0 Group Discussion


A Group Discussion is a methodology used by an organization to judge whether the candidate has
certain personality traits (traits=qualities or characteristics) and skills

In this methodology, a topic or a situation will be given to the group, a few minutes to think and
then asked to discuss it among themselves for 15-20 minutes.

Some of the personality traits are:

NOTES:

26
1. Communication skills 2. Initiative

3. Leadership skills 4. Ability to work in a team

5. Assertiveness 6. Self-thinking ability

7. Emotional maturity

Guidelines for Group Discussion

 Understand the topic proposed for Group discussion


 Understand the rules and guidelines given by the organizer
 Choose the leader
 The leader will introduce himself/herself and then all the members
 Individual members of each group should be given around 10 minutes for preparation
 The group should not deviate from the topic of discussion

Group Discussion Will Judge Your:

 Communication Skills
 Interpersonal Skills
 Negotiation and Convincing skills
 Assertiveness
 Empathy and consideration for others opinion
 Ability to negotiate and convince the customers or member of the team
 Emotional maturity and behavior.

Do’s Of Participating in a Group Discussion

 Listen to the subject and the rules of Group Discussion carefully


 Understand the subject clearly
 Initiate the discussion if you know the subject well / if you are permitted
 Listen to others if you do not know the subject
 Support your point with some facts and figures
 Give others a chance to speak
 Speak politely and pleasantly
 Disagree politely and agree with what is right
 Summarize the discussion if the group has not reached a conclusion.

Don’ts of Participating In A Group Discussion

 Do not initiate the discussion if you do not have sufficient knowledge about the given
topic.
 Do not over speak, intervene and snatch other’s chance to speak.

NOTES:

27
 Do not argue and shout during the Group Discussions
 Do not look at the evaluators or a particular group member
 Do not pose negative body gestures like touching the nose, leaning back on the chair,
knocking the table with a pen etc.
 Do not display low self-confidence with shaky voice and shaky hands.
 Do not try to dominate the discussion.
Do not put others in an embarrassing situation by asking them to speak if they do not want.

NOTES:

28
GD Phrases

Group Discussion on Selected Topics


1. Plastic bags must be banned?

2. Private educational institutions: Good or Bad

3. Which child has a better future that of rich parents or poor parents?

4. Which life do you prefer rural or urban

5. Global warming and its side effects

Debates
 A debate is a discussion about a subject on which
people have different views.
 A debate, therefore, is a formal, disciplined and
rule-governed contest /competition that is
conducted within a set framework.

Why Debate?
When debating, teams explore arguments for and against a specific proposition (topic)

Debates can be an effective and practical learning tool

Debating allows several different qualities to emerge, including

 Critical thinking skills


 Increased problem – solving abilities
 Collecting and organizing ideas (Research skills)
 Analytical skills
 Critical listening skills
 Confidence under pressure
 Persuasive speaking skills

Debate Terms
Preposition (Resolution):The preposition is the arguable statement.

NOTES:

29
A good preposition :

 Can be argued on both sides


 Contains an idea
 Is relevant and significant
 Is controversial
Affirmative team: Supports the preposition
(‘pro’ side); speaks first

Negative Team: Opposes the arguments offered by the affirmative team and offering arguments
against the resolution.
Rebuttal : Explains why one team disagrees with the other team.
Judge : Neutral third party, decides which side is more persuasive.

Debate Format
 A debate follows a clearly defined format
 Who speaks first and last.
 How long each team/individual speak.

Do’s of a debate
 Learn about the topic well in advance
 Analyze the given topic and discuss with the co participants
 Be loud and clear

Don’ts of a debate
 Don’t get deviated from the topic
 Do not interrupt others
 Do not get too personal or emotional
 Do not shout and argue
 Don’t loose patience when encountering illogical questions

NOTES:

30
Debate on selected topics
1. Homework should be banned
2. Nations should stop making nuclear weapons. Do you agree or disagree?
3. Technology is good or bad
4. Television is good or bad?
5. Mobile phones are good or bad?
6. Who are more hardworking, men or women?

5.0 Presentation Skills


 Today presentation skills are required in every field. Whether you are a student or an
executive or the Chairman of a big organization, you will have to make a presentation at
one time or the other.
 A presentation is a communication from one person to many persons called audience.
Keeping in view the audience, the topic and the purpose, the presenter has to plan,
organize and then communicate.
 You can speak with confidence, clarity and conviction when you polish your presentation
skills. The power of public speaking is a key leadership skill.

NOTES:

31
Importance of Presentation
Following are some examples wherein the importance of presentation is observed:

 Introduction of a new product design


 Explaining the project proposal
 Explaining the facts in a meeting or seminar or workshop or conference
 Giving instructions to subordinates
 Quality circle presentation
 Project presentation
 Interviews etc.

In Order To Give A Good Presentation, You Must Possess The Following:


 Good communication skill
 Presentable voice
 Good facial expression with smile
 Voice modulation
 Eye contact.
 Confidence
 Relevant information
 Visual aids
 Appropriate dressing style
 Answering capacity
 Self-control
 Time management

You Must Not Have The Following While Giving Presentation:


 Stage fear
 Nervousness (Tension)
 Lack of presence of mind
 Lack of preparation
 Looking at only one person or one group
 Inferiority complex
 English problem
 Hurry to complete and go (Do not complete suddenly)
 Shyness

Before Starting a Presentation:


 Read and understand the subject proposed for presentation
 Collect relevant information

NOTES:

32
 Plan and organize your presentation
 Read the draft and revise the draft as per requirement
 If possible show it to your friend or guide or teacher and get guidance
 Have relevant examples or photos or video clippings
 Follow “PPP” method i.e. Prepare-Practice and Present
 Practice presentation with timings
 Remember the two important terms - “Matter and Manner”

During Presentation:
 Greet the audience-Good morning/afternoon/evening
 Get people’s attention and Welcome them
 Introduce yourself-I am Kishan, or my name is Kishan-(but not Myself Kishan – it is a
wrong usage)
 State the purpose of your presentation with confidence
 Start with a comfortable speed and as per slides prepared
 Keep an eye contact with all and Watch the timings
 Follow voice modulation
 Request the audience to ask questions
 Answer politely and convincingly
 Finally thank the judges and/or audience

Exercise

Prepare the Presentation on Selected Topics


1. 7 wonders of the world
2. Ancient India
3. Deforestation
4. Internet
5. Conservation of energy

NOTES:

33
Subject Title : ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Subject Code: S1. T2


═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Units
2.0 Mensuration
3.0 Percentage, Ratio and Proportion
4.0 Basics of Algebra
5.0 Trigonometry
6.0 Graphs
7.0 Basic Statistics

NOTES:

34
1.0 UNITS
SYSTEM OF UNITS
Types of physical Quantities
The physical quantities are broadly divided in to two types
i) Fundamental Physical quantities
ii) ii) Derived physical quantities
The fundamental physical quantities are described below, they are
 FPS system : FPS stands for foot, pound and second. It is British system
 The CGS system : CGS stands for centimetre, gram and second
 MKS system : MKS stands for meter, kilogram and second
 SI system : SI stands for international system of units. Extension of MKS
system
 FPS, CGS, MKS systems are used for measuring the following fundamental physical
quantities such as Length, Mass, Time
 S.I systems are used for measuring the following fundamental physical quantities. Which
are i)Mass ii)Length iii) Time iv)Electric current v) Thermo dynamic temperature vi)
Luminous intensity vii) Quantity of substance

Fundamental physical System of units


Quantity FPS CGS MKS SI
Length Foot Centimetre Meter Meter
Mass Pound Gram Kilogram Kilogram
Time Second Second Second Second
Electric Current - - - Ampere
Thermodynamic temperature - - - Kelvin

Intensity of light - - - Candela


Quantity of substance - - - Mole

NOTES:

35
Multiples and Submultiples

Deca 101 Deci 10-1

Hecta 102 Centi 10-2

Kilo 103 Milli 10-3


Mega 106 Micro 10-6
Giga 109 Nano 10-9
Tera 1012 Pico 10-12

Conversion of Units
 Metric length conversions
 Metric weight conversions
 Metric capacity conversions
Metric length conversions

x 1000 x 100 x 10

km m cm mm

Examples ÷ 1000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10

Conversion from kilometre to metre Conversion from metre to kilometre

i) 2 km = _________ m i) 5m = _________ km

soln. 1km = 1000m soln. 1m = (1/1000)km

2km = 2x1000m 5m = (5/1000)km

= 2000m = 0.005km

NOTES:

36
Conversion from metre to centimetre Conversion from centimetre to metre

i) 3 m = _________ cm i) 6cm = _________ m

soln. 1m = 100cm soln. 1cm = (1/100)m

3m = 3x100cm 6cm = (6/100)m

= 300m = 0.06m

Conversion from centimetre to millimetre Conversion from millimetre to centimetre

i) 4cm = _________ mm i) 2mm = _________ cm

soln. 1cm = 10mm soln. 1mm = (1/10)cm

4cm = 4x10mm 2mm = (2/10)cm

=40mm =0.2cm

Exercises

Convert the following metric length

1. 24 km = __________ m
2. 0.076 km = _________ m
3. 27 m = __________ cm
4. 0.65 m = __________cm
5. 15 cm = __________ mm
6. 2.8 cm = __________ mm
7. 400 m = _________ km
8. 8.75 m = _________ km
9. 240 cm = _________ m
10. 18.2 cm = _________ m
11. 17 mm = _________ cm
12. 25 mm = _________ cm

NOTES:

37
Metric weight conversions

x 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 10

Tonne kg g cg mg

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10

Examples
Conversion from tonnes to kilograms Conversion from kilogram to tonnes

i) 10tonnes = _________ kg i) 500kg = _________tonne

soln. 1tonne = 1000kg soln. 1kg = (1/1000)tonne

10tonne = 10x1000kg 500kg = (500/1000)tonne

=10000kg = 0.5tonne

Conversion from kilograms to gram Conversion from gram to kilogram

i) 15kilograms = _________ g i) 300g = _______kg

soln. 1kg = 1000g soln. 1g = (1/1000)kg

15kg = 15x1000g 300g = (300/1000)kg

=15000g = 0.3kg

Conversion from gram to centigrams


Conversion from centigram to gram
i) 25g = _________ cg
i) 25cg = ________ g
soln. 1g = 100cg
soln. 1cg = (1/100)g
25g = 25x100cg
25cg = (25/100)g
=2500cg
= 0.25g

NOTES:

38
Conversion from centigram to milligrams Conversion from milligram to centigram

i) 30cg = _________ mg i) 30mg = ________ cg

soln. 1cg = 10mg soln. 1mg = (1/10)cg

30cg = 30x10mg 30mg = (30/10)cg

=300mg = 3cg

Exercises

1. Change 7.4 tonnes into kilograms

2. Change 5.4 tonnes into kilograms

3. Convert 0.62 kilograms into grams

4. Convert 0.053 kilograms into grams

5. Change 32 gram into centigram

6. Change 3.7 gram into centigram

7. Change 28 centigram into milligram

8. Change 0.12 centigram into milligram

9. Convert 382 kilograms into tonnes

10. Convert 123 kilograms into tonnes

11. Change 31 gram into kilogram

12. Change 7000 gram into kilogram

13. Convert 123 centigrams into gram

14. Convert 87 centigrams into gram

15. Convert 7.8 milligram into centigram

16. Convert 4 milligram into centigram

NOTES:

39
2.0 MENSURATION
INTRODUCTION

Mensuration is the branch of mathematics which deals with the study of different geometrical
areas and Volume.
There are two types of geometric shapes 1) 2D and 2) 3D

2D shapes are
1) Square 2) Rectangle 3) Triangle 4) Circle

3D shapes : They have surface area and volume.

1) Cube 2) Rectangular Prism (Cuboids) 3) Cylinder 4) Cone


5) Sphere and Hemisphere.

AREA

Area is the amount of space inside a shape


Area Area Area Area

Area Area Area Area

Area Area Area Area

Area Area Area Area

Area is measured in square centimetres

A square centimetre is a square measuring one centimetre in each


1cm
direction.

It is written as : 1cm2
1cm
AREA OF SQUARE

The Area is the side length squared

Area = a2 = a x a

NOTES:

40
Example

A square has a side length of 6 m, what is its Area?

Solution

Area = a2 = a x a

Area = 6 m × 6 m = 36 m2

AREA OF RECTANGLE

Examples

Breadth

Length

What was the length of the rectangle? 9cm


How many rows of 9 squares can the breadth hold? 4
We can now see that the area of the rectangle is given by 9 x 4
The formula for the area of a rectangle is:
Area = Length x Breadth or A = LB for short

We can now calculate the area of each rectangle very quickly

(1)
(2)

A= L x B A= L x B

A = 6 x 6 =36cm2 A = 12 x 3 =36cm2

NOTES:

41
Examples

Calculate the area of the rectangle below


(2)
(1)
4cm 5m

7cm
3m
Solution:
Solution:
A = LB
A=LB
L = 7cm B = 4 cm
L=3m B=5m
A= 7 x 4
A=3x5
A = 28cm2
A=15m2

Calculate the area of the shape below


2cm

5cm
3cm

8cm

Solution:

Split the shape up into two rectangles:

Calculate the area of A1 and A2.

5 A1 3
A2

NOTES:

42
Area = A1 + A2

Area = (2 x 5) + (6 x 3)

Area = 10 + 18

Area = 28cm2

Exercise Problems

Find the area of the shapes below

(2)
(1)
2.7m
6cm

4.2m
8cm

17cm
(3)

5cm
12cm

8cm

AREA OF TRIANGLE

Examples

6cm
3.2m

10cm 6.4m

NOTES:

43
Solution: Solution.

Area = ½ x Length x Height Area = ½ x Length x Height

Base = 10 cm height = 6cm Base = 6.4m height = 3.2m

Area = ½ x 10 x 6 Area = ½ x 6.4 x 3.2

Area = ½ x 60 = 30cm2 Area = ½ x 20.48 = 10.24m2

Calculate the area of the shape below:

12m

10m A1
A2

16m
Divide the shape into parts:
Area = LB + 1/2 BH
Area = A1 + A2
Area = 10 x 12 + ½ x 4 x 10

10 Area = 120 + 20
10 A1
A2
Area = 140m2

12 16-12 =4

Exercise problems

Find the area of the shapes below:

(1)
(2)
10cm
6.3m

8cm
10.2 m

NOTES:

44
18m
(3)

12m

AREA OF CIRCLE 25m

Examples

Find the area of the circles below:

1)
2)

20 cm 2.7m
Solution:
Solution:
A=r 2
A=r2
r = 10
r = 1.35m
A = 3.14 x 10 x 10
A = 3.14 x 1.35 x 1.35
A = 314 cm2
A = 5.72m2 (to 2 d.p)

NOTES:

45
3)

7cm

12cm

Split the shape into two areas.

Area = A1 + A2

Area = LB + ½  r 2.

L = 12 B=7 r = 3.5

A = 12 x 7 + ½ x 3.14 x 3.5 x 3.5

A = 84 + 19.23

A = 103.2cm 2. (to 1 d.p)

Exercise problems

Find the area of the shapes below:

(3)
(1)
(2) 6.3
m
4.2cm
7cm

6.7cm
VOLUME OF CYLINDER

Volume of cylinder = Area of base x vertical height


r
Volume of cylinder = π r h 2

NOTES:

46
Examples

Find the volume of a cylinder tin of radius 5 cm and height 14 cm.

Volume of cylinder = π r2h

= π*52*14

=1100cm3

So the volume is 1100cm3

VOLUME OF A CONE

Here the vertical height and radius of cylinder

& cones are same.

3(volume of cone) = volume of cylinder h

3(V) = π r2h
r
V = 1/3 π r2h

A Cone is a three dimensional solid with a circular base and a curved surface that gradually
narrows to a vertex.

+ + =

Volume of a Cone

NOTES:

47
Examples

Find the volume of a cone whose base radius is 2.1 cm and height 6 cm.

Volume of a cone

So the volume is 27.72cm ³

VOLUME OF SPHERE

Here the vertical height and radius of cone are same

as radius of sphere.

4(volume of cone) = volume of Sphere


r
2 3
4(1/3πr h ) = 4( 1/3πr ) = V

V = 4/3 π r3

Examples:

1) Find the volume of a sphere of radius 9.6 m, rounding your answer to two decimal places.

Solution:
4 3
V πr
3
4 3
 xπx9.6
3
4
 xπx884.736
3
 3705.97

So, the volume is 3705.97m3

Exercise problems

1) Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius r=1 m and height h=2 m.

2) Find the volume of a cone with a radius r=1 m and height h=1 m

3) Find the volume of a sphere of radius 15.6 m, rounding your answer to two decimal places.

NOTES:

48
4) Base area and volume of a solid right circular cylinder are 13.86
sq.cm, and 69.3cu.cm respectively. Find its height and radius.

5) The volume of a solid right circular cone is 4928 cu. cm. If its
height is 24 cm, then find the radius of the cone.

VOLUME OF CUBE

Cubic Meter (m3)

Volume is length by length by length, so the basic unit of volume is a cube that is 1 meter
on each side.

The Unit is written m3 (cubic meters).

So, a cube that is 1 meter on each side is a cubic meter (m3) ...

... and that is also equal to 1,000 liters.

1 m3 = 1,000 Liters

Volume of cube Vcube = a3 = a × a × a

Example:
Find the volume if the length of one side is 2 cm

Solution:

Vcube = 23
Vcube = 2 × 2 × 2
Vcube = 8 cm3

Exercises

1) Find the volume if the length of one side is 3 cm

2) Find the volume if the length of one side is 3/2 cm

3) What is the volume of a cube of side 7 cm?

VOLUME OF CUBOID (RECTANGULAR PRISM)

A cuboid is a 3 dimensional shape.


There are 3 different measurements:
Length, Width, Height

NOTES:

49
The volume is found using the formula:
Volume = Length × Width × Height

Which is usually shortened to?


V=l×w×h

Example: Lengths in meters (m):


Given:

L=10m, W=5m, H=4m

Solution:

Volume = Length × Width × Height

The volume is:

10m×5m×4m = 200 m3

Exercises:

1) Find the volume of a brick 30 cm by 25 cm by 10 cm.

2) What is the volume of the cuboid (rectangular prism)?

VOLUME OF HEMISPHERE

A Hemisphere is a half sphere, one half of a sphere or globe that is divided by a plane passing
through its center

Examples:

Find the volume of a hemisphere having the radius of 7 cm.

Solution:

Formula to find the volume = (2/3) π r3

= (2/3) x π x 73
= 718.66 cm3

NOTES:

50
Exercises:

1) How many litres of milk can a hemispherical bowl of diameter 10.5 cm hold?

2) A hemispherical tank is made up of an iron sheet 1 cm thick. If the inner radius is 1 m then
find the volume of the iron used to make the tank.

3) A right circular cylinder having diameter 12 cm and height 15 cm is full with ice cream.
The ice cream is to be filled in comes of height 12 cm and diameter 6 cm having a
hemispherical shape on the top. Find the number of such cones which can be filled with
ice cream.

3.0 PERCENTAGE AND FRACTIONS


Percentage:
Percentages are measures out of a 100.

Finding Fifty Percent (50%)

• 50% is the easiest percentage to find.

• All you have to do is halve your number.

Example:

Find the 50% of 70

70 / 2 = 35

The reason you divide by two is because there are two fifties in one hundred.

Finding the percent of a Number :( 1)

Solved examples:

1) Find 60 % of 180?

First: divide percent by 100.

For example above: 60/100 = 0.60.

Second: multiply 0.60 by your number

0.60*180 = 108.00

Answer: 108

NOTES:

51
2) Find 5 % of 70?

=5/100= 0∙05

= 0∙05*70=3∙5

Answer: 3.5

Finding the percent of a Number :( 2)

1) 30% of what is 12.

(30/100)*X = 12

3 * X = 12
10
3*X = 12*10

X = 120/3

X=40.

SO 30% of 40 is 12.

2) 25% of what is 15.

(25/100)*X=15

5 * X =15
20
X=60
SO 25% of 60 is 15.

Finding the percent of a Number :( 3)

Solved examples:

1) 15 is? Percent of 60

15=X * 60

X=15/60

X=0.25

X=25%

In a class of 30 students, 12 are girls. What percent of the class is girls?

NOTES:

52
Total students =30

Percent of girls =12/30

=0.4 =40%

Exercise Problems:

1) There were 30 questions on a test. If a student got 80% correct, how many questions did he get
correct?

2) 23% of the 600 students at SMMS take band. How many students are taking band?

3) In a school, 25 % of the teachers teach basic math. If there are 50 basic math teachers, how
many teachers are there in the school?

4) 24 students in a class took an algebra test. If 18 students passed the test, what percent do not
pass?

5) Nova school students are good players of Soccer. They won 16 games out of 20 played. Find
the percentage of games won by Nova school students.

6) In a play school, 12 balls are red, 14 balls are green, 16 balls are white and 8 balls are blue.
Find the percentage of i) Blue balls and ii) White balls

7) In a garden, 20% of trees are Guava, 35% of trees are Orange and rests of the trees are Mango.
If there are 500 trees in total, find the number of Mango trees.

8) What is the percentage of the squares of the first ten natural numbers?

9) A booklet has 10 pages with the following numbers of words: 271, 354, 296, 301, 333, 326,
285, 298, 287 and 314 what is the percentage of words per page?

DECIMAL – PERCENT:

 To write a decimal as a percent, multiply it by 100, then add on the % symbol.


 To multiply a decimal by 100, move the decimal point two places to the right.
 Do not forget to include the percent symbol when writing a percent.

NOTES:

53
Examples:

Write each decimal as a percent: .93, .08, .67, .41

Decimal Percent

.93 93%

.08 08%

.67 67%

.41 41%

FRACTION - DECIMAL:

To write a Fraction as a Decimal is to divide its numerator by its denominator

Examples:

FRACTION DECIMAL

7/8 .875

9/11 .81

4/9 .4

DECIMAL-FRACTION:

Examples:

DECIMAL FRACTION LOWEST TERMS

0.625 625/1000 5/8

0.75 75/100 3/4

PRECENT – DECIMAL:

To write a percent as a decimal follow these steps:

1. Remove the percent symbol.

2. Move the decimal point two places to the left, adding in zeros as needed.

Examples:

Convert Percent into Decimal:

NOTES:

54
Percent Decimal

55% .55

7% .07

81.7% .817

41.7% .417

FRACTION –PERCENT:

 To write a fraction as a percent, we can convert it to an equivalent fraction with a


denominator of 100
 Another way to write a fraction as a percent is to divide its numerator by its denominator,
then convert the resulting decimal to a percent

Example:

FRACTION EQUIVALENT FRACTION PERCENT

19/20 19*5/20*5=95/100 95%

(OR)

19/20 19/20=.95 95%

PERCENT – FRACTION:

 To write a percent as a fraction in lowest terms, follow these steps:


 Write the percent as a fraction with a denominator of 100
 Reduce the fraction to lowest terms by multiplying numerator and denominator by the
greatest common factor(GCF)

Examples:

PERCENT FRACTION LOWEST TERMS

55% 55/100 11/20

41% 41/100 41/100

NOTES:

55
Exercise problems:

Convert Decimal into Percent

1) 0.86 2) 0.6 3) 0.93 4) 0.57 5) 0.06

Convert Percent into Decimal:

1)70% 2)45.4% 3) 61.8% 4) 8% 5) 95%

Convert Decimal into Fraction:

1) 1.45 2) 0.136 3) 1.20 4)76.45 5) 0.06

Convert Fraction into Decimal:

1)29/32 2)7/12 3) 27/41 4) 11/16 5) 7/11

Convert Fraction into Percent:

1)27/31 2)5/12 3) 25/37 4) 11/17 5) 9/13

Convert Percent into Fraction:

1)60% 2)43.4% 3) 51.8% 4) 8% 5) 95%

RATIOS AND PROPORTIONS


RATIOS

Ratios tell how one number is related to another number.

 Ratio is a comparison of two numbers

 We generally separate the two numbers in the ratio with a colon (:)

 A ratio may be written as A:B or A/B or by the phrase "A to B"

Solved Examples:

1) Find the ratio of 36 yards to 48 yards?

Solution:
36 yards: 48 yards
= 36 : 48
Dividing both numbers by 4

NOTES:

56
= 9 : 12
Dividing both numbers by 3
=3:4
36 yards : 48 yards

Ans = 3 : 4

2) Find the ratio of 36 hours to 2 days.

Solution:
1 day = 24 hours
2 days = 2 * 24 = 48 hours
36 hours : 2 days
= 36 hours : 48 hours
= 36 : 48
Dividing by 6
=6:8
Dividing by 2
Ans = 3 : 4

3) Find the ratio of $2.50 to 75 cents.

Solution:

1 dollar = 100 cents


2.50 dollar = 2.50 * 100 = 250 cents
$2.50 to 75 cents
= 250 cents : 75 cents
= 250 : 75
Dividing by 25
Ans= 10 : 3

4) There are 250 students in a certain school. If the number of boys in a school are 120. Find
the ratio between
i) number of girls to number of boys
ii) number of boys to total number of students
iii) number of students to number of girls

Solution:
Number of students = 250
Number of boys = 120

NOTES:

57
Number of girls = Total number of students – Total number of boys
= 250 – 120
Number of girls = 130

i) Number of girls to number of boys


= number of girls: number of boys
= 130 : 120
Dividing each term by 10
= 13 : 12
So, ratio between girls to the boys is 13 : 12

ii) Number of boys to total number of students


= number of boys: number of students
= 120 : 250
Dividing each term by 10
= 12 : 25
So, ratio between boys to the students is 12 : 25

iii) Number of students to number of girls


= number of students: number of girls
= 250 : 130
Dividing each term by 10
= 25 : 13
So, ratio between students to the girls is 25 : 13

Exercise Problems:

Find the ratio of

i) 200 m to 600 cm
ii) 350 bags to 500 bags
iii) 25 feet to 125 cm
iv) 150 pencils to 225 pencils
v) 69 m to 9 km
vi) 22 yards to 77 yards
vii) 36 hours to 600 seconds
viii) $64 to $48
ix) 121 inches to 99 cm
x) Mr. Mac has 12 white balls, 15 black balls and 18 green balls. Find the ratio of
i) Black balls to white balls

NOTES:

58
ii) White balls to total number of balls
iii) Black balls to white balls to green balls

PROPORTIONS

 When two ratios expressed in its simplest form are equal they are said to be in
proportion.

 Proportion is represented by the symbol “=“ or “::”

 If the ratio a:b is equal to the ratio c:d then a, b,c, d are said to be in proportion

When two ratios are equal, then the cross products of the ratios are equal.

That is, for the proportion, a: b = c:d , a x d = b x c


2 4
Example: 1)
3 6
1 5
2)
8 13
4 16
3)
5 20
3 12
4)
4 20
3 9
5)
5 15

Cross products 20 x 5 =25 x 4

100 = 100

Do two ratios form a proportion?

Two ratios form a proportion when the cross products are equal.

Write a ratio of the shaded parts to all parts for each circle. Do the ratios form a proportion?

NOTES:

59
Example

Find the unknown value in the proportion, 2: x = 3: 9

Solution:

Convert the colon – based notation to fractional form

Find the cross product of the fraction,

2.9 = 3.x

2 4 18 = 3x
1)
3 6 x = 18/3
1 5
2)
8 13 x=6
4 16
3)
5 20
3 12 Exercise Problems
4)
4 20
3 9 Decide if each pair of ratios forms a proportion:
5)
5 15

Find the missing number in each proportion

1 ?
1)
2 15
3 ?
2)
7 42
4 28
3)
5 ?
? 7
4)
7 49
2 18
5)
? 63

NOTES:

60
4.0 BASICS OF ALGEBRA
ALGEBRA

 Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe


relationships between things that vary over time
 Letters or symbols are used to represent the quantity that varies , and it is known as
variables
 The mathematical statements that describe relationships are expressed using:
 Algebraic terms
 Expressions
 Equations

ALGEBRAIC TERMS

A term is a constant or a variable or a product of a constant and one or more variables.


A term could be
(i) A constant
(ii) A variable
(iii) A product of constant and a variable (or variables)
(iv) A product of two or more variables
Example 1
The algebraic expression 5x is an example of one single term. It has factors 5 and x.
Example 2
5x + 3y has two terms. 5x and 3y

Like terms
Like terms are terms that contain the same variables raised to
the same power.
Example:
3x2 and 7x2 are like terms.

Unlike terms
The terms having the same variable with different exponents or different variable with same
exponents are called Unlike terms.
Example:
1) 5x and 5y
2) 2x 2 and 3y 2

NOTES:

61
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
 An algebraic expression is a combination of variables and constants connected by
arithmetic operations.
Expressions:
 Contain any number of algebraic terms
 use signs of operation—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
 do not contain an equality sign (=)
–3ax + 11wx2y

ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
An equation is a mathematical statement that two expressions are equal.
The following three statements are equations:
4 + 5 = 9 x – 35 = 56 k2 + 3 x + 3 = 15
Real Numbers:
All the numbers that we use in normal day-to-day activities to represent quantities such as
distance, time, speed, area, profit, loss, temperature, etc., are called Real Numbers.

Natural Numbers
The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ……… are called natural numbers.
The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N.
The line extends
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, ..........} endlessly only to
the right side of 1

Whole Numbers
The set of natural numbers together with zero forms the set of whole numbers. The set of
whole numbers is denoted by W.

W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, …… }

Integers

The natural numbers, their negative numbers together with zero are called integers. The set
of all integers is denoted by Z

NOTES:

62
Z = {…….. -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ………}

1, 2, 3 …….. Are called positive integers.

-1,- 2,- 3 …… are called negative integers.

Rational Numbers:

A number of the form p


q
where p and q are both integers and q≠0 0 is called a rational number.
Q={p/q: p,q∈ Z   and   q≠0}

Irrational Numbers:

Irrational numbers are in the form of infinite non-repeating decimals. These numbers
cannot be expressed in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q≠0. The symbol for irrational
numbers is S.

Examples of irrational numbers are √2,√3,√5,√7,√10,√13,√11,√12

Real numbers:

The real numbers is the set that consists of all rational numbers and all irrational numbers.

FUNDAMENTAL ALGEBRA OPERATIONS

Addition of Algebraic Terms

Only Like terms can add or subtract

Example

Simplify 13x + 7y − 2x + 6a

Solution:

13x + 7y − 2x + 6a

The only like terms in this expression are 13x and −2x. We cannot do anything with the 7y or 6a.

So group together the terms we can subtract and just leave the rest:

(13x − 2x) + 6a + 7y

= 6a + 11x + 7y

NOTES:

63
Subtraction of Algebraic Terms

To subtract two like terms, do the following steps

1. Change the signs of all the expressions which is to be subtracted

2. Add the two expressions.

Example:

1) Subtract -7x from 5x

Solution :

= 5x – (-7x)
=5x + 7x
= 12x

Example

Subtract x 2 + y 2 + 3xy from 4x 2 + 2xy – 3y 2

Solution:
=(4x 2 + 2xy – 3y 2 ) – (x 2 + y 2 + 3xy)
= 4x 2 + 2xy – 3y 2 - x 2 - y 2 - 3xy
= 4x2 + 2xy – 3y2 - x2 – y2 - 3xy
= 3x 2 – x y – 4y 2

Exercise problems

Add the following expressions

1. (2x2+4x-8) + (x2-3)

2. (3x3+2x-5) + (2x2+x+9)

3. (x2-8x) + (3x2-5)

4. (10x3-4x+11) + (9x3+3x2-2x+4)

5. (x3-20x+1) + (17x3+2x2-x+21)

Subtract the following expressions

1. (5x3+7x2-2x) – (3x3-7x+4)

2. (11x2+2x+16) – (2x2+x+2)

NOTES:

64
3. (35x2+30x-14) – (x2+10x+28)

4. (10x2+6x) – (4x2-3)

5. (62x2-32x+45) – (24x2+19x-12)

MULTIPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Multiplying two monomials

Multiplication is repeated Addition.

5 x (2x) = (2x) + (2x) + (2x) + (2x) + (2x) = 10x

Examples

(i) x x 5y = x x 5 x y = 5 x x x y = 5xy

(ii) 2x x( -3xyz) = 2 x (- 3) x (x x xyz) = - 6x2yz.

Multiplying a monomial by a Binomial

Example

Simplify: (2x) x (3x + 5)

Solution we can write this as:

(2x) x(3x+5) = (2x x 3x)+ (2x x 5) [Using the distributive law]

= 6x2 + 10x

Multiplying variables with exponents

Example (y2)(y3)

We know y2 =yy and y3 = yyy

So y2y3 = yyyyy

y2y3= y5

Therefore y2y3 = y2+3

Example (x3y5)(x2yz)

Answer = x3+2y5+1z

= x5y6z

NOTES:

65
Example (2xy)(4y)

Answer = 2.4xy1+1

= 8xy2

Exercises

Multiplying the following expressions

1. 2p(3pq-5qt)

2. (Y-3)(2y+5)

3. (6xy)(-3x2y3)

4. (7ab2)(-4a2b)

5. (-3x²y) × (4x²y - 3xy² + 4x - 5y)

DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Simplifying and cancelling method

Example:

3xy(4x 2 y 5)
8x 2 y 3

Solution:
12x 3 y 6
Multiply the numerator,
8x 2 y 3
Cancel out the same variables from the numerator and the denominator. The answer is 3 xy 3
2
Example

Find the quotient of the following


4 x 2 6 x
2x
Divide each term by the divisor,

4x2 6x
 
2x 2x

 2x  3

NOTES:

66
Algebraic long method

The steps in dividing polynomials using the long method:

 Arrange the indices of the polynomial in descending order. Replace the missing term(s)
with 0

 Divide the first term of the dividend (the polynomial to be divided) by the first term of
the divisor. This gives the first term of the quotient

 Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient

 Subtract the product from the dividend then bring down the next term

 The difference and the next term will be the new dividend

 Note: Remember the rule in subtraction "change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed
to addition".

 Repeat step 2 – 4 to find the second term of the quotient

Continue the process until a remainder is obtained. This can be zero or is of lower index
than the divisor
Example

Perform Long Division ( x 3  6 x 2  12  13 x)  ( x  3)

Arrange the indices descending order

x3  6 x 2  12  13 x x3  6 x 2  13 x  12

x3 x3

Divide x3 by x to get the first term of the quotient,x2

(x3/x=x2)
x2
x  3 x 3  6 x 2  13 x  12

Multiply the divisor(x+3) by x2

x2
x  3 x 3  6 x 2  13 x  12
x 3  3x 2
3x 2 x2
x  3 x 3  6 x 2  13 x  12

NOTES:

67
x 3  3x 2
3x 2  13 x

Divide 3x2 by x to get the second term of the quotient,3x

Multiply the divisor (x+3) by 3x

Bring down the next term, 12

x 2  3x
x  3 x3  6 x 2  13 x  12
x 3  3x 2
3x 2  13 x
3x 2  9 x
4 x  12

Divide 4x by x to get the next term of the quotient , 4 and Multiply the divisor by 4
x 2  3x  4
x  3 x  6 x  13 x  12
3 2

x 3  3x 2
3x 2  13 x
3x 2  9 x
4 x  12
4 x  12
0

In this case the remainder is 0. This means that x+3 is a factor of x3+6x2+13x+12.

Therefore, (x3+6x2+13x+12) ÷ (x+3)

If the remainder is not zero then the answer is written as

Quotient + Remainder / Divisor

Exercise problems

1. (3x2 − 11x − 4) ÷ (x − 4)

2. (3x3 – 5x2 + 10x – 3) ÷ (3x + 1)

NOTES:

68
3. (2x3 – 9x2 + 15) ÷ (2x – 5)

4. (4x4 + 3x3 + 2x + 1) ÷ (x2 + x + 2)

5. (x3 – 7x – 6) ÷ (x – 4)

5.0 TRIGONOMETRY
INTRODUCTION

 The word Trigonometry is a derivation from the Greek language and means Measurement
of Triangles
 Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer and mathematician known as “The Father of
Trigonometry”

Angle

An angle is a portion of the 2-dimensional plane which resides between two different directed line
segments.

 The starting position of the angle is known as the initial side


 The ending position of the angle is known as the terminal side
 The point from which both of the directed line segments originate is known as the
vertex of the angle
Pythagoras Theorem
The Pythagoras theorem is a tool to solve for unknown values on right triangle.

Pythagoras Theorem:

The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.

AC2=AB2+BC2

The side that is opposite to the right angle is called the Hypotenuse.
A

Opp Hypotenus
osite e
side

(C
B Adjacent
side
NOTES:

69
Trigonometric Ratios Relation

1
Sin  cosec 
1
cosec Sin

1 1
cos  Sec 
Sec cos

1 1
tan  Cot 
Cot tan
Trigonometric Ratios:

Let 0 be an acute angle of a right triangle. The six trigonometric ratios of 0 are as follows:

Oppositeside Hypotenuse
Sin  Cosec 
Hypotenuse Oppositeside

Adjacent side Hypotenuse


Cos  Sec 
Hypotenuse Adjacent side

Oppositeside Adjacent side


tan  Cot 
Adjacent side Oppositeside

Examples:

1) In the right triangle PQR as shown at right, find the six trigonometric ratios of the angleϴ.

SOLUTION:

From the Fig.

the opposite side = 5, Q


the adjacent side = 12 and
the hypotenuse = 13.
sin ϴ = 5/13 Cosec ϴ=13/5 13
5
Cos ϴ= 12/13 Sec ϴ =13/12

tan ϴ = 5/12 Cot ϴ =12/5


P 12 R

NOTES:

70
2) From the Fig, find the six trigonometric ratios of the angle θ .

Solution: Q
From the fig PQ=7,PR=24.

By Pythagoras theorem,
7
QR2=QP2+PR2

=72+242
P 24 R
=49+576

QR = √625

QR =25

Sin ϴ = 7/25 Cosec ϴ=25/7

Cos ϴ= 24/25 Sec ϴ =25/24

tan ϴ = 7/24 Cot ϴ =24/7

The Trigonometric ratios for Angles of 0°,30°,45°, 60° & 90°

ϴ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

Sin ϴ 0 1/2 1/√2 √3/2 1

Cos ϴ 1 √3/2 1/√2 1/2 0

Tan ϴ 0 1/√3 1 √3 Not Defined

Cot ϴ Not Defined √3 1 1/√3 0

NOTES:

71
Sec ϴ 1 2/√3 √2 2 Not Defined

Cosec ϴ Not Defined 2 √2 2/√3 1

Example:

Evaluate sin2 45° + tan2 45° + cos2 45 °

Solution:

We know that , sin 45° =1/ √ 2 tan 45° =1 cos45°= 1/ √ 2

= (1/ √ 2 ) 2 +1 2 + (1/ √ 2 ) 2
Ans=2.

Exercise problems:

Evaluate:

(1) sin 45 ° + cos45 °

(2) sin 60 ° tan 30 °

(3) cos 2 60 ° sin 2 30 ° + tan 2 30 ° cot 2 60 °

(4) 6 cos 2 90° + 3 sin 2 90° +4tan 2 45 °

(5) sin 2 30 ° + cos 2 30 ° =1

6) In ∆ABC, right angled at B, AB = 10 and AC = 26. Find the six trigonometric ratios of the
angles A and C.

7) From the following diagrams, find the trigonometric ratios of the angle θ .

Q
Q

37
10 35
6

P P 12 R
8 R

NOTES:

72
3Cos  4 sin 
8) If sec θ=26/10 find
4Cos  2 sin 

1  sin  Cos 3
9) If tan θ=20/21 show that 
1  sin  Cos 7

10) If 29 cos θ = 20, find sec2 θ -tan2 θ .

6. GRAPHS
There are different types of graphs in mathematics and statistics which are used to represent data
in a pictorial form. Among the various types of charts or graphs, the most common and widely
used ones are explained below.

Types of Graphs

The list of most commonly used graph types are as follows:

 Statistical Graphs (bar graph, pie graph, line graph, etc.)


 Exponential Graphs
 Logarithmic Graphs
 Trigonometric Graphs
 Frequency Distribution Graph

Statistical Graphs
A statistical graph or chart is defined as the pictorial representation of statistical data in graphical
form.
The statistical graphs are used to represent a set of data to make it easier to understand and
interpret statistical information.

NOTES:

73
Types of Graphs in Statistics
The four basic graphs used in statistics include bar, line, histogram and pie charts. These are
explained here in brief.
Bar Graph
Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of grouped data in vertical or horizontal rectangular
bars, where the length of bars is proportional to the measure of data.
The chart’s horizontal axis represents categorical data, whereas the chart’s vertical axis defines
discrete data.

Line Graph
A graph that utilizes points and lines to represent change over time is defined as a line graph.
In other words, it is a chart that shows a line joining several points or a line that shows the
relation between the points.
The diagram depicts quantitative data between two changing variables with a straight line or curve
that joins a series of successive data points. Linear charts compare these two variables on a
vertical and horizontal axis.

NOTES:

74
Histogram
A histogram chart displays the frequency of discrete and continuous data in a dataset using
connected rectangular bars.
Here, the number of observations that fall into a predefined class interval represented by a
rectangular bar

Pie Chart
A pie chart used to represent the numerical proportions of a dataset.
This graph involves dividing a circle into various sectors, where each sector represents the
proportion of a particular element as a whole. This is also called a circle chart or circle graph.

NOTES:

75
Exponential Graphs
Exponential graphs are the representation of exponential functions using the table of values and
plotting the points on a graph paper.
It should be noted that the exponential functions are the inverse of logarithmic functions.
For example, the graph of y = 3x is an increasing one while the graph of y = 3-x is a decreasing
one.
Graph of y = 3x:

Graph of y = 3-x

NOTES:

76
Logarithmic Graphs
Logarithmic functions are inverse of
exponential functions and the methods of
plotting them are similar.
To plot logarithmic graphs, it is required to
make a table of values and then plot the points
accordingly on a graph paper.

Trigonometric Graphs
Trigonometry graphs are plotted below for the 6 trigonometric functions, which include sine
function, cosine function, tangent function, cotangent function, cosec function, and sec function.

Applications
Graphs can be used to model many types of relations and processes in physical, biological, social
and information systems. Many practical problems can be represented by graphs.

NOTES:

77
 Computer science (used to represent networks of communication, data organization,
computational devices, the flow of computation.)
 Linguistics
 Physics and chemistry (used to study molecules in chemistry and physics.)
 Social sciences (used in sociology as a way, for example, to measure actors' prestige or to
explore rumor spreading)
 Biology (useful in biology and conservation efforts where a vertex can represent regions
where certain species exist)
 Mathematics (useful in geometry and certain parts of topology such as knot theory)

Interpreting graphs
Interpreting graphs involves understanding what the shape of a curve represents in real life
situations.

We should also understand what slope means and how to interpret what a high or low slope value
represents. An understanding of plotting points is also important.

NOTES:

78
7. BASIC STATISTICS
Statistics:
Statistics is the science of making inference based on the data.

Data:
 Data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements.
 Data can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just descriptions
of things.
Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative data is descriptive information (it describes something)

Quantitative data is numerical information (numbers).


Quantitative data can be of two types:

1) Discrete

2) Continuous

Discrete data:
It can only take certain values (like whole numbers) .

Example: the number of students in a class (you can't have half a student).

Continuous data:
It can take any value (within a range) .

Put simply: Discrete data is counted, Continuous data is measured .

Examples:
A person's height: could be any value (within the range of human heights),

Time in a race: you could even measure it to fractions of a second,

Variable:
Property of an object or event that can take on different values.

NOTES:

79
For example:
College major is a variable that takes on values like mathematics, computer science,
English, Psychology, etc.

Types of Variable:

Discrete Variable:
A variable with a limited number of values (e.g., gender (male/female), college class
(freshman/sophomore/junior/senior).

Continuous Variable:
A variable that can take on many different values, in theory, any value between the
lowest and highest points on the measurement scale.

Independent Variable:
A variable that is manipulated, measured, or selected by the researcher as an
antecedent condition to an observed behavior. In a hypothesized cause-and-effect relationship,
the independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the outcome or effect.

Dependent Variable:
A variable that is not under the experimenter's control -- the data. It is the variable
that is observed and measured in response to the independent variable.

Qualitative Variable: a variable based on categorical data.

Quantitative Variable: a variable based on quantitative data.

MEAN:
The Mean (or average) of a set of data values is the sum of all of the data values divided
by the number of data values.

NOTES:

80
Where x (read as 'x bar') is the mean

∑ is the sum of all data values

n is the number of data values

Example:
1) The marks of seven students in a mathematics test with a maximum possible mark of 20 are
given below: 15 13 18 16 14 17 12

Find the mean of this set of data values.

Solution:

= 15+13+18+16+14+17+12

= 105/7 Ans: 15

So, the mean mark is 15.

Median:
The Median of a set of data values is the middle value of the data set when it has been
arranged in ascending order. That is, from the smallest value to the highest value.

 If the number of values in the data set is even, then the median is the average of
the two middle values.

 If the number of values in the data set is odd, then the median is the middle value
of the data set.

NOTES:

81
Examples:
1) The marks of nine students in a geography test that had a maximum possible mark of 50
are given below:
47 35 37 32 38 39 36 34 35

Find the median of this set of data values.

Solution:

Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:

32 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 47

The fifth data value, 36, is the middle value in this arrangement.

So Median = 36

2) Find the median of the following data set:


12 18 16 21 10 13 17 19

Solution:

Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
10 12 13 16 17 18 19 21

The number of values in the data set is 8, which is even. So, the median is the average of the
two middle values.

=16+17

So Median = 16.5

Mode:
The Mode of a set of data values is the value(s) that occurs most often.

 It is possible for a set of data values to have more than one mode.

 If there are two data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of data values
is bimodal.

NOTES:

82
 If there is no data value or data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of
data values has no mode.

Example:
Find the mode of the following data set:

48 44 48 45 42 49 48

Solution:

The mode is 48 since it occurs most often.

Exercise Problems:
1) Find the mean, median, and mode for the data set 5, 12, 7, 14, 8, 9, 4, 12

2) Find the mean, median and mode for the data set 20, 39, 31, 37, 32, 33, 34, 32

3) Find the mean, median and mode for the marks 72, 73, 75, 82, 74, 73 obtained by a student in

6 subjects in an annual examination.

4) The marks of ten students in a mathematics talent examination are

75,72,59,62,72,75,71,70,70,70. Obtain the mean, median and mode.

5) The marks obtained by 15 students of a class are given below. Find the modal marks.

42,45,47,49,52,65,65,71,71,72,75,82,72,47,72

6) Find the mean and median of 10,20,30,40 and 50.

7) Find the mode for the set of values 482,485,483,485,487,487,489.

8) Find the mode for the set of values 28,7,15,3,14,18,46,59,1,2,9,21.

9) Find the median of the following data 18,12,51,32,106,92,58.

10) Find the median of the following numbers

(i) 24, 22, 23, 14, 15, 7, 21 .

(ii) 17, 15, 9, 13, 21, 32, 42, 7, 12, 10.

NOTES:

83
Calculating the Variance and/or Standard Deviation:

Variance: Standard Deviation:

The Normal distribution

• Normal distribution is developed by karl gauss hence its often called as Gaussian
distribution.

• A normal curve: Bell shaped

• Density is given by


1  ( x   )2 
f ( x)  exp   
 2  2 2

• μand σ2 are two parameters: mean and standard variance of a normal population

σ is the standard deviation.

Properties of a Normal Distribution:

 The normal curve is symmetrical about the mean μ;

 The mean is at the middle and divides the area into halves;

 The total area under the curve is equal to 1

 It is completely determined by its mean and standard deviation σ (or variance σ2)

NOTES:

84
F(X)

Examples: X

1) Find the area under the normal curve lies between z=0 & z=1.96

From the table,

the area between z=0 & z=1.96 is 0.4750

2) Find the area under the normal curve to the left of z=1.96

From the table ,

the area between z=0 & z=1.96 is 0.4750

Therefore the area to the left of 1.96 is =0.5000+0.4750

NOTES:

85
=0.9750

3) Find the area under the normal curve to the right of z=1.96

From the table ,

the area between z=0 & z=1.96 is 0.4750

Therefore the area to the right of 1.96 is =0.5000-0.4750

=0.0250

4) X is a normally distributed variable with mean μ = 30 and standard deviation σ = 4. Find


a) P(x < 40)
b) P(x > 21)
c) P(30 < x < 35)

a) For x = 40, the z-value z= (x- μ)/ σ z = (40 - 30) / 4 = 2.5

Hence P(x < 40) = P(z < 2.5) = [area to the left of 2.5] = 0.9938

b) For x = 21, z = (21 - 30) / 4 = -2.25

Hence P(x > 21) = P(z > -2.25)

= 0.5000+0.4678=0.9678

c) For x = 30 , z = (30 - 30) / 4 = 0 and for x = 35, z = (35 - 30) / 4 = 1.25

Hence P(30 < x < 35) = P(0 < z < 1.25) = [area to the left of z = 1.25] - [area to the left of 0]

= 0.8944 - 0.5 = 0.3944

Exercise problems:
1) A radar unit is used to measure speeds of cars on a motorway. The speeds are normally
distributed with a mean of 90 km/hr and a standard deviation of 10 km/hr. What is the probability
that a car picked at random is travelling at more than 100 km/hr?

2) For a certain type of computers, the length of time bewteen charges of the battery is normally
distributed with a mean of 50 hours and a standard deviation of 15 hours. John owns one of these
computers and wants to know the probability that the length of time will be between 50 and 70
hours.

NOTES:

86
3) Entry to a certain University is determined by a national test. The scores on this test are
normally distributed with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. Tom wants to be
admitted to this university and he knows that he must score better than at least 70% of the students
who took the test. Tom takes the test and scores 585. Will he be admitted to this university?

4) The length of similar components produced by a company are approximated by a normal


distribution model with a mean of 5 cm and a standard deviation of 0.02 cm. If a component is
chosen at random
a) what is the probability that the length of this component is between 4.98 and 5.02 cm?
b) what is the probability that the length of this component is between 4.96 and 5.04 cm?

5) The length of life of an instrument produced by a machine has a normal ditribution with a mean
of 12 months and standard deviation of 2 months. Find the probability that an instrument
produced by this machine will last
a) less than 7 months.
b) between 7 and 12 months.

6) The time taken to assemble a car in a certain plant is a random variable having a normal
distribution of 20 hours and a standard deviation of 2 hours. What is the probability that a car can
be assembled at this plant in a period of time
a) less than 19.5 hours?
b) between 20 and 22 hours?

7) A large group of students took a test in Physics and the final grades have a mean of 70 and a
standard deviation of 10. If we can approximate the distribution of these grades by a normal
distribution, what percent of the students
a) scored higher than 80?
b) should pass the test (grades≥60)?
c) should fail the test (grades<60)?

8) Suppose that IQ scores have a bell shaped distribution with a mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15.what percentage of people should have IQ score between 85 and 115.

9) The annual salaries of employees in a large company are approximately normally distributed
with a mean of $50,000 and a standard deviation of $20,000.
a) What percent of people earn less than $40,000?
b) What percent of people earn between $45,000 and $65,000?
c) What percent of people earn more than $70,000?

10) Suppose that IQ scores have a bell shaped distribution with a mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15.what percentage of people should have IQ score between 75 and 130.

NOTES:

87
Check Sheet:
Check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data.

When to Use:

 When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, etc.
 When collecting data from a production process.

Why to Use:

 To grasp the past and present situation


 To stratify
 To grasp the changes through time
 To grasp the improvement results
 To confirm the standards

Probability:
 Probability provides a way to make decisions when the person is uncertain about the things,
quantities or actions involved in the decision.

 Though probability started with gambling, it has been used extensively, in the fields of
Physical Sciences, Commerce, Biological Sciences, Medical Sciences, Insurance,
Investments, Weather Forecasting and in various other emerging areas.

Examples:
 Probably Anitha will stand first in the forth coming annual examination.

NOTES:

88
 Possibly Thamizhisai will catch the train today.

The words “Probably”, “Possibly” , “Likely” ,“Chance” , etc., will mean “the lack of
certainty” about the events mentioned above.

To measure “the lack of certainty or uncertainty”, there is no perfect yardstick, i.e., But
based on some assumptions uncertainty can be measured mathematically. This numerical measure
is referred to as "Probability".

Basic Concepts and Definitions:


Before we start the theory on Probability, let us define some of the basic terms required for it.

 Experiment

 Random Experiment

 Trial

 Sample Space

 Sample Point

 Events

Experiment:
An Experiment is defined as a process whose result is well defined.

Experiment can be classified into two:

1) Deterministic 2) Random

Random Experiment:
A random experiment is one in which the exact outcome cannot be predicted before
conducting the experiment. However, one can list out all possible outcomes of the experiment.

NOTES:

89
Sample Space:
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called its sample space and it is
denoted by the letter S.

Trial:
Each repetition of the experiment is called a trial.

Events:
A subset of the sample space S is called an event.

Classification of Probability
According to various concepts of probability, it can be classified mainly in to three types
as given below:

(1) Subjective Probability

(2) Classical Probability

(3) Empirical Probability

1) Subjective Probability:
Subjective probabilities express the strength of one’s belief with regard to the
uncertainties. It can be applied especially when there is a little or no direct evidence about the
event desired, there is no choice but to consider indirect evidence, educated guesses and perhaps
intuition and other subjective factors to calculate probability .

NOTES:

90
2) Classical Probability:
Classical probability concept is originated in connection with games of chance. It applies
when all possible outcomes are equally likely. If there are n equally likely possibilities of which
one must occur and s of them are regarded as favorable or as a success then the probability of a
success is given by (s/n).

3) Empirical Probability:
It relies on actual experience to determine the likelihood of outcomes.

Classical definition of probability


If a sample space contains n outcomes and if m of them are favorable to an event A, then,
we write n(S) = n; n(A) = m . The Probability of the event A, denoted by P(A), is defined as the
ratio of m to n.

Number of Outcomes Favorable to A


P(A) =
Total Number of Outcomes
POINTS TO REMEMBER:

(1) The above classical definition of probability is not applicable if the number of possible
outcomes is infinite and the outcomes are not equally likely.

(2) The probability of an event A lies between 0 and 1,both inclusive;

That is 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1.

(3) The probability of the sure event is 1. That is P(S) = 1.

(4) The probability of an impossible event is 0. That is P(Ø) = 0.

(5) P(A) + P(A) = 1.

(6) The probability that the event A will not occur is given by

P(A) =1-P(A)

Example:

1) A fair die is rolled. Find the probability of getting

(i) the number 4 (ii) an even number

NOTES:

91
(iii) a prime factor of 6 (iv) a number greater than 4.

Solution

In rolling a die, the sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}.

n(S) = 6.

(i) Let A be the event of getting 4.

A = {4} n(A) = 1.

P(A)= n(A)/ n(S)

=1/6.

(ii) Let B be the event of getting an even number.

B = {2,4,6} n(B) = 3.

P (B)= n(B)/n(S)

=3/6

=1/2

(iii) Let C be the event of getting a prime factor of 6.

Then C = {2,3} ` n(C) = 2.

P (C)=n(C)/n(S)

=2/6

Hence P(C)=1/3

(iv) Let D be the event of getting a number greater than 4.

D = {5,6} n(D) = 2.

Hence, P (D )=n(D)/n(S)

=2/6

=1/3

2) An integer is chosen from the first twenty natural numbers. What is the probability that it is a
prime number?

NOTES:

92
Solution

Here S = {1, 2, 3,………., 20 }.

n(S) = 20.

Let A be the event of choosing a prime number.

Then, A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,17,19}.

n(A) = 8.

Hence, P(A) = n(A)/n(S)

= 8/20

= 2/5

STANDARD DEVIATION:

Standard Deviation represents the deviation of the values of a set of data from its
average or mean. It shows how the different values of a particular data set are dispersed.

When standard deviation is lower, it means that the values are very close to their average.
On the other hand, when standard deviation is higher, it means that the values are scattered far
from the average value

1) In a survey, 6 students were asked that how many hours per day they study on an
average? Their answers were as follows: 2, 6, 5, 3, 4, 1. Evaluate the standard deviation ?

Solution:

Formula for mean is given by:


x¯ = ∑x−i/n

x¯ = (2+6+5+3+4+1)/6

= 3.5

NOTES:

93
Construct the following table for standard deviation :

xi xi−x¯ (xi−x¯)2
2 -1.5 2.25
6 2.5 6.25
5 1.5 2.25
3 -0.5 0.25
4 0.5 0.25
1 -2.5 6.25
∑(x−i−x¯)2 = 17.5

Formula for standard deviation is given by:


S=√∑(xi-ǭ)2 /n
S=√17.5/6
S=√2.92=1.71
Exercise problems:

 b  b 2  4ac
2a

1) In tossing a fair coin twice, find the probability of getting

(i) Two heads (ii) at least one head (iii) exactly one tail−

2) Two unbiased dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting

(i) a sum 8 (ii) a doublet (iii) a sum greater than 8.

3) From a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, one card is drawn at random. Find the
probability of getting

(i) a king (ii) a black king (iii) a spade card (iv) a diamond 10.

4) There are 20 boys and 15 girls in a class of 35 students . A student is chosen at random. Find
the probability that the chosen student is a

(i) boy (ii) girl.

5) A bag contains 6 white balls numbered from 1 to 6 and 4 red balls numbered from 7 to 10. A
ball is drawn at random. Find the probability of getting

(i) an even-numbered ball (ii) a white ball.

6)Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Find the probability of getting

(i) at least one head (ii) exactly two tails (iii) at least two heads.

NOTES:

94
7) A box contains 4 Green, 5 Blue and 3 Red balls. A ball is drawn at random. Find the
probability that the selected ball is

(i) Red in colour (ii) not Green in colour.

8) Two coins are tossed together. What is the probability of getting at most one head.

9) For a sightseeing trip, a tourist selects a country randomly from Argentina, Bangladesh, China,
Angola, Russia and Algeria. What is the probability that the name of the selected country will
begin with A?

10) A ticket is drawn from a bag containing 100 tickets. The tickets are numbered from one to
hundred. What is the probability of getting a ticket with a number divisible by 10?

11) Marks obtained by 4 students in a class are 25, 15, 20, 18. Find the standard deviation of the
sample ?

Interpreting data
Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is reviewed for
the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a meaning to
the information analyzed and determines its signification and implications.

One good example of data interpretation is looking at pie charts or bar charts.

Through analyzing data, we bring order, manipulate, categorize and summarize raw data that was
aggregated through data collection. The final step of data analysis is data interpretation, as it turns
the results into actionable items.

NOTES:

95
Subject Title : MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - I

Subject Code: S1. T3


═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Safety
2.0 Hand Tools
3.0 Metrology
4.0 Drilling
5.0 Turning
6.0 Introduction to Welding
7.0 Milling
8.0 Grinding
9.0 Sheet metal processing – Press tools
10.0 Pressed, Cast, Forged components in Vehicle Aggregates

NOTES:

96
1.0 SAFETY

SAFETY:

 The quality or condition of being safe; freedom from danger, injury, or damage.

PPE:

 Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or


other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body
from injury or infection.

NOTES:

97
Types of PPE

Eyes

Goggles provide better protection for eyes, and are effective in preventing eye injury from
hazards.

Hazards

 Flying particles
 Molten metal
 Liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids
 Chemical gases or vapours

Options
Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, face shields, visors

Head

Ensure that each employee wears a protective helmet where there is a


potential for head injury from falling objects

Hazards
Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting
tangled in machinery, chemical drips or splash, climate or temperature

Options
Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets and firelighter’s helmets

Ears

Required for any employees exceeding 8-hour TWA of 85 dBA or 50%


dose

Hazards
Noise – a combination of sound level and duration of exposure, very
high-level sounds are a hazard even with short duration

Options
Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal caps

NOTES:

98
Hands and arms

Appropriate hand protection required for employee hand exposure to


hazards such as Skin absorption of harmful substances

Hazards

Abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts and punctures, impact,


chemicals, electric shock, radiation, vibration, biological agents and
prolonged immersion in water

Options
Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and sleeving that covers part or all of the arm.

Feet and legs

Each employee must use protective footwear where there is danger of


Falling or rolling object

Hazards
Wet, hot and cold conditions, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and
punctures, falling objects, heavy loads, metal and chemical splash,
vehicles

Options
Safety boots and shoes with protective toe caps and penetration-resistant, mid-sole wellington
boots and specific footwear, eg foundry boots and chainsaw boots

NOTES:

99
1.2 Electrical Safety

 Employees may not enter spaces containing exposed


energized parts, unless illumination is provided that
enables the employees to perform the work safely
 Employees may not reach blindly into areas which may
contain energized parts.
 Portable ladders shall have nonconductive side rails if
they are used where the employee or the ladder could contact
exposed energized parts
 Conductive articles of jewelry and clothing (such a watch
bands, bracelets, rings, key chains, necklaces, etc...) may not
be worn if they might contact exposed energized parts
 Only qualified persons may perform testing work on
electric circuits or equipment
 Protective equipment shall be maintained in a safe, reliable
condition and shall be periodically inspected or tested
 When working near exposed energized conductors or circuit
parts, each employee shall use insulated tools or handling
equipment if the tools or handling equipment might make
contact with such conductors or parts
 The following techniques shall be used to warn and protect
employees from hazards which could cause injury due to
electric shock, burns, or failure of electric equipment parts
o Safety signs and tags
o Barricades
o Attendants
 Safety signs, safety symbols, or accident prevention tags shall
be used where necessary to warn employees about electrical
hazards which may endanger them.

NOTES:

100
1.2 Mechanical Safety

 Never use a machine if you are not trained or not familiar with it.
 Must tie loose hair, secure or remove loose clothing, Id batches and jewelleries
(watch, ring, bracelets) before you operate any machine.
 Never remove shields or machine guards
 Keep hands and body clear when operating machines, always maintain a safe
distance.
 Avoid distraction, don’t listen to music using head phones, ear buds
 Wear proper PPE to include eye, ear, and hand & foot protection.
(Be cautions of gloves as they can become snagged or pulled into rotating
Machinery.)

1.3 Accident prevention

 Safety Helmet is required but


Positive Thoughts are important
 Safety Goggles are required but
Conscious Vision is important
 Safety Hand Gloves are required but
Righteous Protective Action is important
 Safety Shoes are required but
Quick and Safe Steps are important means
 Safety Equipments are required but Trained, Alert & Safe Man is more important in
any Disaster Prevention programme.
 Don’t try to change the people
Change the environment
1.4 Loading and Unloading practices
BEFORE YOU LIFT

 Plan Your Route: Path clear? Trip hazards removed? Dry?


 Assess the Load: Too heavy? Can I use a hand truck or forklift? Can I slide it?
WHEN YOU LIFT

 Lift It Right: Position your body close to the object. Keep your back straight.
 Move It Right: Don't twist your back.
 Lower It Right: When you put the load down, bend your knees not your waist.

NOTES:

101
GET HELP IF YOU NEED IT

 Work Together: Don't be a hero. Communicate with your partner!


Plan ahead

 Size up the load:


o Can it be split into multiple loads?
o Smaller loads cause less strain on the back.
o Can you slide it rather then lift?
 Use material handling equipment if load is too heavy:
o Forklifts
o Hoists
o Dollies
Basic rules of good lifting

 Bend your knees.


 Get a good hand hold.
 Center yourself over the load.
 Lift straight up - let your legs do the work.
 Don’t twist or turn.
Lifting Do’s and Don’ts

DO…

 Know or test the object weight.


 Use ergonomic lift assists when possible.
 Plan the lift and clear your path.
 Get help for heavy or awkward loads.
 Keep the object in the power zone.
 Use a wide stance for balance.
 Use your legs to lift.
DON’T…

 Don’t hold your breath.


 Don’t bend or twist at the waist.
 Don’t use a partial grip (1-2 fingers).
 Don’t obstruct your vision when carrying.
 Don’t jerk or lift quickly.
 Don’t pinch you fingers or toes.
 Don’t pull a load if you can push it.
 Don’t forget to wear proper PPE.

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102
1.5 Identification of Unsafe Conditions and Unsafe Acts

Unsafe activities are the actions of the person, which is possible or certainly leads to accidents
or increase the risk of accidents.

Unsafe conditions are the condition of equipment or environment that is considered to be unsafe
and possibly leads to an accident in a workplace.

Unsafe Acts
Unsafe Ladder Use
Using Unsafe Tools
Improper Lifting
Removing Safety Guards
Speeding
Overloading outlets
Unsafe Conditions
Wet Floors
Broken Stairs
Damaged Ladders
Unsafe Storage
Cords Across Aisles
Blocked Exit Doors
Condition: Flammable & liquid items
stored on top of electrical device.

NOTES:

103
2.0 Hand Tools
SPANNERS

A spanner is a hand tool with jaws or opening or a ring at one end or at both ends for tightening or
slackening nuts and bolts and screw heads. It is made of drop forged, high tensile or alloy steel
and heat treated for strength.
Types of spanners
 Open end spanners
 Ring spanners
 Open end spanners
 They can be single ended or double ended.

Single-ended spanners
These are general-purpose spanners. Single-ended spanners
are mostly supplied with machine tools for a specific purpose.

Double-ended spanners
Double-ended spanners are standard spanners having two
different size openings. Some spanners are made of chrome
vanadium steel. They are available in a set of 8, Nos 8 to 27 mm.
(Fig 3) 8x10, 9x11, 12x13, 14x15, 16x17, 18x19, 20x22 and
24x27 mm.
Bigger than 27 mm size open end spanners are also available.

Special purpose spanners

 Tube or tubular box spanners


 Socket spanners
 Adjustable spanners
 Hook spanners (C-spanner)

NOTES:

104
2.2 Screw Driver
Screwdrivers are used to tighten or loosen screws and are available in various lengths.
Hand-held screwdrivers are of the following types.
Standard Screw Driver: (Light duty)
It is of round shank/blade with metal, wood or molded, insulated material handle

.
Standard screwdriver (Heavy duty)
It has a square blade. The shank is also of square section for applying extra twisting force with the
end of a spanner.

Heavy-duty screw driver (London pattern)

It has a flat blade and is mostly used by carpenters for fixing and removing wood screws

Philips screwdriver

These are, made with cruciform tips that are unlikely to slip from the matching
slots. The sizes of Philips screwdrivers are specified by point size1, 2,3and4.

NOTES:

105
Offset screwdrivers
These are useful in some situations (Fig 10) where the normal screwdriver cannot be used because
of the length of the handle. They are also useful for applying greater turning force.

Specification
Screwdrivers are specified according to the
• Length of the blade
• Width of the tip

Normal blade length: 45 to 300mm.


Width of blade : 3 to 10mm.
The blades of screwdrivers are made of carbon steel or alloy steel, hardened
and tempered.

Safety Precautions
 Use screwdrivers with tips correctly fitting into the screw slot.
 Make sure your hand and the handle are dry.
 Hold the screwdriver with its axis in line with the axis of the screw.
 While using a Philips screwdriver apply more downward pressure.
 Keep your hand away to avoid injury due to slipping of screwdriver.
 Do not use screwdrivers with split or defective handles.
 While using screwdrivers on small Jobs, brace the jobs on the bench or hold them in a
vice.
2.3 Torque Wrenches

 A torque wrench is a tool used to apply a specific torque to a fastener such as a nut or bolt.
 It is usually in the form of a socket wrench with special internal mechanisms.
 A torque wrench is used where the tightness of screws and bolts is crucial.
 It allows the operator to set the torque applied to the fastener so it can be matched to the
specifications for a particular application.
Types:
There are two basic types of torque wrenches including:
o Clicker Type
o Beam Type

NOTES:

106
Clicker Type Beam Type

Clicker Type: Using a torque wrench to tighten connecting rod nuts on an engine.

Beam Type: A beam-type torque wrench that displays the torque reading on the face of the dial.
The beam display is read as the beam defects, which is in proportion to the amount of torque
applied to the fastener.
Always use the proper size socket that correctly fits the bolt or nut.
All sockets and ratchets should be cleaned after use before being placed back into the toolbox.

2.4 Types of Fasteners

Bolts: A bolt has a head on one end and threads on the other end and it is paired with anut.

Screws: Screws are used to join two mating parts together and similar to bolts, they have head on
one end and threads on the other end. However, screws usually have longer threads than bolts, also
they can be made with slotted heads.

Screws are sometimes divided into two sub-categories; Cap Screws and Machine Screws. Machine
screws are generally smaller in size than cap screws and they are used for screwing into thin materials.

Studs: Astud is arodthatis threaded on both ends and joins two mating parts. A nut may be used on one

end

NOTES:

107
Types of Bolts and Screws

There are many different types of bolts and screws where each is suitable for different types of
applications. the most commonly used types of bolts and screws are given below.

Carriage Bolts

Also known as a “coach” bolt, has a domed or countersunk head. The


square section under the head grips into the part being fastened
preventing the bolt from turning when the nut is tightened.

Hex Head Bolts

Hex tap bolts, hex cap screws, trim head hex cap screws, and hex serrated
flange bolts fall under this category. They share a hexagonal head and are
driven with a wrench. Referred to as both bolts and screws.

Socket Cap Screws

Socket cap screws are available in button socket, button flange socket
head, flat socket, and socket cap. Driven with a socket wrench or a hex
Allen key. The term socket head cap screw typically refers to a type of
threaded fastener whose head diameter is nominally 1.5 times or more
than that of the screw shank diameter.

Socket Set "Grub" Screws

Set screws are most often headless, meaning that the screw is fully
threaded and has no head. A blind set screw, known as a grub screw,
is almost always driven with an internal wrenching drive, such as a
hex Allen key.

Square Head Bolts


Square Head Bolts are similar to hex cap screws but with a 4-sided head.
This head style allows for a wrench to grip more easily onto the head of
the bolt. The head also provides a larger gripping area as compared to a
standard 6-sided hexagonal head

Deck Screws

Deck screws point (notched point at the tip) to aid in chip removal
during thread cutting which allows for an easy installation in wood and
composite deck materials. A bugle head and square drive help to
eliminate the stripping effect sometimes experienced with other types of drives.

NOTES:

108
Self-Drilling Screws

Self-drilling screws have a sheet metal thread with a self-driller


cutting point to pierce through 20 to 14 gauge metals. The larger the
drill point to pierce heavier gauge metals.

Wood Screws

Wood screws are partially threaded with large cutting threads and a smooth shank. They are
designed to slide through the top piece of wood and tightly pull all boards
together.

Cap Nuts

The cap nut, gets its name from its shape. The nut has a domed top to
prevent contact with the external thread.

Coupling Nuts
A coupling nut is a threaded fastener used for joining two male threads,
most commonly threaded rod. The outside of the fastener is a hex so it
can be driven with a wrench.

Hexagonal Nuts

Hex finish nuts are used for fastening to a hex cap screw, socket cap screw
or bolt. The most common nuts, hex finish nuts are hex shaped with internal
threads and driven with a wrench.

Knurled Thumb Nuts

A knurled head thumb nut or thumb nut has a knurled outside surface
rather than a hex, which facilitates tightening by hand. Often used in
decorative finishes or applications.

Square Nuts

A four-sided nut that may be flat or beveled on top. Square nuts provide a
greater surface contact area which provides more resistance to loosening.
Typically mated with square head bolts.

NOTES:

109
Wing Nuts

Wing nuts are threaded nuts with wings on each side of the body
allowing for manual turning and installation. Easy hand assembly and
used when the nut needs to be removed often.

2.5 Washers
 Washers are commonly used under the heads of bolts and screws and they
are used under nuts as well.
 The most common type of washers is the Flat Washer, where it is used to
increase the bearing areas of the head, and protect the material finish
during assembly.
 The use of washers also prevents the sharp corner of the hole into
which the bolt or screw is being inserted from biting into bolt head fillet where that can
cause the failure of the bolts during service.
 The other common type of washers is the Lock Washers where they are used to prevent

loosening of screws and nuts by providing continuous friction due to their spring action. Some
of the common types of lock washers are shown in the figure.
2.6 Introduction to Electrical and Pneumatic Nut Runners, Screw Drivers and Wrenches

A power tool is a tool that is actuated by an additional power source and mechanism other
than the solely manual labour used with hand tools.

Types

Power tools are usually motor-driven and designated as electrical, battery-powered,


hydraulic or pneumatic.

Here are some examples of pneumatic power tools:

 Fastening tools
 Impact tools
 Material removal tools
 Torque wrenches
 Impact wrench (air gun)
 Nut runner
 Caulking gun

NOTES:

110
An impact wrench (also known as an impactor, impact gun, air wrench, air gun, rattle
gun, torque gun, windy gun) is a socket wrench power tool designed to deliver high torque output
with minimal exertion by the user, by storing energy in a rotating mass, then delivering it
suddenly to the output shaft.

Impact wrenches are widely used in many industries, such as automotive repair, heavy
equipment maintenance, product assembly, major construction projects, and any other instance
where a high torque output is needed.

Applications

 Automotive repair, heavy equipment maintenance, product assembly


 Nut runer used to tight the bolt in timing chain sprocket
 Caulking gun is used to damage the bolt in engine section
 These power Tools are used for clamping the screws in bike, car, etc.

Precautions

 Disconnect tools when not in use, before servicing and


 Cleaning, and when changing accessories
 Keep people not involved with the work away from the work
 Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool
 Don’t hold the switch button while carrying a plugged-in tool
 Keep tools sharp and clean
 Remove damaged electric tools & tag them: “Do Not Use”

Pneumatic Power Tools

 A pneumatic tool, air tool, air-powered tool or pneumatic-powered tool is a type of power
tool, driven by compressed air supplied by an air compressor.
 Most pneumatic tools convert the compressed air to work using a pneumatic motor.
 Compared to electric power tool equivalents, pneumatic tools are safer to run and
maintain, without risk of sparks, short-circuiting or electrocution.
Advantages

Pneumatic tools have many benefits which have contributed to their rise in popularity. The
benefits of using compressed air to power tools are:

 Inexpensive
 Safe to use
 Easy to operate
 Portable
 Low theft rates

NOTES:

111
3.0 METROLOGY

Metrology is the branch of science, which deals with measurement depending upon the field of
application.

Objective of Metrology

The basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at a minimum cost

1. Complete evaluation of newly developed products


2. Determination of Process Capabilities
3. Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are quite
sufficient for their respective measurements
4. Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities
5. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of statistical quality control
techniques
6. To standardize the measuring methods
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement
8. To prepare design for all gauges and special inspection fixtures

3.1 Linear measurements


 The linear measurement includes the measurement of length, diameter, height &
thickness
 The basic principle of linear measurement is that of comparison with standard dimension
on a suitably engraved instrument or device.
Units of Conversion
10 mm = 1 cm
100 cm =1m
1000m = 1Km
25.4 mm = 1inch
2.54 cm = 1inch
12 inch= 1 feet
1 mile = 1.6 Km = 5280 feet
3.1.1 Steel Rule

NOTES:

112
The steel rule is one of the most useful tools in the shop used for taking linear measurements of
blanks and articles to an accuracy of 0.5 to 1mm. A Steel rule that has both inches and
centimeters.

Steel tape
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler and used to
measure distance. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass,
or metal strip with linear-measurement markings.

3.1.2 Inside and outside caliper


Inside calipers are used to measure inside dimensions such as
the inside diameter of a tube, while outside calipers are used for
measuring outside dimensions such as the outside diameter of a
tube or a piece of bar stock.

3.1.3Least Count :
Least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made with that
instrument.

Metric Vernier – L.C : 0.1


9 Main scale div. = 10 Vernier scale div.
1 Main scale div.= 1 mm
1 Vernier scale div.= 9/10 mm
L.C = 1m.s.d – 1 v.s.d
= 1- 9/10 = 0.1 mm

Metric vernier – L.C : 0.05


19 Main scale div. = 20 Vernier scale div.
1 Main scale div. = 1 mm
1 Vernier scale div.= 19/20 mm
L.C= 1m.s.d – 1 v.s.d
= 1- 19/20 = 0.05 mm

NOTES:

113
Metric vernier – L.C : 0.02
49 Main scale div. = 50 Vernier scale div.
1 Main scale div. = 1 mm
1 Vernier scale div.= 49/50 mm
L.C = 1m.s.d – 1 v.s.d
= 1- 49/50 = 0.02 mm

3.1.4 Vernier Scale


It is an auxiliary scale used along with an ordinary scale to get fractions of the smallest scale
division. The least count of a vernier is equal to the difference between a scale division and a
vernier division.

1) Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object


2) Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3) Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4) Main scale: scale marked every mm
5) Main scale: scale marked in inches and fractions
6) Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better
7) Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch
8) Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a
measurement
Principle of Vernier
Principle of vernier can be understood from the figure. Here length of vernier is equal to 9 main
scale divisions and it is divided into 10 equal parts.

NOTES:

114
The difference between a scale division and a vernier division equals 1-9/10 =1/10 of a scale
division.
In figure each scale division be equal to 1mm.Then L.C =0.1mm.

Length of object = 7 main scale div. + Fractional length AB


AB = AC - BC
= 7 m. s. d – 7 v .s. d
= 7 mm – 7 x 9 / 10 mm
= 7 x 1 / 10 mm = 7 x Least count
Total length = 7 + 7 x 0.1 = 7.7 mm

Hence when measuring with a scale and a vernier, the length of object = main scale reading +
div of coincidence of vernier x least count.
Types of Vernier:
 Vernier height gauge
 Vernier depth gauge
3.1.5 Micrometer
Micrometer is one of the most useful close-tolerance measuring devices.
 It works on the principle of screw and nut.
 A micrometer is a widely used device in mechanical engineering for precisely
measuring thickness of blocks, outer and inner diameters of shafts and depths of slots.
 Micrometers have several advantages over other types of measuring instruments like
the vernier caliper they are easy to use and their readouts are consistent.
 A micrometer generally provides greater precision than a caliper, but can measure a
smaller range of lengths.
Least count is the highest degree of accuracy of measurement that can be achieved.
Least Count (L. C) = Pitch
No. of divisions on micrometer barrel (thimble)

Pitch = distance travelled by thimble on linear scale in one rotation..

L.C= 0.5 mm= 0.01mm50

NOTES:

115
Barrel reading = 12.00 Barrel reading = 9.5
Thimble reading ; 31(31x0.01) = 0.31 Thimble reading 7(7x0.01) = 0.07
Total reading = 12.31 Total reading = 9.57

Types Of Micrometer:
Outside micrometer:
Typically used to measure wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.
Inside micrometer:
It is used to measure the diameter of holes.
Depth micrometer:
It measures depths of slots and steps.
Anvil micrometer:
It is outside micrometer with a small V-block for an anvil
Digital micrometer:
It uses an encoder to detect the distance and displays the result on a digital screen.
Ball micrometer:
It is used to check round work pieces accurately, it is also used to check wall thickness of the
pipes
A= 7.38mm

B=7.72mm

Error on micrometer
Zero error is the reading when the jaws are closed. It is the calibration error of the device - often
caused by knocks or overstrains.
The way to use a micrometer with zero error is to use the formula
actual reading = main scale + micro scale - (zero error).

NOTES:

116
Positive error: When the micrometer is closed, if the zero on the
thimble scale is below the index line, the error is positive and the
error is to be deducted from the reading.
Eg. Reading = 12.57 and error = 0.02, Actual reading = 12.57 –
0.02 = 12.55

Negative error: When the micrometer is closed, if the zero on the


thimble scale is above the index line, the error is negative and the
error is to be added to the reading.
Eg. Reading = 10.36 and error = 0.02, Actual reading = 10.36 +
0.02 = 10.38

3.1.6 Cares to be taken while measuring


 Care should be taken that all readings taken during the measurement are in the same unit
system.
 While gripping the objects to be measured, application of excessive forces on the jaws
should be avoided.
 Before taking any measurements, make sure the Vernier caliper does not have a zero error.
 The surface of the object which needs to be measured should be cleaned and dried with a
cloth soaked in cleaning oil.
3.2 GAUGES
What is gauge?
A gauge or gage, in science and engineering, is a device used to make measurements or in order to
display certain dimensional information. A wide variety of tools exist which serve such functions,
ranging from simple pieces of material against which sizes can be measured to complex pieces of
machinery.
Functions of Gauges
A simple tool used to measure gap widths. ... It is used as a reference for the setting of
measuring equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers, sine bars, calipers, and dial
indicators (when used in an inspection role). gauge pin is similar to a gauge block.
A go-no gauge (or go/no-go) refers to an inspection tool used to check a work piece
against its allowed tolerances. Its name is derived from two tests: the check involves the work
piece having to pass one test (go) and fail the other (no-go).
A go/no-go gauge is an integral part of the quality process that is used in
the manufacturing industry to ensure interchangeability of parts between processes or even
between different manufacturers. It does not return a size or actual measurement in the

NOTES:

117
conventional sense, but instead returns a state, which is either acceptable (the part is within
tolerance and may be used) or unacceptable (the part must be rejected).
3.2.1 Advantages of Gauges
1. Quicker Inspection method
2. Use in mass production
3. Ensure interchangeability
4. Need semiskilled operator
5. Economical
They are main eight main types of limit gauges. The types are:
1. Plug Gauge
2. Pin Gauge
3. Snap Gauge
4. Ring Gauge
5. Ball Gauge
6. Thickness or Feeler Gauge
7. Radius or Fillet Gauge
8. Screw Pitch Gauge.
3.2.2 Plug Gauge:
A plug gauge is a cylindrical type of gauge, used to check the accuracy of holes. The plug gauge
checks whether the whole diameter is within specified tolerance or not. The ‘Go’ plug gauge is the
size of the low limit of the hole while the ‘Not-Go’ plug gauge corresponds to the high limit of the
hole.
It should engage the hole to be checked without using pressure and should be able to stand in the
hole without falling.

NOTES:

118
Ring Gauge
A ring gauge, or ring gage, is a cylindrical ring of a thermally stable material, often steel, whose
inside diameter is finished to gauge tolerance and is used for checking the external diameter of a
cylindrical object.

3.2.3 Radius Gauge:

 A radius gauge is a tool used to measure the radius of an object.

NOTES:

119
Fillet Gauge:

 A radius gauge is also known as fillet gauge. (this gauge measures both concave and
convex radius of the object).
 This gauge requires a bright light behind the object to be measured.
 The gauge is placed against the edge to be checked and any light leakage between the
blade and edge indicates a mismatching that requires correction

3.2.4 Thickness or Feeler Gauge:

 Thickness or feeler gauge is frequently used to measure clearances between components.


 These gauges are ideal for measuring narrow slots, clearances, setting small gap, and
determining fit between mating parts.
 An important application of feeler gauge is for adjusting the spark gap between the
distributer points of an automobile.
 A feeler gauge consists of a set of narrow strips or blades of sheet to a thickness marked
on each strip.
 The complete set consists of a number of strips of different thickness assembled together
as shown in fig 1.46.
 The width of each strip is generally available to 12.5mm, A typical eight blade set of feeler
gauge is shown in Fig. 1.46.

NOTES:

120
3.2.5 Thread Pitch Gauge

A thread gauge, also known as a screw gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the pitch or lead
of a screw thread. Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in determining the pitch of a
thread that is on a screw or in a tapped hole.

3.2.6 Dial Indicators:

 The Dial Indicators can be used as comparators.


 Basically, comparators are the precession measuring instruments used to compare the
workpiece measurements with the standard measurements.
 When this Dial Indicator is used in any measuring equipment for comparison purpose then
these equipment are called Dial Gauges.

 A Dial Indicator must be mounted on any other base/Equipment, otherwise, it will be


useless.
 The accuracy of the dial indicator is up to 0.001 mm are available

NOTES:

121
3.2.7 Profile projector:

 Also known as an optical comparator,


a profile projector is an optical instrument that
can be used for measuring. It is a useful item
in a small parts machine shop or production
line for the quality control inspection team.
 Profile projector is widely used foZr complex
shape stampings, gears, cams, threads and
comparing the measured contour model. It’s
easy to use and highly efficient. It is a
commonly used measurement of optical
instruments.
 Thus, profile projector is widely used in major
machinery manufacturing including aviation,
aerospace industry, watches and clocks,
electronics, instrumentation industry, research
institutes and detection metering stations at all
levels and etc.

3.3 Introduction to limits and fits

3.3.1 Elements Limit system – Nominal size, Base size, Actual size

In mechanical engineering System of limits or Limit System is a concept of controlling the


sizes of machine elements while manufacturing of each component. Because taking exact
dimensions is an ideal condition but in practical(Manufacturing/Measuring) methods, it is not
possible. So limit system enables how much amount of deviation is acceptable.

The term shaft is meant for any external dimension of the part whereas the hole represents for the
internal dimension of the part.

NOTES:

122
Nominal size
The exact size of the component which is mentioned in the drawing for the ideal condition.( For
the convenience purpose only).
Example: A 30mm shaft. Here 30mm is the Nominal size. where we use 30mm hole for this shaft.
but further, we apply limits accordingly with the type of fits
Basic Size
This basic size an nominal size often same. This basic size is the dimensions where we apply
tolerances.
Example: 30.000±0.015 where the 30.00 is the basic size.
Actual Size
This is the actual dimension of the part taken by a measuring instrument. This actual dimension
should not exceed the tolerance limits mentioned to the basic size.
Example: The size of the Shaft measured with the vernier calliper is 30.010 (This is an actual
dimension of the shaft)
3.3.2 Tolerance:
The difference between the Upper limit and the lower limit of a hole or a shaft is known as the
Tolerance. We can also be said as the maximum permissible deviation with the basic size is
known as the Tolerance.
Tolerance can be a unilateral system of tolerance or bilateral system of tolerance.
3.3.2.1 Bilateral and Unilateral

Example:
Tolerance= 30.030-30.000 = 0.030 (Unilateral System)
Tolerance = 30.015-29.985 = 0.030 (Bilateral System)
Limits of Sizes
The extream possible deviation is called as the limit of the size. there are two extream
possible limits of sizes. they are the maximum limit(Upper Limit), The Minimum Limit(Lower
limit).
3.3.2.2 High and Low Limit:
Example: A shaft dimensioned is mentioned 30.000±0.015 then 30.015 is the maximum
limit(Upper Limit), 29.985 is the minimum Limit(Lower Limit)

NOTES:

123
Tolerance Zone
The zone between the Upper limit and the lower limit is known as the tolerance zone.
3.3.2.3 Upper and Lower deviation

Zero Line
The imaginary straight line corresponding to the basic size of the shaft or hole, which is used to
measure the deviations.
Upper Deviation
The difference between the basic size and the Maximum size is known as the upper deviation.
Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015
Upper Deviation = 30.015-30.000 = 0.015
Lower deviation
The difference between the basic size and the Minimum size is known as the Lower deviation.
Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015
Lower Deviation = 30.000-29.985 = 0.015

NOTES:

124
4.0 DRILLING

The Process of producing circular hole in a work piece by using a tool called drill bit in a machine
called as drilling machine.

The principal types of drilling machines are

 The Portable drilling machine


 The sensitive bench drilling machine
 The pillar drilling machine
 The column drilling machine and
 The radial arm drilling machine. (Radial Drilling Machine)
 The Gang drilling machine
 The Multi spindle drilling machine

4.1 DRILLING MACHINES (PORTABLE TYPE)

Necessity

Portable hand drills of different types are used for certain jobs which cannot be handled on
stationary drilling machines.

4.1 TYPES

There are two types of portable drilling machines, power operated and hand operated.

Power operated drilling machines:

Electric hand drill (light duty)

These are available in different forms. The electric


hand drill has a small electrical motor for driving the drill.
On the end of the spindle, a drill chuck is mounted. Electric
hand drills used for light duty will have,

Usually, a single speed.

Electric hand drill (heavy duty)

This drill has an additional feature; the drill speed can be varied through a system of gears.
This is particularly useful for drilling larger diameter holes. This type of drill is operated by
compressed air. An air driven motor is housed in the casing, and a handle is fitted along with an
air pipe to operate the drill conveniently. This drill is used where electrically operated drills are
prohibited i.e. explosives factories, petroleum refineries etc.

NOTES:

125
Hand operated drilling machines

Different types of hand operated drilling machines are


shown below. They are used in structural fabrication, sheet
metal and carpentry, particularly where electricity or
pneumatic supply is not available. The ratchet drilling
machine is commonly used in structural fabrication. Square

head, taper shank drills are used on these machines. The


bevel gear type drilling machine is used for drilling small
diameter holes up to 6 mm.

The sensitive bench drilling machine

The simplest type of sensitive drilling machines is shown in


the figure with its various parts marked. This is used for light
duty work. This machine is capable of drilling holes up to
12.5 mm diameter. The drills are fitted in the chuck or
directly in the tapered hole of the machine spindle. Fig 2

For normal drilling, the work- surface is kept horizontal. If the holes are to be drilled at an angle,
the table can be tilted. Different spindle speeds are achieved by changing the belt position in the
stepped pulley.

THE PILLAR DRILLING MACHINE

This is an enlarged version of the sensitive bench drilling machine. These drilling
machines are mounted on the floor and driven by more powerful electric motors. They are used
for heavy duty work. Pillar drilling machines are available in different sizes. (Fig 3)

NOTES:

126
RADIAL DRILLING MACHINES

Radial drilling machines are used to

 Drill Large diameter holes


 Multiple holes in one setting of
the work
 Heavy and large work pieces.
Features

 The radial drilling machine has a radial arm on


which the spindle head is mounted
 The spindle head can be moved along the radial
arm and can be locked in any position.
 The arm is supported by a pillar (column). It can
be rotated about with the pillar as centre.
 Therefore, the drill spindle can cover the entire working surface of the table. The arm can
be lifted or lowered.
 The motor mounted on the spindle head rotates the spindle. The variable-speed gearbox
provides a large range of r.p.m.
 The spindle can be rotated in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
 Angular holes can be drilled on machines having tilting tables. A coolant tank is mounted
on the base.
Gang drilling machine

 It consists of a large base supporting a long table.


 The top of the table is designed in such a way
that several units may be mounted on it.
 Each spindle is driven by its individual directly
connected motor.
 The table has a groove around the outside for the
return of the cutting lubricant, and may have T-
slots on its surface for ease in clamping the work
to the table.
 This type of machine is generally preferred when
the work is to be moved from spindle to spindle
for successive operations.
 Gang of four drilling machines each machine is
fitted with a different cutting tool. As the work
moves from position to position a different operation is performed.

NOTES:

127
Multiple spindle head drilling machine

• The multiple spindle head drilling machine may have any


number of spindles - from 4 to 48 or more, all driven from
the one-spindle drive gear in one head.
• The multiple spindle head drilling machine is specially
designed for mass production operations such as drilling,
reaming or tapping many holes at one time in a specific unit
of work such as an automobile engine block.
• There may be two or more drill heads on one machine, each
with many spindles. This is necessary when holes are drilled
from more than one direction - for example, on the top side,
and the end of a piece of work. Production units of this type
are seldom used in a tool room that usually does highly
skilled work

4.2 DRILL - NOMENCLATURE

Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces. The tool used for drilling is a drill and it is
rotated with a downward pressure causing the tool to penetrate into the material.

Flat or spade drill

• This type of drill is used where the required size of twist drill is not
available.
• It is made from a round tool steel piece which is forged to shape and
ground to size, and then hardened and tempered.
• This type of drill is used for hand drilling (without power) or with a
ratchet brace.
Straight fluted drill

• It has grooves or flutes running parallel to the drill axis. It is mainly used in drilling brass,
copper or soft materials.
• This type of drill is inconvenient in standard practice, as the chips do not come out from
the hole automatically.
• It is used to drill sheet metals and cores in the castings.

NOTES:

128
Twist drills

• In this type, two spiral flutes or grooves run lengthwise around the body of the drill.
• It is the most common type of drill used for all purposes, and especially for faster drilling
of accurate holes and for harder materials - in comparison with the other drills.

PARTS OF A DRILL

The various parts of a drill can be identified from figure

Shank

This is the driving end of the drill which is fitted to the machine. Shanks are two types. Taper
shank is used for larger diameter drills & straight shank is used for smaller diameter drills.

Point

The cone shaped end, which does the cutting, is called the point. It consists of a dead centre, lips
or cutting edges, and a heel.

Tang

This is a part of the taper shank drill, which fits into the slot of the drilling machine spindle.

Body

The portion between the point and the shank is called the body of a drill. The parts of the body are
flute, land/margin, body clearance and web.

Flutes

Flutes are the spiral grooves, which run to the length of the drill.

NOTES:

129
Land/Margin

The land/margin is the narrow strip, which extends to the entire length of the flutes. The diameter
of the drill is measured across the land/ margin.

Web

Web is the metal column, which separates the flutes. It gradually increases in thickness towards
the shank.

4.3 TOOL AND WORK - HOLDING DEVICES


 For drilling holes on materials, the drills are to be held accurately and rigidly on the
machines.
 The common drill-holding devices are drill chucks and sleeves and sockets.

Drill chuck

Straight shank drills


are held in drill chucks. For
fixing and removing drills,
the chucks are provided
either with a pinion and key
or a knurled ring.

The drill chucks are


held on the machine spindle
by means of an arbor fitted
on the drill chuck.

Taper sleeves and sockets

Taper shank drills


have a Morse taper. Sleeves
and sockets are made with
the same taper so that the
taper shank of the drill, when
engaged, will give a good
wedging action. Due to this
reason morse tapers are called self-holding tapers.

WORK-HOLDING DEVICES

NOTES:

130
Work pieces to be drilled should be properly held or clamped to- prevent from rotating along with
the drill. Improperly secured work is not only a danger to the operator but can also cause
inaccurate work, and breakage to the drill. Various devices are used to ensure proper holding.

The machine vice

• Most of the drilling work can be held in a machine vice.


• Ensure that the drill does not drill through the vice after it has passed through the work.
• For this purpose, the work can be lifted up and secured on parallel blocks providing a gap
between the work and the bottom of the
vice.

Clamps And Bolts

• Drilling machine tables are provided with T-slots for fitting bolt heads.
• Using clamps and bolts, the Workpieces can be held very rigidly.
• While using this method, the packing should be, as far as possible, of the same height as
the work, and the bolt nearer to the work.

There are many types of clamps and it is necessary to determine the clamping method according
to the work.

NOTES:

131
4.4 Drilling Machine Operations

 Drilling
 Reaming
 Counter boring
 Countersinking
 Spot Facing
 Tapping
4.4.1 Drilling:
• Drilling is the operations, of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal by the
rotating edge of a cutting tool called the drill.
• Before drilling the centre of the hole is located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at
right angles to each other and then a centre punch is used to produce an indentation at the
centre.
• The drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required hole.
4.4.2 Countersinking:
• Countersinking is the operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a hole
to provide a recess for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the hole.
• The tool used for countersinking is called a countersink. Standard countersinks have 60o or
90o included angle and the cutting edges of the tool are formed at the conical surface.
4.4.3 Counter boring:
• Counter boring is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically.
• The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary in
some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
• The tool used for Counter boring is called a counter bore. The counter bores are made with
straight or tapered shank to fit in the drill spindle, the cutting edges may have straight or
spiral teeth.
• The tool is guided by a pilot which extends beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot
tits into the small diameter hole having running clearance and maintains the alignment of
the tool. These pilots may be interchanged for enlarging different sizes of holes.
4.4.5 Reaming:
• Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been previously
drilled.
• In order to finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly
undersize.

NOTES:

132
• The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which has multiple cutting edges.
• Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the path which has been previously
drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.
4.4.6 Tapping:
 Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called a tap.
 Tapping operation may be performed by hand or by machine.
 A tap maybe considered as a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. the threads act as cutting,
edges which are hardened and ground.
 When the tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts internal threads which will
fit into external threads of the same size.

4.5 RPM CALCULATION


• For a drill to give a satisfactory performance, it must operate at the correct cutting speed
and feed.
• Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge passes over the material while cutting,
and is expressed in meters per minute.
• The selection of the recommended cutting speed for drilling depends on the materials to be
drilled, and the tool material.
• Tool manufacturers usually provide a table of cutting speeds required for different

NOTES:

133
materials.
• The recommended cutting speeds for different materials are given in the table. Based on
the cutting speed recommended, the r.p.m. at which a drill has to be driven, is determined.

Materials being drilled for Cutting Speed


HSS (m/min)

Aluminum 70-100

Brass 35-50

Bronze (Phosphor) 20-35

Cast iron (grey) 25-40

Copper 35-45

Steel (medium carbon or


20-30
mild steel)

Steel (alloy or high tensile) 20-30

Themo setting plastic


(low speed due to abrasive 5-8
particals)

Calculating r.p.m
n - r.p.m.
v - cutting speed in m/min.
d - diameter of the drill in mm
π= 3.14.
4.6 DRILLING DEFECTS AND CAUSES
The common defects in drilling are listed below.
 Oversized holes
 Overheated drills
 Rough holes
 Unequal and interrupted flow of chips

NOTES:

134
 Split webs or broken drills

Oversized holes
Oversized holes can be due to
 Unequal length of cutting edges
 Unequal angle of cutting edges
 Unequal point thinning.
 Spindle running out of centre
 Drill point not in centre.
Overheated drills
The drills may get overheated if the
• Cutting speed is too high.
• Feed rate is too high.
• Clearance angle is incorrect.
• Cooling ineffective.
• Point angle is not correct.
Rough holes
Rough holes are caused if the
• Feed rate is too much
• Drill cutting edges are not sharp
• Cooling is ineffective.
Unequal flow of chips
Unequal flow of chips is caused if the cutting edges are not equal and the point angle is not
in the centre of the drill.
Broken drill or split web
Broken drill or split web occurs when the
• Cutting speed is too high
• feed rate is too high
• Work is not held rigidly
• Drill is not held correctly

NOTES:

135
• Drill is not sharp
• Point angle is incorrect
• Cooling is insufficient
• Flutes are clogged with chips.

5.0 TURNING

5.1 LATHE AND SPECIFICATIONS:

The lathe is father of all machine tools; in early days it was equipped with a fixed tool rest
and was used for woodworking. In operation, the lathe holds the job between two rigid
supports called centres or by some chuck or face plate screwed to the nose or and of the
spindle.

Function of lathe

The main function of lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine
and then turning it against cutting tool, which will remove, metal from the work in the form of
chips.

Description and functions of lathe parts

NOTES:

136
Following are the principal parts:
1. Bed.
2. Headstock.
3. Tailstock.
4. Carriage.
5. Feed mechanism.
6. Screw cutting mechanism
The bed
The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. The headstock and the tailstock are located at
either end of the bed and carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides on it. The bed is made up
of cast-iron. The bed consists of guide ways. The guide ways of the lathe may be flat and
inverted- v having included angle of 90.
The headstock
The headstock is secured permanently on the inner ways as the left hand end of the lathe bed,
and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at multiple speeds. It comprises
essentially a hollow spindle and mechanism for driving and alternating the spindle speed. All
parts are housed within the head stock casting. The spindle of headstock is made of carbon or
nickel-chrome steel.
Tail stock
Tailstock is located at the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed. This has two main
uses:
1. It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined between
centers.
2. It holds a tool for performing operations such as drilling, reaming, taping, etc.
To accommodate different length of work, the body of the tailstock can be adjusted along the
ways chiefly by sliding it to the desired position where it can be clamped by bolts and plates.
The body is bored to act as barrel which carries the tail stock spindle that moves in and out of
the barrel by means of the screw when the tail stock handle is turned. The front of the spindle
has taper hole into which the dead center or other tool fits.
Carriage
The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serve to support, move and control the cutting tool.
It consists of the following parts:
• Saddle

NOTES:

137
• Cross-slide
• Compound slide or compound rest
• Tool post and
• Apron
Compound rest
The compound rest or compound slide is a mounted on the top of the cross-slide and has a
circular base graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short taper as well
as convenient positioning of the tool to work. By loosening two setscrews, which fit in a v-
grove around the compound-rest base, the rest slide may be swiveled to any angle within
circle.
Tool post
This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool enable it to be adjusted to a
convenient working position. Following are the common tool post:
• Single screw tool post
• Four bolt tool post
• Open side tool post
• Four way tool post
The apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. It contains gears,
clutches, and levers for operating the carriage by hand and power feeds. The apron also
contains function clutches for automatic feeds. In addition, there is a split nut which engages,
when required with the lead screw, when cutting either internal or external threads. The layout
of the apron includes an inter locking device which prevents the simultaneous engagement of
the feed shaft and the lead screw. The apron handle wheel can turned to move the carriage
back and forth longitudinally by hand.
Feed rod
The feed rod is a long shaft that has the key way extending from the feed box across and in
front of the bed. The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through a
feed rod via large number of gears. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or cross-slide for
turning, boring, facing and all other operations except thread cutting.
Lead screw
The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master screw, and is brought into operation
only when threads have to be cut. In all other times the lead screw is disengaged from the
gear box and remains stationary.

NOTES:

138
Apron Mechanism
The apron mechanism is used for transforming rotary motion of the feed rod and the lead
screw into feed motion of the carriage. The mechanism also ensures that when the half nut
engaged with the lead screw the worm drops down disconnecting the feed motion.
5.2 Types of lathes

Lathes of various designs and constructions have been developed to suit the various
conditions of metal machining. But all of them employ the same fundamental principle of
operation and perform the same function. The lathes are classified as follow.

 Speed lathe
 Wood working
 Centering
 Polishing
 Spinning
 Engine lathe
• Belt drive
• Individual motor drive
• Gear head lathe
 Bench lathe
 Tool room lathe
 Capstan and turret lathe
 Special purpose
 Wheel lathe
 Gap bed lathe
 T-lathe
 Duplicating lathe
 Automatic lathe
The speed lathe
 The speed lathe, in construction and operation, is the simplest of all types of lathes.
 It consists of a bed, a headstock, and a tailstock and tool post mounted on an adjustable
slide.
 There is no feed box, lead screw or conventional type carriage.
 The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into work purely by hand
control.
 This characteristic of the lathe enables the designer to give high spindle speeds, which
is usually, range from 1200 to 3600 rpm.
 As the tool is controlled by hand, the depth of cut and thickness of chip is very small.
 Light cut and high speed necessitate the use of this type of machine where cutting

NOTES:

139
force is minimum such as in wood working, spinning, centering, polishing, etc.
The engine lathe or center lathe
 This lathe is most important member of lathe family and is most widely used. Similar
to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has got all the basic parts, e.g. bed, headstock, and
tailstock.
 But the headstock of an engine lathe is much more robust in construction and it
contains additional mechanism of driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds.
 The engine lathe that can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction
with reference to the lathe axis with help of a carriage feed rod and lead screw.
The bench lathe
 This is a small lathe usually mounted on bench.
 It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost
all the operations, its only difference being in size this is used for small and precision
work
The tool room lathe
A tool room lathe having features similar to an engine lathe is much more accurately built
and has a wider range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to
2500 r.p.m.This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, and gauges and in
machining work where accuracy is needed.
The capstan and turret lathe
These lathes are development of the engine lathe and are used for production work. The
distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced
by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work
in proper sequence.
Special purpose lathe
As the name implies, they are used for special purpose and for job, which cannot be
accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The gap bed lathe, in which a
section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is recoverable, is used to swing extra-large
diameter pieces.

5.3 TURNING OPERATIONS


The following operations can be performed on lathe machine.
 Facing
 Straight Turning
 Step Turning

NOTES:

140
 Taper Turning
 Knurling
 Thread cutting
 Grooving
5.3.1 Facing
It is a operation mainly used to create a smooth, flat, face very accurately made perpendicular to
the axis of a cylindrical part.

5.3.2 Straight turning

It is a process of removing excess material from the work piece to produce a cylindrical
components.
5.3.4 Taper turning
It is a machining operation is the
gradual reduction in diameter from
one part of a cylindrical work
piece to another part. Tapers can
be either external or internal. If a
work piece is tapered on the
outside, it has an external taper, if

NOTES:

141
it is tapered on the inside, it has an internal taper.
5.3.5 Grooving
It is the process of reducing the diameter of a work piece over a narrow surface, In grooving
work piece is revolved at half the speed of turning

5.3.4 Thread cutting


It is an operation of making external thread by using lead screw set up, internal thread can be
made by tapping tool that can be fixed in the tail stock.

5.4 TOOL NOMENCLATURE :Single Point Cutting Tool

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and the shank. The
point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the chips slide as they are cut by the tool),
the side flank or major flank the end flank, or minor flank and the base. The side cutting edge, is
formed by the intersection of the face and the end flank. The chips are cut from the work piece by
the side-cutting edge. The point "a" where the end and side-cutting edges meet is called the nose

NOTES:

142
of the tool. Figure is for a right hand tool. Below, we give the definitions of the various tool
elements and tool angles:-

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part and the shank and main parts or
elements which are:
Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
Flank
The surface or surfaces below the adjacent to the cutting edge is called flank of the tool.
Face
The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
Cutting Edge
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work piece. The cutting
edge consists of the side cutting edge(major cutting edge) and cutting edge(minor cutting edge)
and the nose.

NOTES:

143
Cutting-Tool Nomenclature
The elements of tool signature or nomenclature of single point cutting tool is illustrated in the
figure below
(i) Back rake angle: Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting tool
and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting
edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if it is
upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. Back rake angle helps in removing the chips
away from the work piece.

ii) Side rake angle: Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined sideways.
Side rake angle is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the
line down from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the
thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide clearance between
work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work piece with end flake of tool.
(iii) End relief angle: End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end
flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,

NOTES:

144
measured at right angles to the flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the
work piece.
(iv) Side relief angle: Side rake angle is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right
angles to the side. Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the work piece
surface.
(v) End cutting edge angle: End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge and
a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and
work piece.
(vi) Side cutting edge angle: Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting edge
on the side of tool and the side of the shank. It is responsible for turning the chip away from the
finished surface.
1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
The characteristic of ideal cutting tool material are
Hot Hardness: The material must remain harder than the work material at elevated operating
temperatures.
Wear resistance: The material must withstand excessive wear even though the relative hardness
of the tool-work materials changes.
Toughness: The term "toughness" actually implies a combination of strength and ductility. The
material must have a sufficient toughness to withstand shocks and vibrations and to prevent
breakage.
Frictional co-efficient: The frictional co-efficient at the chip tool interface must remain low for
minimum wear and reasonable surface finish.
Cost and easiness in fabrication: The cost and easiness of fabrication should have within
reasonable limits.

NOTES:

145
5.5 WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
Chuck: A chuck is a specialized type of clamp used to hold an object with radial symmetry,
especially a cylinder. In a drill or a mill, a chuck holds the rotating tool; in a lathe, it holds the
rotating workpiece. Chucks commonly use jaws to hold the tool or workpiece.
Types of Chuck:
i) Three jaw self-centeric Chuck
ii) Four jaw independent chuck
Face Plate:
A lathe faceplate is a basic work holding accessory for a wood or
metal turning lathe. It is a circular metal (usually cast iron) plate
which fixes to the end of the lathe spindle. The workpiece is then
clamped to the faceplate, typically using t-nuts in slots in the faceplate, or less commonly threaded
holes in the faceplate itself.
Mandrel:
 Mandrel is used to hold the hollow workpiece
 A shaft or bar the end of which is inserted into a workpiece to hold it during
machining.
 A spindle on which a circular saw or grinding wheel rotates.
 The driving spindle in the headstock of a lathe.

5.7 RPM CALCULATION


Cutting Speed: The cutting speed (v) of a tool is the speed at which the metal is removed by the
tool from the work piece. In a lathe it is peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool
expressed in meters per minute.
The cutting speed (v) may be calculated as

NOTES:

146
πdn
v m/min
1000
Where
d = Diameter of Work piece in mm
n = Spindle speed in Rpm
Feed:

The feed of a cutting tool in a lathe work is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of
the work. Feed is expressed in mm/rev

Increased feeds reduce the cutting time. But increased feed greatly reduces the tool life.
The feed depends on factors such as, size, shape, strength and method of holding the work, tool
shape, setting, rigidity of machine, depth of cut etc. Coarser feed rates are used for roughing and
finer feeds for finishing cuts.

Depth of cut:

The depth of cut (t) is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the
uncut surface of the work piece. In a lathe depth of cut is expressed as

Dd
Depthofcut  mm
2

Where

D-Diameter of the work surface before machining in mm.

d- Diameter of the machined surface in mm.

MACHINING TIME CALCULATION

The machining time in a lathe work can be calculated for a particular operation if the feed

speed and length of hob are known. Hence time taken for a complete cut

𝐿
𝑇=
𝑆𝑟 × 𝑁
Where L= Length of the job in mm.

Sr= Feed in mm/rev


N= RPM of work.

NOTES:

147
6.0 Introduction To Welding
Welding is a process in which two or more parts are joined permanently at their touching
surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Often a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence. The assembled parts that are joined by welding are called weldments.
Welding is primarily used in metal parts and their alloys.

Most of companies using the standard names of calling the welding types that is by the IWS and
AWS.
IWS-Indian Welding Society
AWS-American Welding Society
Welding Classification as per standards

IWS AWS
ARC Welding SMAW-Shielded Metal Arc Welding
MIG-Metal Inert Gas Welding GMAW-Gas Metal Arc Welding
MAG-Metal Active Gas Welding FCAW-Flux Cored Arc Welding
TIG-Tungsten Inert Gas Welding GTAW-Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
6.1 Arc Welding
 Arc welding is one of the many types of fusion welding. Arc welding joins two pieces of
metal together by using an intermediate filler metal.

The way this works is by completing an electrical circuit to create an electrical arc. This
electrical arc is 6500oF in its center.
 This electrical arc is created at the tip of the filler metal. As the arc melts the metal, it is
moved either by a person or a machine along the gap in the metals, creating a bond.
 This method is very common as it is typically done with a hand held machine.
 Arc welding machines are portable and can be brought onto job sites and hard to reach
areas.
Classification of Welding Processes:
Welding processes can be classified based on following criteria;
1. Welding with or without filler material.
2. Source of energy of welding.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding.
4. Fusion and Pressure welding.

NOTES:

148
AC & DC Welding
Arc welding involves the use of a power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the material intended to be welded to melt the metals at the welding point. Any electrical current
is either a direct current (DC) or an alternating current (AC).

AC and DC are terms that refer to the polarity of the electrical current that the welding machine
creates and runs through the electrode.

6.1.1 Alternating current (AC) is electricity that switches direction back and forth so the voltage
also periodically reverses because the current changes direction. Typical AC currents are what
you would expect to see from your electrical outlets in your home and often used in higher voltage
devices such as household appliances.AC current changes its polarity 120 times per second with a
60-hertz current. Reversed polarity (AC) results in deeper penetration. In Alternate Current (AC)
welding, since the current and the magnetic field of the arc reverse direction many times a second,
there is no net deflection of the arc.
Applications of AC Welding
AC welding can be used to weld magnetic metals.
This cannot be done with DC welding. AC welding is ideal for the following types of welds:
 Down hand heavy plate
 Fast fill
 Aluminum TIG welding with high frequency
AC welding is also the preferred method for:

NOTES:

149
 TIG welding aluminum, because the current supports welding at a higher temperature.
 Making repairs on machinery because the machinery usually has a magnetized field and is
older and may have rusty areas where there is concern about the higher heat penetration that
can occur with DC welding.
 Seam welding in shipbuilding because the current settings can often be higher than those used
in DC welding and a deeper penetration of plate metals can be obtained.
6.2 Direct current (DC):
It is electricity flowing in a constant direction and/or possessing a voltage with constant
polarity, either positive or negative. Typical DC currents include the current in batteries and often
used in low voltage devices such as cell phones and remote controls.In welding, electrode
negative (DC) or straight current provides faster deposition rates because there is quicker melt-off
of the electrode. Electrode positive (DC) results in deeper penetration.
Applications of DC Welding
Welding with DC is best used for
 Hard facing.
 Overhead or vertical welding.
 Build-up of heavy deposits
 Single carbon brazing.
 Stainless steel TIG welding
 Cutting tap.
As a rule of thumb, DC is preferred for welding because:
 It produces a smoother weld and there is less spatter because of the constant linear direction of
the current.
 It maintains a constant and stable arc and is thus is easier to handle and more reliable than AC
current.
 Machinery that uses DC current is generally cheaper and easier to use.
 It welds thinner metals better than AC current.

NOTES:

150
Setting up the Machine for Welding:

NOTES:

151
Arc Welding Accessories

Electrode Holder:

 An electrode holder, commonly called a stinger, is a clamping device for holding the
electrode securely in any position. The welding cable attaches to the holder through the
hollow insulated handle.

 The design of the electrode holder permits quick and easy electrode exchange.

 Two general types of electrode holders are in use: insulated and non-insulated. The
non-insulated holders are not recommended because they are subject to accidental
short circuiting if bumped against the work- piece during welding. For safety reasons,
try to ensure the use of only insulated stingers on the jobsite.

 Electrode holders are made in different sizes, and manufacturers have their own system
of designation.

 Each holder is designed for use within a specified range of electrode diameters and
welding current.

 Larger welding holder is required, when welding with a machine having a 300-ampere
rating than when welding with a 100-ampere machine. If the holder is too small, it will
overheat.

Earth Clamps

 The use of a good ground clamp is essential to producing quality welds.

 Without proper grounding, the circuit voltage fails to produce enough heat for proper
welding, and there is the possibility of damage to the welding machine and cables.

Three basic methods are used to ground a welding machine:

NOTES:

152
 The ground cable must be fasten to the workbench with a C-clamp.
 Spring-loaded clamp to be attached directly onto the work piece.
 The end of the ground cable to be bolt or tack-weld to the welding bench.

A spring-loaded ground clampfor


the ground lead

C-clamped ground cable

Bolted and tack-welded ground clamps

Welding Cables

A welding cable is defined as cable designed for use in secondary circuits of electric
welders.

Welding cable typically consists of a single, finely stranded conductor and a single layer of
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer, also referred to as EPDM, is a form of
synthetic rubber insulation) or neoprene thermoset insulation with an operating
temperature rating of 90°C or 105°C.

A durable cable is important since welding often takes place in industrial environments
where abrasions, cuts, burns from sparks, and oil and water exposure can quickly wear out
a weaker cable.

NOTES:

153
Disadvantages of DC Arc Welding

 There’s greater potential for arc blow.


 DC currents are not supplied by electrical grids, so they need an internal transformer to
change the current from AC to C for use. That makes this method more expensive to use.
 It’s not good for use in welding aluminum because it cannot produce the high-intensity
heat necessary.

6.2.2 Welding Parameters

 Constant current characteristics.


 Easiness in starting and restarting of arc.
 Excellent arc stability throughout the entire range (20-600 Amp).
 Effective fan cooling to ensure complete cooling of all power components.
 Under voltage & over voltage protection to take care for input voltage fluctuation.
 Protection against single phasing, short circuit, thermal overload and fan failure.
 Hot start / anti stick characteristics to prevent electrode freezing.
 Easy accessibility to major components from maintenance viewpoint.
 Compact & robust in construction for use at rough shop floor condition.
 Fitted with Ammeter & voltmeter.
 Step less current variation through knob on front panel of rectifier and also through
remote control.
Selection of Machine

 Type of material being welded


 Thickness of material
 Required weld metallurgy
 Welding position

NOTES:

154
 Available power supply, for example, single phase or three phase
 Amount of available current
 Time requirements
Setting up the Machine for Welding:

 Set up the equipment in a safe place & organize it.


 Secure the pieces to be welded, and connect the ground clamp to one of them.
 Turn on the welder and set the amperage to just past the half-way point of the
suggested range listed on the machine.
 Select the filler rod as per the requirements.
 With the rod holder well away from the work pieces, insert the rod & "lock" it into one
of the grooves (usually the angled one).
 Place the rod tip a couple inches away from where you're going to weld.
 Lower your helmet and you're ready to strike the arc.
6.2.3 Straight and reverse Polarity in DC Arc Welding:

 The term 'polarity' is used to describe the electrical connection of the electrode in
relation to the terminal of a power source.

 With direct current (DC), when the electrode is connected to the positive terminal, the
polarity is designated as direct current electrode positive (DCEP).

 When the electrode is connected to the negative terminal, the polarity is designated as
direct current electrode negative (DCEN).

Direct Current Straight Polarity (DCSP) or Direct Current Electrode Negative(DCEN)


– When the electrode is connected with the negative terminal of the power source and base

NOTES:

155
metal are connected with the positive terminal.

Direct Current Reverse Polarity (DCRP) or Direct Current Electrode Positive(DCEP) – When
the base metals are connected with the negative terminal of the power source and the electrode is
connected with the positive terminal.

Application:

 Metals with high melting temperature (such as stainless steel, titanium) can be suitably
joined by DCSP.

 DCSP is not suitable for welding thin plates.

 Metals with low melting temperature (such as copper, aluminum) can be suitably
joined by DCRP.

 DCRP is suitable for welding thin plates.

DC Reverse Polarity:
In DC reverse polarity the electrode is positive and the current flows from the work piece
to the electrode. Welding with reverse DC polarity is ideal for:
 Overhead welding
 Vertical welding
 Cast iron welding
 Heavy aluminum
 Rivet welding
 Sheet metal
 Low hydrogen welding
 Arc bronze rod

NOTES:

156
 The visual characteristics and mechanical properties of aluminum weldments are
controlled by weld bead penetration and shape.
 A number of variables affect the end properties of the weld bead and they can be
controlled by the welder.
6.2.5 Defects in MIG Welding – Causes and Remedies:

DEFECT CAUSE REMEDIS DEFECT CONDITION


Cracks 1.Wrong 1.Use Right Filler
Wire/Electrode Wire
Consumable 2.Quality Procedure
2.Wrong Procedure 3.Preheat
3.Improper Preheat Uniformly
4. Inadequate 4. Add more filler
thickness in root wire/electrode in
pass. root pass.

Under Cut 1.Excess current 1.Reduce the


2.Excess Voltage current
3.Improper Torch 2.Reduce arc length
Angle 3.Train and qualify
welder

Spatter 1.Arc blow 1.Lighten arc blow


2.Current too high 2.adjust Current to
3.Arc too long needs
4.Faulty electrode 3.adjust to proper
arc length
Choose correct
electrodes

NOTES:

157
Porosity A Porous weld 1.Insufficient Weld
structure generally Time
caused by improper 2.ImProper rate of
application of heat current rise
and force is 3.Improper
observed by electrode counter
sectioning and 4.Incorrect &
etching the weld. insufficient force
and sequence
Over Lap 1.Wrong Direction 1.Train & Qualify
of Arc Welder
2.Inadequate 2.Increase Current
current 3.Reduce Filler
3.Excess Filler Metal
Wire
1.Less deposition of 1.More deposition of
Incomplete penetration weld metal the weld metal
2.Uses of improper size 2.Use a proper size of
of electrode electrode
3.Improper Welding 3.By using proper
Technique welding Technique

6.3 MIG Welding- GMAW


 The MIG process is a versatile welding technique which is suitable for both thin sheet
and thick section components. It is capable of high productivity.
 To achieve satisfactory welds, welders must have a good knowledge of equipment
requirements and should also recognize fully the importance of setting up and
maintaining component parts correctly.
6.3.1 MIG Welding machines and Accessories:
In MIG the arc is formed between the end of a small diameter wire electrode fed from a
spool, and the work piece. Main equipment components are:
 Power Source
 Wire Feed System
 Conduit
 Gun
The arc and weld pool are protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield. This enables
bare wire to be used without a flux coating.

NOTES:

158
Power source:

MIG is operated usually with a DC power source. In


MIG, welding current is determined by wire feed speed, and
arc length is determined by power source voltage level.

Wire burn-off rate is automatically adjusted for any


slight variation in the gun to work piece distance, wire feed
speed, or current pick-up in the contact tip.

For example, if the arc momentarily shortens, arc voltage will decrease and welding current
will be momentarily increased to burn back the wire and maintain pre-set arc length.

There is a wide range of power sources available, mode of metal transfer can be:

Dip:
A low welding current is used for thin-section material, or welding in the vertical position.
The molten metal is transferred to the work piece by the wire dipping into the weld pool.
As welding parameters will vary from around 100A \17V to 200A \ 22V (for a 1.2mm
diameter wire), power sources normally have a current rating of up to 350A.
Spray:
In spray metal transfer, metal transfers as a spray of fine droplets without the wire touching
the weld pool.
The arc voltage is higher to ensure that the wire tip does not touch the weld pool. Typical
welding parameters for a 1.2mm diameter wire are within 250A \ 28V to 400A \ 35V.
Pulsed:
Synergic pulsed MIG power sources, which are advanced transistor-controlled power
sources, are preprogrammed so that the correct pulse parameters are delivered automatically as the
welder varies wire feed speed.
Wire feed system
The system must be capable of feeding the wire smoothly, attention should be paid to the
feed rolls and liners.
There are three types of feeding systems:
Pinch rolls, Push-pull, Spool on gun.

NOTES:

159
Conduit:

 The conduit can measure up to 5m in length, and to facilitate feeding, should be kept
as short and straight as possible. (For longer lengths of conduit, an intermediate push-
pull system can be inserted).

Gun:
 In addition to directing the wire to the joint, the welding gun fulfils two important
functions - it transfers the welding current to the wire and provides the gas for
shielding the arc and weld pool.
 There are two types of welding guns: 'air' cooled and water cooled.

NOTES:

160
NOTES:

161
Gas Flow Regulator for MIG Welding

 The flow rate of the shield gas is adjustable with just a touch versus flow meter type
regulators.
 It helps to reduce gas waste by allowing the operator to set the exact flow setting
quickly and easily, thus preventing excessive use of expensive shielding gas.
 Keep a first aid kit on hand
 Use proper welding gear that includes eye protection and protective clothing
 Keep a fire extinguisher on hand
Advantages of the GMAW Process
 Low cost equipment
 Low cost consumables
 High deposition rates
 Low hydrogen deposits
 Can weld almost all metals
 Low levels of spatter
 Unlimited thickness
 Easy to learn
 Little clean up
 High electrode efficiencies
6.3.3 MIG Welding Process Parameters
 Cables to be checked before striking an arc
 Electrode polarity should be selected. MIG welding requires DC electrode positive, or
reverse polarity.
 Gas flow to be set. The shielding gas to be turned on and the flow rate to be set as 20
to 25 cubic feet per hour.
 Tension should be checked. Too much or too little tension on either the drive rolls or
the wire spool hub can lead to poor wire feeding performance.

NOTES:

162
 Consumables must be inspected. Excess spatter from contact tubes to be removed.
Electrode Selection
 For steel, there are two common wire types. Use an AWS classification ER70S-3 for
all-purpose welding. Use ER70S-6 wire when more deoxidizers are needed for
welding on dirty or rusty steel.
 As for wire diameter, .030-in. diameter makes a good all-around choice for welding a
wide range of metal thicknesses in home and motorsports applications.
 For welding thinner material, use a .023-in. wire to reduce heat input. For welding
thicker material at higher total heat levels, use .035-in.
6.3.4 Machine Setting:

Electrode Position

Before touching the wire tip to the metal, ensure it is extruding from the welding torch by
approximately 6mm to 10mm.

Hold the torch at a 10 to 20 degree angle is ideal for flat surfaces. When it comes to
welding two pieces at a corner, you will want to hold the torch at a 45 degree angle so it can
create an even bond between each piece.

NOTES:

163
6.3.6 MIG Welding Defects, Causes & Remedies

Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal
defects:
External Welding Defects:
1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater
Internal Welding Defects:
1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or incomplete penetration

6.4 Inspection and Testing of Welded Joints


Introduction
To produce quality weld joints, it is necessary to keep an eye on what is being done in
three different stages of the welding;

NOTES:

164
 Before welding in cleaning & edge preparation
 During welding
 After welding in removal of slag, peening & post welding treatment.
6.4.1 Visual Inspection
It is mainly carried out to assess ground realties in respect of progress of the work or how
meticulously things are being implemented.
Testing helps to:
a) Assess the suitability of the weld joint for a particular application
b) To take decision on whether to go ahead (with further processing or accept/reject the
same) at any stage of welding and
c) To quantify the performance parameters related with soundness and performance of
weld joints.
Testing methods of the weld joint are broadly classified as destructive testing and non-
destructive testing.
In Non-destructive tested specimen, the extent of damage on tested specimen is either
none or negligible which does not adversely affect their usability for the intended purpose in
anyways.
6.4.2 Non- destructive testing
To determine the presence of surface and surface imperfections, non-destructive testing of
weld joints can be carried out using variety of techniques as per needs. Apart from the visual
inspection ,many non-destructive testing methods including dye penetrate test (DPT),magnetic
particle test(MPT),eddy current test(ECT),ultrasonic test(UT), radio graphic test(RT) etc. are
used in manufacturing industry for assessing the soundness of weld joints .In following section,
principle and capability of some non- destructive testing methods have been described.
6.4.2.1 Dye penetrant test
This is one of the simplest non-destructive testing
methods primarily used for detecting the presence of
surface defects. In this method, a thin low viscosity and
low surface tension liquid containing suitable dye is applied
on the surface to be tested (Fig.32.8).The thin liquid
penetrates (by capillary action)into fine cavities ,pores and
cracks ,if any, present on the surface. Excess liquid present
at surface is wiped out. Then suitable developer like tal
corchalk powder is sprinkled over the surface. Developer
sucks out thin liquid with dye wherever it is present inside

NOTES:

165
the surface discontinuities present on the weld joints. Dye with liquid changes colour of developer
and indicates location, and size of surface defects.
6.4.2.2 Magnetic particle testing
This method is mainly used for assessing the surface and near surface defects in magnetic
material. It is based on the simple principle of the flow of magnetic line of forces. Magnetic flux
flows easily through metal from south to north-pole. The component to be evaluated is magnetized
using electrical energy or suitable permanent magnetic.
The electro-magnetization is performed using suitable yoke which is applied across the
location/area to be tested. Presence of any dis-continuity in the form of crack, porosity ,near
surface defects in the path of flow of these lines results in leakage of magnetic flux forming two
additional poles. The magnetic powder particles(in dry form or suspension form in thin liquid)are
sprinkled over the surface of components to be tested.
The magnetic particles tend to migrate toward the location wherever leakage of magnetic
flux had taken place and then get piled up(Fig). The particles along discontinuities on the surface
near or shallow sub-surface discontinuities. The location and pattern of piled up magnetic powder
particles suggest the location, size ,type of discontinuity present on the surface or near surface
region. Hazypile of powder particle indicates the sub-surface defect. Formation of very thin line of
powder particles suggests presence of crack with details of size and location testing is found fit for
Ferro magnetic metal only of crack.

Principle of magnetic particle test

6.4.3 Destructive testing


Destructive testing methods damage the test piece to more or less extent. The extent of
damage on (destructive) tested specimens sometime can be up to complete fracture (like in tensile
or fatigue testing) thus making it un-useable for the intended purpose.
The following tests are done in the destructive Testing are,
 Tensile Test
 Bend Test
 Hardness Test

NOTES:

166
 Toughness Test
7.0 MILLING
7.1 MILLING CUTTERS
7.1.2 Inserted Teeth Cutter:
A milling cutter designed with replaceable cutting tooth inserts to save the expense of a
new cutter whenever the teeth become damaged or worn. Generally, they are made 6 inches or
more in diameter.

7.1.3 Form Milling Cutter:


The form-cutting method uses a cutting tool that has the same form as the space between two
adjacent teeth on a gear. This method is used for cutting gear teeth on a milling machine.

7.1.4 T-Slot Milling Cutter


The ‘T’ slot milling end mills for producing T-slots. The teeth are provided on the periphery as
well as on both sides of the cutter

NOTES:

167
7.1.5 Plain Milling Cutter
The plain milling cutters are cylindrical in shape and have teeth on the circumference surface
only. The cutters are intended for the production of flat surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation of

the spindle. The cutter teeth may be straight or helical according to the size of the cutter.
7.1.6 Side and Face Cutters
These cutters have teeth on its periphery and also on one side or both of
its sides. The side milling cutters are intended for removing metals from
the side of the work. Plain side milling cutters have straight
circumferential teeth and side teeth on both of its sides, two or more
cutters may be mounted on the arbor to mill different faces of work
simultaneously.
7.1.7 Angular Cutters
They are made as single or double angle cutters and are used to machine angles other than 90
degree.

7.1.8 shell mill cutter:


It provide quality surface finishes at higher speeds, while a
flycutter can create a much finer finish with less horsepower. To that end,
a fly cutter only uses one insert, which, while slower, can provide a more
uniform surface finish.
7.1.9 End Mill
The end mills have cutting teeth on the end as well as on periphery of the cutter. The peripheral
teeth may be straight or helical. The end mills are used for light milling operations like cutting
slots, machining accurate holes, producing narrow flat surfaces and for profile milling operations.

NOTES:

168
7.2 Nomenclature of Milling Cutter:

Body of cutter: It is the main frame of milling cutter, on which the teeth rest.
Periphery: It is defined as the locus of cutting edges of tooth of cutter.
Cutting edge: It is the portion that touches the workpiece during cutting action. It is the
intersection of teeth face and tooth flank.
Fillet: portion where one teeth joins the face of another tooth. It is a reinforcement to cutting
tooth.
Face of teeth: it is the surface upon the chip is formed while cutting. It may be curved or flat.
Back of tooth: it is the created by fillet and the secondary clearance angle.
Land: it is the narrow surface on the back of cutting edge. Land is the result of providing the
clearance angle.
Bottom Land: the blank space between the consecutive teeth.

NOTES:

169
Root diameter: diameter passing through centre of cutter and joining two ends of the periphery.
Root diameter: passing through centre of cutter and joining two bottom fillet.
Lip angle: It is the angle between the face of the teeth and the land of the teeth. Land is a narrow
surface on the back of teeth.
Relief angle: it is the angle between the tangent to the outside diameter of the cutter at cutting
edge and the land of the tooth. The function relief angle is to avoid the interference between the
land of the tooth and the work surface. The relief angle varies with the type of material to be
machined.
Radial rake angle: it is the angle between the face of teeth and the radial line passing through the
cutting edge of the tooth. The radial rake angle may be positive, negative or zero. It is provided
free cutting by allowing chips to flow smoothly on the face of the cutter.
7.3 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut:
Milling feeds and depth of cut
The two other factors which affect the efficiency of a milling operation are the milling
FEED or the rate at which the work is fed into the milling cutter and the DEPTH of CUT taken at
each pass.
Feed
Feed is the rate at which the work moves into revolving cutter. It is measured in millimetres per
min (mm/min.)
The feed is expressed in milling machines by following three different methods.
Feed Per Tooth:
Feed per tooth is defined by the distance the work advances in the time between engagements by
two successive teeth. It is expressed in mm/tooth.
Feed per Cutter revolution
It is the distance the work advances in the time when the cutter runs through one complete
revolution. It is expressed in mm/revolution.
Feed Per Minute
It is defined by the distance the work advances in one minute. It is expressed in mm/minute.

NOTES:

170
7.4 Calculation of RPM and Feed Rate:

7.5 Work Holding Device:


It is necessary that the work should be put and securely held on the milling machine table for
effective machining operations the following are the usual methods of holding the work on the
table.

7.5.1 T-bolts and clamps: Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the
milling machine table by using T-bolts and clamps. Different designs of , clamps are used for
different pattern of work.

7.5.2 Vices : Vices are the most common appliances for holding the work on milling machine
table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. There
are mainly three types of vices commonly used in milling
machines. They are plain vice, swivel vice, and tool makers
universal vice.

NOTES:

171
Plain vice: The plain vice bolted directly on the milling machine
table is the most common type of machine vice used for plain
milling operations. The vice may be fastened to the table with 'the
jaws set either parallel or at right angles to the table T-slots. Work
is clamped between the fixed and movable jaw and for holding
work pieces of irregular shape special jaws are sometimes used.
Swivel vice: The swivel vice is used to mill an angular surface in relation to a straight surface
without removing the work from the vice. In construction, it may be considered as a plain vice
which is mounted on a circular base graduated in degrees. The base is clamped on the table by
means of T-bolts.
7.6. TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
7.6.1Arbor
Types of arbors and their uses
An arbor is considered as an extension of the
machine spindle on which milling cutters are
mounted. Arbors are quick-release taper shanks for
proper alignment with the spindle. There are two
types of arbors, normally used for holding the cutters.
They are (1) long arbor and (2) short or stub arbor.
Long arbors are used for holding cutters in both horizontal and universal milling machines. The
milling cutter (a) is driven by a key (b) which fits into the keyway (c) on the arbor and cutter. This
prevents the cutter from turning on the arbor. The spacer (d) and bearing bushings (e) hold the
cutter in position on the arbor after the nut (f) has been tightened.
7.6.2 Collet:
A milling chuck is a small piece of metal that connects the cutting tool to the machine. Many
industries make use of clamps to hold onto interchangeable tools or drill bits. ... The most
common clamp used in metalworking is the collet, or an unusually shaped collar that tapers into a
cone at one end.

NOTES:

172
8.0 GRINDING:
Grinding is a finishing process
used to improve surface finish, abrade
hard materials, and tighten the tolerance
on flat and cylindrical surfaces by
removing a small amount of material.
In grinding, an abrasive material
rubs against the metal part and removes
tiny pieces of material. The abrasive
material is typically on the surface of
a wheel or belt and abrades material in a
way similar to sanding.
8.1 Grinding machines:
Grinding machines are precision machine tools, designed to remove metal from a work
piece to close tolerances (up to 0.0025 mm) and to produce high quality surface finish .It uses an
abrasive wheel for cutting.
The common types of precision grinders are:
 Surface grinders.
 Cylindrical grinders
 Centreless grinders
 Portable grinding machine
 Bench grinders
 Tool and cutter grinders.
1.1.1 Surface Grinder:
Surface grinders are used to grind flat, parallel surfaces or stepped surfaces. The surface produced
by a surface grinder is more economical and more accurate than the surface obtained by filing or
scraping.

NOTES:

173
8.1.2 Cylindrical Grinder:

A cylindrical grinder is used for shaping the outside of a workpiece. These machines accept
workpieces in a variety of shapes as long as they can be rotated through a central axis. In a
cylindrical grinder, both the workpiece and grinding wheel are simultaneously rotated. Outside
diameter grinders, internal diameter grinders, and centerless grinders are all types of cylindrical
grinders.

8.1.3 Centreless Grinding:

Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive cutting to remove material from a
workpiece. Centerless grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that no spindle or
fixture is used to locate and secure the workpiece; the workpiece is secured between two rotary

NOTES:

174
grinding wheels, and the speed of their rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which
material is removed from the workpiece.

8.1.4 Specification of grinding machine:

 The size of a grinding machine is specified according to the size of the largest workpiece
that can be mounted on the machine.

 The cylindrical centre type grinding machine is specified by the diameter and length of the
largest workpiece the machine can accommodate between centers.

 The internal centre type grinder is specified by the diameter of workpiece that can be
swung and the maximum length of the stroke of the grinding wheel.

 The reciprocating table type surface grinders are specified by the table area and the
maximum height of the grinding wheel from the table surface. The rotary table type
surface grinder is specified by the diameter of the chuck or table. A tool and cutter grinder
is specified further by the maximum size of tool that can be sharpened and dressed.

8.2 Grinding Operations:


 Horizontal Surface Grinding
 Vertical Surface Grinding
 Cylindrical Grinding
 Internal Cylindrical Grinding
 Centreless Grinding

 Form Cylindrical Grinding

NOTES:

175
8.3 Work Holding Methods:

In grinding, different work-holding devices are used to keep the work piece in position.

The work-holding devices used in grinding are:

 Magnetic chuck

 Vice

 Angle plates

 V blocks

 Clamps.

Magnetic chuck:

Magnetic chucks are of two types.

 Electromagnetic chuck

 Permanent magnetic chuck

The magnetic power of the electromagnetic chuck can be varied


according to the size of the work. But not so in the case of a
permanent magnetic chuck.

Uses:

The magnetic chuck (Fig 1) is the most commonly used work-


holding device. It holds ferrous work pieces.

Vices:

Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work pieces, which cannot
be conveniently held on magnetic chucks.

A vice may be set on the grinder table directly or on the magnetic chuck.

Types of vices:

 Plain vice

 Tilting vice

 Universal vice

NOTES:

176
 A Plain vice is used to hold work pieces for
plain or step grinding.
 A Tilting Type vice is used to hold the work
piece while grinding angular surfaces. If
required, the tilting base can be removed and
can be mounted on the magnetic chuck as a
plain vice
 A Universal vice is used to hold the work
Piece while grinding the angular surface in
two different planes. This is small in size. So
it is mainly used in tool grinding.

V- block:

V blocks are used to hold the round work pieces while grinding
a flat on the work piece.

These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding
flat surfaces on the exterior. Square work pieces may also be supported
in Vee blocks for grinding the external corners of the work.

Vee blocks may be attached to the work table by clamps or be


set on a magnetic chuck.

Magnetic Vee blocks can be used also in combination with other mounting devices, such
as angle plates which themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a
magnetic chuck.

NOTES:

177
8.4 Grinding Wheels:

 In order to make the grinding wheel suitable for


different work situations, the features such as abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure and bonding materials can be
varied.

 A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the


cutting, and a bond that holds the abrasive particles
together.

8.4.1 Types of Grinding Wheels:

Straight Grinding wheels:

Straight wheel are the most common mode of wheel that is found on pedestal or bench grinders.
This is the one widely used for centreless & cylindrical surface grinding operations. As it
is used only on the periphery, it forms a little concave surface on the piece.
This is used to grind on several tools like chisels. The size of these wheels differs to a
great extent, width & diameter of its face obviously depends on the category of its work, machines
grinding power.
Cylinder or wheel ring: A cylinder wheel has no center mounting support but has a long & wide
surface. Their width is up to 12" and is used purely in horizontal or vertical spindle grinders. This
is used to produce flat surface, here we do grinding with the ending face of the wheel.

Tapered Grinding wheels: Tapered Grinding wheel is a straight wheel that tapers externally
towards the midpoint of the wheel. As this pact is stronger than straight wheels, it accepts
advanced lateral loads. Straight wheel with tapered face is chiefly used for gear teeth, grinding
thread, etc.

NOTES:

178
Straight cup: This Straight cup wheels forms an option for cup wheels in cutter and tool
grinders, having an extra radial surface of grinding is favorable.

Dish cup: In fact this is used primarily in jig grinding and cutter grinding. It is a very thin cup-
style grinding wheel which permits grinding in crevices and slot.

Saucer Grinding Wheels:


Saucer Grinding Wheel is an exceptional grinding profile used for grinding twist drills and milling
cutters. This finds wide usage in non-machining areas, as this saw filers are used by saucer wheels
to maintain saw blades.
Diamond Grinding Wheels:
In diamond wheels industrial diamonds remain bonded to the edge. This is
used to grind hard materials like concrete, gemstones & carbide tips. A
slitting saw is designed for slicing gemstones like hard materials.
8.4.2 Specification Of Grinding Wheel:
A grinding wheel is specified by the:
 Standard wheel markings
 Diameter of the wheel
 Bore diameter of the wheel
 Thickness of the wheel
 Type (shape) of the wheel
8.4.3 Wheel mounting Procedure:
Great care must be taken in mounting the grinding wheels on the spindle because of high cutting
speeds.

NOTES:

179
 All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make sure that they have
not been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise.
 The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing test. For this purpose, the grinding wheel
is put on an arbor while it is subjected to slight hammer blows.
 A clear, ringing, vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains fine cracks,
discordant sound that fail to vibrate will be emitted. This test is applicable to vitrified and
silicate wheels. Shellac, resinoid or rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
 The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or locating spigots. They
should not be forced on.
 The hole of grinding wheels mostly is lined with lead. The lead liner bushes should not
project beyond the side of wheels.
 There must be a flange on each side of the wheel. The mounting flanges must be large
enough to hold the wheel properly, at least the flange diameter must be equal to the half of
the grinding wheel diameter.

 Both the flanges should be of the same diameter, other-wise the wheel is under a bending
stress which is liable to cause fracture.

NOTES:

180
8.4.4 Wheel Balancing:
 The sides of the wheel and the flanges
which clamp them should be flat and
bear evenly all round. All flanges must
be relieved in the center so that the
flanges contact the wheel only with the
annular clamping area.
 If they are not properly relieved, the
pressure of the flanges is concentrated
on the sides of the wheel near the hole, a
condition which should be avoided.
 Washers of compressible materials such
as card board, leather, rubber, etc. not over 1.5 mm thick should be fitted between the
wheel and its flanges.

 In this way any unevenness of the wheel surface is balanced and a tight joint is obtained.
The diameter of washers may be normally equal to the diameter of the flanges.
 The inner fixed flange should be keyed or otherwise fastened to the spindle, whereas the
outer flange should have an easy sliding fit on the spindle so that it can adjust itself
slightly to give a uniform bearing on the wheel and the compressible washers.
 The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue tightness is unnecessary and
undesirable as excessive clamping strain is liable to damage the wheel.
 The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the machine is started for work.
8.4.5 Truing:

 Trueing the wheel makes the grinding


surface parallel to the grinding table or
other reference plane, so that the entire
grinding wheel is even and produces an
accurate surface.

 When the grinding wheel is mounted to


the grinding wheel spindle, the run-out
on wheel operating surface is removed,
the wheel during contour grinding is trued or worn grinding wheel is corrected. Truing,
essential for precision grinding, ensures the contact face of the grinding wheel is formed to
run absolutely true with the work. An out-of-true wheel will produce chatter marks.

NOTES:

181
 Both dressing and truing are done with the diamond wheel dresser.

8.4.6 Dressing:

 Dressing the wheel refers to removing the current layer of abrasive, so that a fresh and
sharp surface is exposed to the work surface.

 When the sharpness of grinding wheel becomes dull because of glazing and loading,
dulled grains and chips are removed (crushed or fallen) with a proper dressing tool to
make sharp cutting edges and simultaneously, make recesses for chips by properly
extruding to grain cutting edges.

9.0 SHEET METAL PROCESSING - PRESS TOOLS:

9.1 Introduction to Press tools:

Press tools are used to produce a particular component in large quantity, out of sheet metals
where particular component achieved depends upon press tool construction and its configuration.

The different types of press tool constructions leads to different operations namely blanking,
bending, piercing, forming, drawing, cutting off, parting off, embossing, coining, notching,
shaving, lancing, dinking, perforating, trimming, curling etc.

9.2 Types of Press Tools:

9.2.1 Blanking tool:

When a component is produced with one single punch and die where the entire outer
profile is cut in a single stroke the tool is called a blanking tool. The outer area of metal remaining
after a blanking operation is generally discarded as waste. It is a metal cutting operation. In
blanking metal obtained after cutting is not a scrap or it is usable. The size of the blank depends
on the size of the die.

NOTES:

182
9.2.2 Piercing tool:

Piercing involves cutting of clean holes with a resulting scrap slug. The operation is called
die cutting and can also produce flat components where the die, the shaped tool, is pressed into a
sheet material employing a shearing action to cut holes. This method can be used to cut parts of
different sizes and shapes in sheet metal, leather and many other materials.

9.2.3 Progressive tool:

A progressive tool differs from a stage tool in the following respect: in a progressive tool
the final component is obtained by progressing the sheet metal or strip in more than one stage. At
each stage the tool will progressively shape the component towards its final shape, with the final
stage normally being cutting-off.

NOTES:

183
9.2.4 Compound tool:

The compound tool differs from


progressive and stage tools by the
arrangement of the punch and die. It is an
inverted tool where blanking and piercing
takes place in a single stage and also the
blanking punch will act as the piercing
die.

In most cases this operation


perforates a hole or holes down, while the
part blanks up. This allows slugs from
those holes to fall through the die. This
method leaves the part in the die,
requiring some means of part removal.

9.2.5 Bending tool:

NOTES:

184
Bending is a method of producing shapes by stressing metal beyond its yield strength, but
not past its ultimate tensile strength. The forces applied during bending are in opposite directions,
just as in the cutting of sheet metal. The two types of bending process are Air Bending and
Bottom Bending.

The bend allowance (BA) is the length of the arc of the neutral line between the tangent
points of a bend in any material. Adding the length of each flange taken between the center of the
radius to the BA gives the Flat Pattern length.

9.2.6 Forming tool:

Forming tools are parts that act as dies that bend, stretch, or otherwise form sheet metal to
create form features such as louvers, lances, flanges, and ribs.

Forming is the operation of deforming a part in curved profile. Forming tools apply more
complex forms to work pieces. The line of bend is curved instead of straight and the metal is
subjected to plastic flow or deformation.

NOTES:

185
9.2.7 Embossing tool:

Embossing is the shallow forming operation in


which the work piece material is stretched over a male
die and made to conform to a male die surface by a
mating female die surface. The finished product will
have depressed detail on the other.

Pressure pads or ejector pins are to be providing


to remove the embossed part from die depending on the
size and shape of the embossed form. When embossing
non-ferrous metals like aluminum, copper etc a rubber
cushion can be used instead of the punch made of steel.

9.2.8 Coining tool:

Coining is a form of precision stamping in which a workpiece is subjected to a sufficiently


high stress to induce plastic flow on the surface of the material. A beneficial feature is that in

NOTES:

186
some metals, the plastic flow reduces surface grain size, and work hardens the surface, while the
material deeper in the part retains its toughness and ductility. The term comes from the initial use
of the process: manufacturing of coins.

Coining is a cold working process similar in other respects to forging, which takes place at
elevated temperature; it uses a great deal of force to plastically deform a workpiece, so that it
conforms to a die. Coining can be done using a gear driven press, a mechanical press, or more
commonly, a hydraulically actuated press.

9.2.9 Trimming tool:

"Trimming" is the operation


of cutting off the parts that have
deviated from the shape as described
above thereby making the shape
correct.

The trimming is done by the


top die, and the product enters inside
the top die. The product inside the
die rises above the top die and is
knocked out near the top dead point,
and is thus ejected from the die. The
knock out touches the bottom of the drawn product. In the case of a product with a large flange,
there is the possibility that the flange is warped at the time of ejecting. In the case of a product
with a large flange, the knock out is made to escape according to the diameter of drawing, and the
ejecting is done at the flange part.

9.2.10 Cutoff tool:

NOTES:

187
Cutting off work is a method of blanking work in which the material is cut by shearing
into two parts without generating any scrap. If this method is used, the rate of utilization of the
material (yield) can be increased to the maximum possible extent.

The cutting is done in the condition in which the material is passed through the tunnel part
of a fixed stripper and has butted against a block.

10.0 PRESSED, CAST, FORGED COMPONENTS IN VEHICLE AGGREGATES:

The most common sheet metal used in automotive to make bodies is steel. It is reasonably cheap
and easy to press into shape to make body parts.

The next best is aluminum. It is lighter but harder to bend into tight shapes without cracking.

NOTES:

188
The Sheet Metal Components used in Auto industries are

 Arm rear brake lever for motorcycles

 Flange plate assembly of fuel indicator of scooter / motorcycles,

 Backrest recliner-bracket of truck seat

 Throttle switch base plate

 Side Bracket for Sliding Backrest of Scooters

 Seat hinge Assembly

 Head lamp Rim & Reflector

 Bicycle Seat Support Frame and fittings

 Front brake lever

 Fuel Gauge Assembly

 Head Light Reflector

Casting: The idea behind die casting was originally created for automobiles. Since vehicles
require complex shapes and sizes for different parts of the vehicle, it is almost mandatory to use
zinc die casting. Due to the precise accuracy of this process, the need for further machining is
practically non-existent. This alone saves an exuberant amount of time and money for the
manufacturing of automobile parts. One can typically use zinc for retractor gears, seat belt
pulleys, and camshafts, as well as a multitude of other parts on most vehicles. This amazing metal

NOTES:

189
provides strength, flexibility, and malleability that you cannot match with other materials. Zinc
has a lowering melting point, allowing for less energy during production.

Forged components are commonly found at points of shock and stress such as wheel spindles,
kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms and steering
arms.

NOTES:

190
Subject Title : PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Subject Code: S1. T4


═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Introduction to TATA Group Code of Conduct
2.0 Ethics, Cultures and Values
3.0 Importance of Good Work Ethic
4.0 Positive Work Ethics
5.0 Five Characteristics of Good Work Ethics
6.0 Developing Strong Work Ethic
7.0 Professionalism and Work Ethic
8.0 Motivation to improve Work Ethics

NOTES:

191
2.0 ETHICS, CULTURES AND VALUES
2.1 ETHICS DEFINITION

 Ethics is moral philosophy

 It studies the evolution of right and wrong behavior

 A code of moral standards of conduct

 Ethical behavior is value driven

A study on ‘Professional Ethics’ will improve one’s ability and judgement and
refine one’s behavior, decisions, actions in performing duty to the family,
organization and society.

2.2 CULTURE DEFINITION

 Culture is the way of thinking, the ways of acting and


the material objects that together forms a people’s way
of life.

 For example:-Language, religion, dress, social habits, marriage


custom, cuisine, music and arts etc.

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

 Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs, which


governs how people behave in organizations.

 These shared values have a strong influence on the people in the organization and dictate
how they dress, act, and perform their jobs.

NOTES:

192
2.2.1 STRONG CULTURE

Are those in which the key values are deeply held and widely
shared and have a greater influence on employees. Eg: Google
culture

 Positive attitude towards work

 Less absenteeism & more motivation

 High behavioural control

 Powerful rules and regulation

2.2.2 WEAK CULTURE

Weak Culture: are those in which the key values are only limited to few people (mostly top
management) and don’t have much influence on the employees.
E.g.: Stardust and Persona

 Lack of organisational identity

 It changes according to local culture of employees

 Lack of shared values

 No sense of identity

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRONG AND WEAK CULTURE

STRONG CULTURE WEAK CULTURE


Values widely spread Values limited to few people-usually top
management
Culture conveys consistent Culture sends contradictory messages about
messages about what’s important what’s important
Most employees can tell stories Employees have little knowledge of
about company history/heroes company history/heroes

Strong connection between shared Weak connection between shared values


values and behaviours and behaviours

NOTES:

193
1.3 VALUES

2.3.1 Definition

 Values means beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is
important in life

 They are closely related to morality and ethics

 We have the ability to choose our values and establish our beliefs

 All these influence our behavior

WHAT ARE YOUR VALUES?

Values within

 Love

 Kindness

 Compassion

 Mercy

 Sympathy

 Empathy

Values to be practiced

 Punctuality

 Discipline

 Obedience

 Behavior

 Conduct

 Character

NOTES:

194
2.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUES

 Values must be global

 Values must be based on household ethic.

 Values should support brotherhood.

 Values can be taught through education.

 Values must be nonreligious, popular.

3.0 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD WORK ETHIC


3.1 INTRODUCTION

Set of moral principles that an employee uses in the performance of his job. Work ethic
can refer to how you feel about your
job or career, so it covers your
attitude and behaviour.

 Good attendance and

 Punctuality are two important pieces of a good work ethic

ELEMENTS OF A STRONG WORK ETHIC

NOTES:

195
3.2 CHARACTER

Expectation from employees

 Be honest: Be honest about your successes and failures, take credit only where due, do not
steal other’s works or ideas, and own up to your failures.

 Be dependable: complete assigned tasks correctly and promptly

 Be loyal: speak positively about the company

 Be willing to learn: look to improve your skills

3.3 TEAM WORK

Working towards a goal requires cooperation and respect

 Be a team player:- a ability to get along with others-including


those you don’t like.

 Leadership ability: the ability to become a leader.

 Accept compromise: recognize when to speak up with an idea


and when to comprise by blend ideas together.

 Cooperation: Cooperative work can be highly beneficial in a business entity, individuals


with a good work ethic know this well.

 Openness: Share your ideas, results and resources with the other team members, so that
everyone has the same opportunity and know what you are doing. Being secretive is
counterproductive.

 Be a contributing member: the ability to carry your own weight and help others who are
struggling

3.4 APPEARANCE
The first impression of who
you are can last a lifetime

 Dress appropriately

 Personal hygiene

 Good manners

NOTES:

196
3.5 PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE

COMMON TRAITS OF PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE

 Competence

 Reliability

 Honesty

 Integrity

 Respect For Others

 Being Positive.

 Supporting Others

 Staying Work-Focused

 Have a good attitude: listen to suggestions, be positive.

 Accept ones responsibility for ones work: if you make mistake, admit it

 Self-Upgrading

3.6 IMPACT FOR EMPLOYERS

1. Uniting People and Leadership:

 Values give the management reliability with its employees.

 Values are supposed to be common language to bring the


leadership and its people together.

2. Uniting People and Leadership

 An organization driven by values is revered by its employees also.

NOTES:

197
 This goes a long way in aligning behaviours within the
organization towards achievement of one common goal or
mission.

3. Improving Decision Making:

Values help better decision making. Ask yourself these questions


when making an important decision

 Awareness: Are we aware of the ethical issue we’re a part of?


 Beliefs: What are my moral beliefs? What do I stand for?

 Consequences: How may my decisions/actions affect other


and myself?
 Decision:-Could I justify my actions to my family and close
friends?

4. Long Term Gains:

 Ethics and profit go together.


 Organizations guided by ethics and values are profitable in
the long run.
 Treatment of employees,
 interactions with the public and
 information to shareholders
Can have a direct impact on the overall profitability of the
company.

3.7 EFFECTS AROUND THE WORKPLACE

 Law cannot protect the society, ethics can.

 Ethics corresponds to basic needs. Its is man’s


basic nature that he desires to be ethical; both in
private and professional life.

 An organization driven by values will be honoured and respected by society.

4.0 POSITIVE WORK ETHICS

Essential work ethics traits that encourage development of positive work habits beneficial to
business and industry are:-

 Attitude

NOTES:

198
 Communication ability

 Behavior towards co-worker

 Honesty

 Accountability

4.1 ATTITUDE

Attitude influences an individual's choice of action, and responses to challenges,


incentives, and rewards.

Five Attitudes that are important in workplaces:

RESPECT
FOR INNOVAT
OTHERS IVE IDEA

COMMI
TTMNET HELPFUL
TO THE NESS
JOBS
INFECTIO
US
ENTHUSIS
M

4.2 COMMUNICATION ABILITY

Ethical communication is exchanging information between people


in a manner that is truthful and accurate.

Communication can take place either orally or in writing.

Written communication: - Being able to appropriately write:-

 Lab memo & report

 Project notebook

 Executive summary

 Annual report

NOTES:

199
Verbal communication: - Being able to communicate well allows you to:

 Express your ideas/opinions vocally

 Speak to other/ audience

 Negotiate

 Give great speeches

 Influence people

4.3 BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS CO-WORKER

 Respect the dignity, privacy and freedom of all.

 Use good manners. Be courteous and polite.

 Listen to and communicate openly with others.

 Value and honor all people.

 Be friendly and cooperative.

 Strive for harmonious, mutually beneficial relationships.

 Show kindness and sensitivity to the feelings of others.

 Empathy is the ability to both recognize and understand


the feelings, thoughts, needs and behaviors of others.

4.4 HONESTY

A key component of workplace ethics and behaviour is integrity, or being honest and
doing the right thing at all times.

HOW TO SHOW HONESTY AT WORK?

 Say what you mean and mean what you say.

 Simplify your statements so that everyone clearly understands your message.

 Tell it like it is rather than sugar coating it.

 If you have a personal bias or a conflict of interest, make it known.

 Think before you speak.

 Tell people the reasoning behind your decisions so that your intent is understood.

NOTES:

200
 If something is misinterpreted, quickly correct the record.

 Admit a mistake or an error in judgment — in a timely fashion.

 Hold people accountable when their words do not match their actions.

 Never compromise your integrity and reputation

4.5 ACCOUNTABILITY

Taking responsibility for your actions is a major factor when it comes to workplace ethics
and behaviour.

That means:-

 Putting in an honest effort while on the job.

 Showing up on scheduled workdays

 Do what you promise

 Proactively solve problems

 Arriving on time

5.0 FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD WORK ETHICS

GOOD WORK ETHICS

Employees who have good work ethics can be very helpful for companies. This is because they
are more likely to work hard, and do quality work for the company.

Here are some characteristics of a good work ethic:

1. Dedication

2. Honesty

3. Understanding values of diversity

4. Respect to others

5. Co-operation

NOTES:

201
5.1 DEDICATION

Dedication can be described as an exceedingly strong feeling of loyalty and support for
someone or something.

Factors which drive dedication:

 Fairness at work

 Feeling of accomplishment

 Company’s care and concern

 Day to day satisfaction

 Appreciation

SHOW DEDICATION

 Proactive learning: staying interested in new


developments

 Volunteering solutions: coming up with solutions to problems


that are encountered in the workplace

 Assisting coworkers: helping a co-worker complete a huge


assignment on time, or training another employee.

 Flexible to change when it comes

 Punctuality at all times for meetings,


work and functions

 Shows high attendance / low


absenteeism at meetings, work and functions

 Putting in overtime:- willing to give up his personal time, volunteering for special
assignments.

 Known for getting things done

5.2 HONESTY

 Having integrity / honesty means you are true to yourself and would do nothing that
degrades or shames you.

 Employers value employees who maintain a sense of honesty and integrity above all.

NOTES:

202
 Good relationships are built on trust.

HOW TO DEMONSTRATE HONESTY?

 Don't accept praise for someone else's work

 Never steal supplies from the workplace

 Accept your mistakes

 Work together as a team

 Return change you found in the soda or snack vending


machine.

 Use materials for work and not personal use.

 Do not gossip or talking badly about someone

 Hide company’s confidential information if required

 Don’t cheat anyone

5.3 UNDERSTANDING VALUES OF DIVERSITY

 Diversity means understanding, accepting and


respecting that a person is
unique with individual
differences.

 Differences among people in age, gender, race, ethnicity,


religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic background and
capabilities/disabilities.

EMBRACING DIVERSITY

 Show respect towards all employees regardless of their


differences.

 Recruit employees who support the goals of your company

 Flexible schedules and accommodate religious holidays

 Educate employees on the laws and guidelines

 Managing diversity fairly and justly can improve organisational effectiveness.

NOTES:

203
5.4 RESPECT TO OTHERS

 Respect is thinking and acting in a way that shows others you care about their feelings and
their well-being.

 You can have respect for others, and you can have respect for
yourself.

 Respectfulness is character trait that is often present among those


with great work ethics.

SHOW RESPECT TO OTHERS

 Have positive attitude towards all

 Treat each & everyone with respect

 Listen with empathy

 Be flexible and tolerant

 Congratulate and encourage for good


job

 Use good manners

 Say thankyou

 Be helpful

5.5 CO-OPERATION

 Developing good working


relationships

 Following the chain of command

 Good at conflict management

 Being a good problem solver

NOTES:

204
6.0 DEVELOPING STRONG WORK ETHICS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

WHY YOU NEED A STRONG WORK ETHIC?

 Work ethics one of those things that many of us strive for and that employers look for.

 No one wants to have employees who work for them and don’t try to do anything at all.

 Similarly, work ethic is not necessarily something that you can teach someone how to do
or how to value.

Some factors that can strengthen your work ethics in accomplishing your goals are:-

1. Stay positive

2. Refuse to procrastinate

3. Keep your focus

4. Set a goal of dependability

5. Meet deadline

6. Step up to good work ethic

6.2 STAY POSITIVE

 A positive attitude gets the work done and motivates others

 It is the enthusiastic employee who creates an environment of


good will and who provides a positive role model for others.

 A positive attitude is something that is most valued by


supervisors and co-workers

 Employers seek employees who take the initiative and have the
motivation to get the job done in a reasonable period of time.

HOW TO STAY POSITIVE?

 Start your day in a positive way.

 Find the optimistic viewpoint in a negative situation.

 Cultivate and live in a positive environment.

NOTES:

205
 Go slowly.

 Don’t make a mountain out of a molehill.

 Exercise regularly and eat and sleep well.

 Learn to take criticism in a healthy way.

 Mindfully move through your day.

6.3 REFUSE TO PROCRASTINATE

Procrastinate is defined as to put something off to do at a later time.

Why people procrastinate?

Fatigue, stress, and fear are most popular.

Consider the following ways in which procrastination influences your work


ethic:

 Makes you lazy.

 Encourages you to develop an unrealistic attitude about time.

 Makes your priority muscle weak.

HOW TO REFUSE PROCRASTINATE?

 Decide exactly what you want.

 Write it down.

 Set a deadline and sub deadlines.

 Make a list of everything that you need to do to


achieve your goal.

 Organize your list into a plan.

 Take action on your plan immediately. Execution is


everything.

 Do something every day that moves you to your daily goal.

NOTES:

206
6.4 KEEP YOUR FOCUS

 Remain focused on a long-term goal while avoiding


getting side-tracked by a short-term gratification.

 To be persistent and able to follow through on


assignments…
Train yourself.

HOW TO MAINTAIN YOUR FOCUS

 Find a comfortable place for your work

 Make a to do list

 Time yourself

 Clear your desk

 Shut off everything (especially your phone)

 Exercise regularly & Meditate

 Frame a picture of your goal

 Award yourself

6.5 SET A GOAL OF DEPENDABILITY

 Set workable personal goals that can be achieved within the


set time

 Be available to the co-workers, customers, and management


and show concern

 Respect the company's policy and regulations by


becoming reliable and dependable

 Receive positive and negative criticism well with an open


mind

 Take responsibility for every task given and do the very


best

 Finish all the allocated tasks on time and submit them as


per requirements

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207
 Handle all the tasks accorded with a professional view not overlooking any detail

6.6 MEET DEADLINE

Five tips will help you stay on track with your deadlines

 Don't Set Yourself Up to Fail:- Don't take on a two-week task with a one-week deadline
unless you're really sure you can get it done. And if your plate is already full, don't hesitate
to say no.

 Use a Soft Deadline: If it's a two-week deadline,


plan to have it done two days early. A two-month
project could use a five-day cushion.

 Delegate Smaller Tasks:-You rarely have to


complete a work project alone. It's easier to get
things done when you have help.

 Don't Procrastinate:-We all have feeling that, "I have plenty of time to get this done. I'll
work on something else for now." Then, suddenly the deadline is two days away and you
haven't even started on the project yet.

 Stay Organized;-If you have a complicated schedule with lots of deadlines, meetings and
projects going on, it's essential that you keep a calendar with all your deadline dates on it

6.6 STEP UP TO GOOD WORK ETHIC

How to develop a good work ethic?

 Practice punctuality

 Develop professionalism

 Cultivate positive self-discipline

 Develop integrity

 Develop positive communication skill

 Develop a can-do attitude

 Focus on quality

 Be responsible

 Work in teams

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7.0 PROFESSIONALISM AND WORK ETHICS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 DEFINITION

 Professionalism is a component of the


concept of work ethic, which describes how a
person comes to work and conducts himself
on the job.

 A person's work ethic is a representation of


his character.

 A strong work ethic suggests that the person


places a high value on doing a good job, as
well as respecting others and functioning
with integrity.

7.3 FEATURES

Here are some ways to demonstrate professionalism on the job.

 Be punctual

 Be accountable

 Be well organised

 Be consistent & Professional

 Have humility & kindness

 Have Professional Appearance and good hygiene

7.4 FUNCTIONS

 Professional workplace behaviour is necessary for the long-term success of a business,


whether it's a big organisation or small business.

 A professional work place attitude and appearance allow employees to take pride in their
work and improve worker performance.

 Managers who behave professionally set an appropriate example by encouraging their


people to conduct themselves in a manner that supports company-wide success.

 Respect is increased

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209
 listen well
 Be useful
 Be kind
 Don’t make excuses
 Let go anger
 Be willing to change
 Business reputation will flourish
 improved product sale
 Boosting revenue
 Minimized costs
 Conflict is mini
 Mized

7.5 EFFECTS
BENEFITS OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
 Better employee motivation and recruitment
 Improved brand image
 Higher revenue-demand from positive consumer support
 New sources of finance

ETHICS BEHAVIOUR UNETHICS BEHAVIOUR

INCREASES EFFICIENCY REDUCES EFFICIENCY


AND EFFECTIVENESS OF AND EFFECTIVENESS OF
PRODUCTION AND TRADE PRODUCTION AND TRADE

INCREASES COMPANY REDUCES COMPANY


PERFORMANCES PERFORMANCES

INCREASES NATIONAL STANDARD OF REDUCES NATIONAL STANDARD


LIVING, WELL BEING AND OF LIVING, WELL BEING AND
PROSPERITY PROSPERITY
7.6 CONSIDERATION

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210
To behave in a professionally ethical way always consider:

 The policies of the organisation

 Your inner conscience

 Learning from own mistakes

 The process to report ethical concerns

 The context of the region / country

8.0 MOTIVATION TO IMPROVE WORK ETHICS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

HOW TO IMPROVE ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS?

 Training employees about Ethical decision making

 Communicating shared ethical values to employees


through symbols, stories and slogans.

 Admitting failures, don’t hide or manipulate information

 Rewarding employees who behave ethically and punish


who behave unethically.

 Protecting employees (whistle-blowers) who raise ethical issues.

MOTIVATE ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

 Organisations can encourage their employees to adopt attitudes and behave ethically which
will result in positive workplace and happy customer.

 There are some basic guidelines you can follow to motivate employees to work ethically:-

1. Set an example

2. Pubic recognition

8.2 SETTING EXAMPLE

 A role model is a person who serves as an example by influencing others

 Role models are those who possess the qualities that we would like to have.

NOTES:

211
HOW TO SET EXAMPLE

Ethical Role Model should:-

 Show respect and concerns for others, listen them attentively and valuing their
contribution

 be always fair and treat everyone equally

 Be kind and act in a manner beneficial to team

 Have humility and willingness to admit mistakes

 Communicate and interact high values and


expectations

 Convey all the facts transparently

 Not tolerate ethical violations.

8.3 PUBLIC RECOGNITION

People whose hard work is recognised publicly are


more positive, productive and innovative – they are
motivated to maintain or improve their good work in order to
gain more recognition; more badges, more points and to
climb higher up the leader board

WAYS TO RECOGNITION ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

 Create a employee recognition program that rewards


ethical employees

 Specific praise makes workers feel special and valued and


motivate them to continue following ethical standards.

 Organise monthly competitions and special rewards for


those who do work ethically.

 Communicate how her ethical work positively impacts


their co-workers and company on a bigger level too.

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Subject Title : ENGINEERING DRAWING

Subject Code: S1. T5


═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Introduction (Revision)
2.0 Isometric views & Orthographic projection (Revision)
3.0 Sectional views (Revision)
4.0 Dimensioning
5.0 Geometric tolerances
6.0 Surface texture
7.0 Assembly Drawing
8.0 Understanding Simple Shop floor drawing

NOTES:

213
UNIT - 01

INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
An engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of a three dimensional object. It is
the graphic language, from which a trained person can visualize the object.
It is not only shows the shape of the object but also describes the size and other specifications
necessary for its constructions in the form of dimensions and notes. Writing of the specifications
and important particulars (includes name of the drawing, title block etc.) on a drawing is called
Lettering.
Features of lettering:
The main features of lettering are,
1. Legibility
2. Uniformity
3. Ease and rapidity of execution
4. Suitability for micro filming (tracing), Photographic re-production, Ammonia printing etc.

1.1 Need for legible lettering and numbering in drawing:


Lettering plays a major role in Engineering Drawing. However accurate and neat a drawing may
be drawn, its appearance is spoiled and sometimes its usefulness is impaired by poor lettering.
Therefore lettering should be done properly in clear, legible and uniform style. Good lettering
improves the clarity and appearance of drawing. Lettering should be in plain and simple style so
that it can be done easily either by free hand or by using stencils.
Therefore all the notes, dimensions, title blocks etc. in the drawing should be lettered freehand
like printing by Engineering Script and not as manuscript (handwriting).
Scope - This section specifies the characteristics of lettering used on technical drawings, and
associated documents. It concerns primarily letters written with the aid of stencils, but is equally
applicable for free hand lettering.

1.2 Selection of suitable size of letters & numbers as per SP46

Dimensions
The height of the capital letter is taken as the base of dimensioning (Tables 1 and 2).
The two standard ratios for d/h, l/14 and l/10, are most economical as they result in a minimum
number of line thickness as is illustrated in Tables 1 and 2.

NOTES:

214
Recommended ratios for the height of lower-case letters for the space between characters, for the
minimum space of words are given in Tables 1 and 2.
The lettering may be inclined 15’ to the right, or may be vertical.

The spacing between the two characters may be reduced by half if it gives better visual effect.

NOTES:

215
Note:
Use of instruments (pencils) for lettering is not preferred, as it will consume more time. Free hand,
single stroke engineering script with proper strokes should be used to faster and proper lettering.
Efficiency in the art of lettering can be achieved by careful and continuous practice.

Upper case: - ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Lower case: - abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

NOTES:

216
VERTICAL LETTERS

NOTES:

217
1.3 Scale:
Ratio of the liner dimension of an element of an object as represented in the original drawing to
the real linear dimension of the same element of the object itself.

The scale of a print may be different from that of the original drawing.

1.4 Reduced and Enlarged scale

Full size
If the object size and the drawing size is same, then it is called full scale or a scale with the ration
1:1.is called full scale

Enlargement scale
If the drawing size is larger than the object size, then it is called enlarged scale or a scale where
the ratio larger than 1:1 is called enlarged scale.

Reduction scale
If the drawing size is smaller than the object size, then it is called reduced scale or a scale where
the ratio smaller than 1:1 is called reduced scale.

Designation
The designation of the scale shall consist of the word SCALE.

SCALE 1:1 for full size.

SCALE x:1 for enlargement scale.

SCALE 1:x for reduction scale.

If there is no likelihood of misunderstanding the word SCALE may be omitted.

The designation of the scale used on the drawing shall be inscribed in the title block of the
drawing. Where it is necessary to use more than one scale on a drawing, the main scale shall be
inscribed in the title block and all other scales will be indicated adjacent to the item

Recommended scales for use on technical drawings


If for special applications there is need for a larger enlarger enlargement scale or a smaller
reduction scale than those shown in the table, the recommended range of scales may be extended
in either direction, provided that the required scale be derived from a recommended scale by
multiplying by whole number powers of 10.

NOTES:

218
In exceptional cases where for functional reasons the recommended scales cannot be applied,
intermediate scales may be chosen.

The scale chosen depends on the complexity of the object and the purpose of the representation.
The selected scale should be larger enough to permit easy and clear interpretation of the
information depicted.

Details that are too small for complete dimensioning in the main representation shall be shown
adjacent to the main representation in a separate detail view (or section) which is drawn to large
scale.

Larger scale drawings


It is recommended that for information a full size view be added to the larger scale representations
of a small object. In this case the full size view may be simplified by showing the outlines of the
object only.

1.5 Scales for use on technical drawings:

NOTES:

219
UNIT - 02

2.0 ISOMETRIC VIEWS & ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION


Introduction:
An object has three dimensions like length, width and thickness. The shapes and sizes of these
three dimensional objects has to be represented on a sheet of drawing paper which has only two
dimensional plane. Projection is the image of an object formed on a plane. The word projection is
of Latin origin and means to throw forward. For obtaining the image of an object, various points
on the contour of an object, are thrown forward on to a plane by means of straight lines or visual
rays. The figure formed by joining various points thus obtained on the plane, is the image of the
object and is called projection.
The following are the main elements of projection.
1. Object to be projected
2. Observers’ eye or station point
3. The plane of projection or picture plane
4. Rays or lines of sight or projectors

Nomenclature
1. Projection is the image of an object thrown upon a plane by drawing straight lines called visual
rays from the eye of an observer.
2. Observer’s eye or station point is a point where the eye of the observer is assumed to be
located while sighting the object. Station point is called center of projection or point of sight.
3. Plane of projection is a plane on which the image is formed. In general, plane of projection is
called picture plane.
4. Projector is a straight line drawn from the point on the contour of an object to the plane on
which the image of the object is obtained.

Planes of projections
The plane surfaces which are used for projecting the views of an object in an orthographic
projection are called planes of projection. Usually two views are required to describe an object
completely. Hence, two planes which are mutually perpendicular are sufficient for projecting the
views of an object.
1. Principle planes are the plane surfaces which are mutually Perpendicular and used for
projecting the views of an object. These planes are called reference planes, co-ordinate planes or
dihedral planes.
2. Horizontal plane is one of the principle planes which is horizontal. This plane is denoted by
H.P. The view obtained on the horizontal plane is called top view or plan. The direction of
viewing for getting the top view is marketed by T.

NOTES:

220
3. Vertical plane is one of the principle planes which is vertical. This plane is denoted by V.P.
The view obtained on the vertical plane is called front view or elevation.
This plane is also called frontal plane. The direction of viewing for getting the front view is
marked by F.
4. Reference line is the line of intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes. This is also
called reference line or ground line or simply line of intersection and is denoted by xy-line.
5. Quadrants The reference planes divide the space into four quadrants or angles of 900 or
dihedral angles and can be marked as I,II,III,IV representing the first, second, third and fourth
quadrants respectively, if these planes are sighted in the direction marked by A. The arrangement
of the four quadrants is in the anti-clockwise order and hence this arrangement represents the anti-
clockwise system.

Systems of Projections:
Based upon the types of projectors or visual rays, projections may be broadly classified into two:
1. Parallel projections

2. Convergent (perspective) projections

Parallel Projection:
Parallel projection is a geometric method of projection obtained on a plane of projection when the
observer’s eye is imagined to be located at infinity so that the projectors are considered to be
parallel to each other. The further subdivisions of parallel projections are:
1. Orthographic projections

2. Oblique projections

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
The word ortho means right-angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. Orthographic
projection is a geometric method of projection obtained on the plane of projection when the
projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. Here, the number
of planes of projections may be one or more. The further subdivisions of orthographic projections
are:
1. Multi view projections

2. Axonometric projections

NOTES:

221
Multi view Projection:
Multi view projection is an orthographic
projection in which the exact shape of an object is
represented by two or more separate views obtained
on different planes of projection which are usually at
right angles to each other.
Even though multi view projection is only one of the
orthographic projection methods, because of its wide
popularity the term orthographic projection is very
commonly used to represent a multi view projection.
For the clear understanding of different types of
multi view projections, one should have the clear
concept of the various planes of projections.
Multi view projections are classified into two:
1. First angle projections
2. Third angle projections

2.1 First Angle Projection


 In the first angle projection the object is assumed to be situated in the first quadrant.
Its top view is obtained on H.P. and the front
view is obtained on V.P.
 Now, the H.P. is rotated through 90 degree in the
clockwise direction and it becomes vertical.
Now the front view is above the xy-line and
the top view is below the xy-line.

Third Angle Projection


 In the third angle projection, the object is assumed to be situated in the third quadrant.
 The top view is obtained on H.P. and the front view is
obtained on V.P.
 The H.P. is rotated through 90 degree in the clockwise
direction and it becomes vertical.
 Now, the top view is above xy-line and the front view
is below xy-line

NOTES:

222
Arrangement of views
The arrangement of six views of object looked in six
directions are made, based on clockwise or right hand
system.
2.2 Theory of projections
1. For getting the front view of an object placed in any of
the four quadrants, it should be viewed only from the right
hand side in the anti-clockwise or left hand system.
2. Front view of an object is always projected on the
vertical plane whatever may be the quadrant in which the
object is situated irrespective of left hand or right
hand system.
3. For getting the top view of an object placed in any of
the four quadrants, it should be viewed only from the top side whatever be the system followed.
4. Top view of an object is always projected on the horizontal plane whatever may be the quadrant
in which the object is situated irrespective of left hand or right hand system.
5. For getting the front view of an object placed in any of the quadrants it should be viewed only
from the left hand side in a clockwise or right hand system.

The standard views used in a three-view drawing are the


 Top (Plan)
 Front (Elevation)
 Side views
Arranged as shown in the figure

NOTES:

223
Difference between 1st angle and 3rd angle projection
The following are the important differences between the first angle and third angle projections:
1. In the first angle projection, the object is assumed to be situated in the first quadrant while in
the third angle projection; it is to be in the third quadrant.
2. In first angle projection the object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection
while in the third angle, the plane of projection is in between the observer and the object.

3. In first angle projection, the front view will be above the xy-line while in the third angle
projection the front view will be below the xy-line.
4. In the first angle projection, the top view will be below the xy-line while in third angle
projection, the top view will be above the xy-line.
5. In first angle projection, the side view is projected on the other side of the object. i.e. the view
from left side is projected on the plane on right side while in third angle projection, the side view
of the object is projected on the same side of the object. i.e. the view from the left side is projected
on the plane on the left side.

NOTES:

224
ISOMETRIC VIEW

NOTES:

225
2.3 EXERCISE
Draw orthographic views in first angle.

NOTES:

226
2.4 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Representing 3 dimensions on a flat piece of paper is a very important skill for designers
enabling them to communicate their ideas to other people. This is especially useful when showing
your design to non-designers such as managers and marketing personnel.
There are several tried and tested 3 Dimensional drawing systems used to produce a
realistic representation of an object. Some techniques such as isometric are based on mathematical
systems, others a try to convey a larger degree of realism by applying perspective to the drawing.
Amongst the methods covered in this tutorial are oblique, isometric, axonometric, and perspective
drawing techniques.
Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two
dimensions in technical and engineering drawings.

 It is an axonometric projection in which the three coordinate axes appear equally


foreshortened and the angles between any two of them are 120 degrees.
 The term "isometric" comes from the Greek for "equal measure", reflecting that the scale
along each axis of the projection is the same (unlike some other forms of graphical
projection).
 An isometric view of an object can be obtained by choosing the viewing direction in a way
that the angles between the projection of the x, y, and z axes are all the same, or 120°.

NOTES:

227
One of the things that make isometric drawings so attractive is the ease with which 60 degree
angles can be constructed with only a compass and straightedge.

Isometric scale

 A constructed by stepping off true measurements along line 'AB1' which is a true length
line. The measurements are then transferred back to line 'AB' to get a smaller scale, in this
case an isometric scale
 Lines drawn using the isometric scale are approximately 80% of true size. This scale is
usually marked off on a piece of paper and used to step off the foreshortened
measurements along the projection of axes lines and lines parallel to them.
 Lines parallel to the projection of axes are known as isometric lines.
 Lines which are not parallel to theses axes are known as non-isometric lines.
 It is important to note that you can only use the scales on isometric lines.
Drawing a box in isometric:
1. Draw the front vertical edge of the cube.

2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal to the required length.
Note: All lengths are drawn as actual lengths in standard isometric.
3. Draw in the back verticals
4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30 degrees to the horizontal

Drawing more complicated shapes:

Initially when you first start using isometric it can be useful to use a simple box as a basic
building block a guide to help you draw more complicated shapes.

NOTES:

228
This simple example shows you how you
can use a box to help you accurately draw a
more complicated shape.

The object we are going to draw is L-


shaped as illustrated by the engineering
drawing (left).

The first step is to draw our guide box. This box


is the size of the maximum dimensions. In this
case, 50 mm long, 25 mm wide, and 50 mm
high.

Draw the box in very lightly. When we have the


final shape we can darken the lines.

Outline of 'guide box'

To get the L-shape we need remove an area from


this box.

Draw a box 40 x 10 x 50 mm, the shape that needs


to be removed from the box to create the shape we
require.

NOTES:

229
The finished shape

Draw in the outline of the object using a heavier line.


Using this technique you can draw complex shapes
accurately because you can use the guide box as a
means to measure your engineering drawing views.

EXERCISE

Draw the isometric views from orthographic views.

NOTES:

230
UNIT - 03

SECTIONAL VIEWS

3.1 Need for drawing sectional views:

 The orthographic views of an object may not be always give all the information clearly:
they give only the external information of the object.

 The invisible features like holes, slots and internal contour are shown by means of hidden
lines.

 But, when such features are too many or of complex nature, then the use of hidden lines
makes the views more complicated and difficult to understand.

 In order to avoid too many hidden lines and to make the views more understandable, the
object is assumed to be cut by one or more planes(imaginary) called section plane (also
called cutting plane)

 In such a way that one portion of the part is assumed to be removed as to expose the
required internal details of the object, to the direct view of the observer.

 The cutting plane is generally assumed to be parallel to the plane on which the view of the
object is projected.

 The part of the object between the section plane and the observer is assumed to be
removed away and the remaining sectioned part is projected to get the sectional view.

 The sectional view thus, shows not only the shape of the section but also all the visible
edges and contours of the object behind the section plane.

 The surfaces cut by section plane are specially marked by means of hatching lines.

 Section line is a chain thin line thickened at the ends. The direction of viewing the section
is shown by arrows resting on the thickened ends and named by upper case letters like A-
Al, B-Bl.

NOTES:

231
3.2 Different ways of sectioning
The following are the different ways of sectioning a object.
a. Full section
b. Half section
c. Local section
d. Removed section/Revolved section
e. Offset section
f. Thin section.

Full section:

When an object is assumed to be cut right through and the front half ( the portion in between the
section plane and the observer) is removed, it is said to be in full section. The projection of the
remaining portion is known as full sectional view. In the sectional front view the complex internal
details are clearly defined and the hatching lines denote the sectioned area. In the top view the
location of the section plane is shown by section line with the direction of view.

For obtaining full sectional front view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane parallel
to the vertical plane.

For obtaining full sectional side view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane parallel
to profile plane.
Similarly, for obtaining full sectional top view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane
parallel to the horizontal plane.

NOTES:

232
Half section:
If the object is symmetrical, then a full section is not essential, since the sectional view will also
be symmetrical. For such objects, a half section is enough to show the internal features. In half
section two cutting planes at right angles to each other are assumed to cut the object. That quarter
of the object which is between the two cutting planes is removed and the remaining three by four
portion of the object is projected to get the half-sectional view. The projection will be drawn half
in full view and half in section. The sectioned half and the other half are separated by a centre
line.

Local section (Partial section or broken


section): When only a small portion of an
object is required to be shown in section to
view the internal features, sectioning is
considered to be done locally. A free hand
irregular line of continuous thin type shows
the boundary of the section.

NOTES:

233
Revolved section/Removed section:

When the cutting plane is passed at right angles to the axis of the object, a cross section is
obtained. The cross sectional view thus obtained is revolved through 900 and drawn on the front
view itself, to give a revolved section. A removed section is obtained in the same manner, but the
sectional view is drawn outside the main view. Generally the sectional view is drawn with
reference to the extension of the cutting plane line. (if it is not convenient, it may be drawn away
from its location.)

NOTES:

234
Offset section:

In some objects, the internal features are placed at different positions. To show these internal
features a single straight cutting plane is not enough. An offset cutting plane is assumed to cut the
object, so that the cutting plane passes through the internal features which are required to be
shown in sectional view. The section thus obtained is called as Offset section.

Thin section:

Objects of small thickness like sheet metals, steel sections, gaskets, packing materials, shims and
washers are shown entirely thickened in sectional view.

General rules for sectioning:

1. Hatching is generally used to show areas of sections.


2. The simplest form of hatching is usually drawn by continuous thin line at a convenient
angle, preferably 45 degree to the principal outlines or lines of symmetry of the sections.
3. Separate areas of the section of the same component shall be hatched in an identical
manner. The hatching of adjacent components shall be carried out with different directions
or spacing.
4. Spacing between the hatching lines should be chosen in proportion to the size of the
hatched areas.

NOTES:

235
5. In the case of large areas, the hatching may be limited to a zone following the contour of
the hatched area.
6. where sections of the same part in parallel planes are shown side by side, the hatching shall
be identical, but offset along the dividing line between the sections if greater clarity is
considered necessary.
7. Hatching shall be interrupted when it is not possible to place inscriptions outside the
hatched area.
Eg: Dimensioning in hatched area:

Dimension lines are normally shown outside the drawing, but in some unavoidable cases they can
be shown inside the drawing itself. However dimension is to be drawn on the hatched area, the
hatching lines are broken at the place where dimension value is to be written.

3.3 SECTION LINES SYMBOLS

 The section lines are different for each of material’s type.

 For practical purpose, the cast iron symbol is used most often for any materials

Section Lining

 Materials – Common materials

 The symbol for cast iron can be used for most section views.

 Refer to any common drafting text for additional symbols.

 45 degree angle lines should be used.

 1/8” between lines

NOTES:

236
All lines should be uniformly spaced
Thin sections may be blackened in completely
Spacing lines by eye increases speed
Lines should never be parallel or perpendicular to the object lines.
If the outline of the object has 45 degree lines, 30 or 60 degree lines should be used.
Assemblies with several parts should be lined with varying angle section lines

3.4 EXERCISE:
Draw the top view, full sectional front
view and full sectional side view for
the given drawings.

NOTES:

237
UNIT - 04

DIMENSIONING

4.1 Importance of Dimensioning

What is Dimensioning?

The indicates on a drawing which are essential to construct the object and to understand shape of
the object, Lines, Numerals, Symbols, notes etc is called Dimensioning.

4.2 Elements of Dimensioning

 Dimension line

 Extension line

 Arrow head

 Leader

 Surface finish symbol

NOTES:

238
Dimension Line

A dimension line is a continuous thin line and terminated by arrowheads. The dimension lines
should be placed at least 10mm away from the outline and all other parallel dimension lines
should be placed at least 8mm. normally the dimension lines should be placed outside the views
wherever possible.

Extension Line (Projection Line)

A projection or an extension line is a thin continuous line drawn without leaving a gap from the
outline to be dimensioned. The projection lines should extend slightly beyond the dimension line.

Arrow Head

Arrowheads are used to terminate a dimension line. It is recommended that the ratio between
lengths to width of the arrowhead can be in the ratio of 1:3

Leader

Leader or pointer lines are thin continuous lines. Drawn for note or dimension figures to the
feature to which it refers. The leader lines may be drawn at 45 to the point it touches

General rules of dimensioning:

NOTES:

239
Projection line:-
These lines are drawn as continuous thin Lines They should be drawn:

 Extending slightly beyond the respective dimension line.


Perpendicular to the feature to be dimensioned. However, where necessary, Obliquely but
parallel to each other
Extending slightly beyond the point of intersecting construction and projection lines
Not crossing the other lines as far as possible. The crossing of projection line and the
dimension line should be avoided.
Centre lines and outlines of a part may be used in place of projection lines

Dimension lines:- These lines are drawn as continuous thin lines.

 As far as possible , dimension line should not cross other lines.


 A centre line or outline of a part should not be used as dimension line

 Dimension lines are drawn from visible outlines and not from hidden lines

 A broken feature should be marked by unbroken dimension line.

Leader lines:- These lines are drawn by continues thin lines.

 Leader line should not be parallel to the adjacent dimension lines where confusion might
arise.

 Leader lines should not be parallel to the adjacent projection lines where confusion might
arise.

 leader line may be drawn at an angle not less than 300 with the horizontal.

 The use of common leaders may be avoided.

4.3 Types of dimensioning

Parallel Dimensioning

Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions originating from one projection line.

NOTES:

240
Chain Dimensioning

Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object won't be affected by the
accumulation of the tolerances.

Combined Dimensions

A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel dimensioning.

NOTES:

241
4.4 Rectangle coordinates

 Cartesian coordinates, also called rectangular coordinates, provide a method of rendering


graphs and indicating the positions of points on a two-dimensional (2D) surface or in
three-dimensional (3D) space

 The Cartesian plane consists of two perpendicular axes that cross at a central point called
the origin.

 Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane is given below. Four points are marked and
labeled with their coordinates: (2, 3) in green, (−3, 1) in red, (−1.5, −2.5) in blue, and the
origin (0, 0) in purple.

NOTES:

242
Polar co-ordinates
The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a
plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction.
Points in the polar coordinate system with pole O and polar axis L. In green, the point with radial
coordinate 3 and angular coordinate 60 degrees or (3, 60°). In blue, the point (4, 210°).

NOTES:

243
4.5 EXERCISE

Use proper dimension for the given drawings.

NOTES:

244
UNIT -05
GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCE

5.1 Introduction to Geometrical Tolerance


Tolerance

 Tolerance is the total permissible variation from the specified basic size of the part. It is
defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension or measured control
criterion from specified value.

 Tolerance is a total amount the feature of part is permitted to vary from specified
dimension. The tolerance is a difference between maximum and minimum limits.

When tolerance is used?

 Geometrical tolerances should be specified only where they are essential, otherwise the
manufacturing and inspection costs may be increased.

 In any case tolerances should be as large as possible, subject to the design requirements
being met. As geometrical tolerance symbols are internationally agreed (see ISO 1101),
language difficulties cannot occur.

 The use of geometrical tolerances does not imply that any particular method of production
or inspection is to be used.

Feature

A general term applied to a physical


portion of a part

Feature of Size (FOS)

One cylinder or spherical surface, or set


of two opposed elements or opposed
parallel surfaces associated with a size
dimensions .A feature of size contains
opposing elements or surface .A feature
of size can be used to establish an axis,
center plane or center point.

NOTES:

245
Feature Control Frame

A rectangular box that is divide into compartments within which the geometric characteristic
symbol, tolerance value, modifiers and datum reference are placed.

Basic dimension

A numerical value used to describe the theoretically exact size, true


profile, orientation, or location of a part feature or datum target

A basic dimension is denoted by placing a rectangle around a


dimension.

Two applications for basic dimensions are to describe:

 Theoretically exact part features

 Datum targets

Actual Local Size

 The value of an individual distance at any cross


section of a feature of size.

 A feature of size will often have multiple actual


local sizes.

NOTES:

246
Actual Mating Envelope

 Both internal and external feature of size

 A similar perfect feature counterpart if the smallest size that can be circumscribed about
the feature so that it just contacts the surface of the highest points.

Modifiers

NOTES:

247
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) of an External and Internal Feature of Size

 It is the condition in which a feature of size contains the maximum amount of material
everywhere within the stated limits of size.

EXAMPLE

Least Material Condition (LMC) of an External and internal Feature of Size

The condition in which a feature of size contains the least amount material everywhere within the
stated limits of size

NOTES:

248
EXAMPLE

MMC & LMC Examples

NOTES:

249
Radius

Any straight line extending from the center to the surface


of a circle or sphere

When radius is specified, the part may have flats or


reversals on the surface of the radius

Controlled Radius

When radius is specified, the part may have no flats or reversals allowed on the surface of the
radius

Geometric tolerance Symbols

NOTES:

250
5.2 Form and Position Tolerances

Form Controls

Flatness Definition

 A geometric tolerance that limits


the amount of flatness error a
surface is allowed

 The tolerance zone is two parallel


planes

 One plane is established by


contacting the high point of surface

NOTES:

251
Rule #1 – Effects on flatness

Flatness Application

NOTES:

252
NOTES:

253
Legal Specification test for Flatness

Inspecting Flatness

NOTES:

254
Straightness

A straightness control applied to a surface limits the amount of straightness error allowed to
surface line elements.

The tolerance zone is two parallel lines; the distance between the lines is equal to the straightness
tolerances value.

NOTES:

255
Rule #1’s Effects on surface straightness

Rule #1

Whenever rule #1 applies to a feature of size, it provides an automatic indirect straightness control
for its surface elements.

Legal specification test for Straightness applied to a feature

Inspecting straightness of surface elements

NOTES:

256
Straightness applied to a surface or feature of
Size
How to determine when a straightness control
applies to a surface or feature of size

Rule #1’s Effects on axis straightness

Rule #1

Whenever rule #1 applies to a feature of size, it provides an automatic straightness control for its
axis or centre plane.

NOTES:

257
Legal specification test for straightness applied to a feature of size

NOTES:

258
Inspecting Straightness applied to a Feature of size at MMC

NOTES:

259
Circularity

Circularity Control

 A geometric tolerance that limits the amount of circularity error of circular elements of a
surface of revolution.

 The tolerance zone is two coaxial Circles.

 The radial distance between the circles is equal to the circularity control tolerance value.

Rule #1’s effect on Circularity

 Whenever Rule #1 applies to a circular feature of size, an automatic indirect circularity


control exists for its surface.
 Its circularity is automatically restricted to be equal to or less than its size tolerance.

NOTES:

260
Circularity Application

Legal Specification test for Circularity

NOTES:

261
Inspecting Circularity

Cylindricity

 A geometric tolerance that


limits the amount of
cylindricity error allowed on a
cylindrical surface.

 The tolerance zone is two


coaxial Cylinders.

 The radial distance between


the cylinders is equal to the
cylindricity control tolerance
value.

Rule #1 effect on Cylindricity

 Whenever Rule #1 applies to a circular feature of size,


an automatic indirect circularity control exists for its
surface.
 Its circularity is automatically restricted to be equal to
or less than its size tolerance.

NOTES:

262
Cylindricity Application

NOTES:

263
Legal specification test for Cylindricity

Inspecting Cylindricity
 This is an example of a read out of cylindricity results.
 Typically a cylindricity check results in a chart that shows a map of surface elements
compared to the cylindricity tolerance zone.

NOTES:

264
Summarization of Form controls

5.5 POSITION TOLERANCE

Objectives

 Understand the fundamental concepts of tolerance of position; the definitions and


conventions, the advantages and the basic theories.

 Interpret RFS and MMC tolerance of position applications.

 Draw cartoon gages for tolerance of position (MMC) applications.

Definition

 True position is the theoretically exact location of a FOS as defined by basic dimensions.

 Tolerance of position (TOP) control is a geometric tolerance that defines the location
tolerance of a FOS from its true position.

NOTES:

265
 Implied basic 900 angles:
A 900 basic angle applies where centerlines of features in a pattern (or surfaces shown
at right angles on a drawing) are located and defined by basic dimensions and no angle is
specified.

 Implied basic zero dimension:


Where a centerline or center plane of a FOS is shown in line with a datum axis or
center plane, the distance between the centerlines or center planes is an implied basic zero.

Advantages

 Provides larger tolerance zones; cylindrical


tolerance zones are 57% larger than square
zones.
 Permits additional tolerances-bonus and
datum shift.
 Prevents tolerance accumulation.
 Permits the use of functional gages.
 Protects the part function.
 Lowers manufacturing costs.

NOTES:

266
Types of Part Relationship

 The distance between features of size, such as holes, bosses, slots, tabs, etc.

 The location of features of size (or patterns of features of size) such as holes, bosses, slots,
tabs, etc.

 The coaxially between features of size.

 The symmetrical relationship between features of size

The virtual condition boundary theory:


A theoretical boundary limits the location of the surfaces of a FOS.

The axis theory: The axis (or center plane) of a FOS must be within the tolerance zone.

NOTES:

267
5.6 RULES & CONCEPTS

Rule #1

 Where only a tolerance of size is specified, the limits of an individual feature prescribe the
extent to which variations in size – as well as form – are allowed.
 Whenever a drawing invokes Y14.5. Rule#1 automatically applies to all features of size.
In industry, Rule #1 is often paraphrased as “Perfect form at MMC” or the “Envelope
Principle”.

Rule #1 Boundary

Rule #1
Automatically applies to all features of size, Rule #1 requires perfect flatness, straightness,
circularity and cylindricity at MMC.

NOTES:

268
Rule #1 Limitations

Rule #1 does not control the interrelationship between features of size.

Inspecting an external feature of size

NOTES:

269
Inspecting an internal feature of size

Rule #2 & Rule #2a

Rule #2

RFS is a default condition for tolerances and datum feature references (as appropriate)

Rule #2a

For tolerance of position, RFS may be stated for the tolerance and datum feature references (as
appropriate)

NOTES:

270
Examples

Virtual Condition (VC)


A worst-case boundary generated by the collective effects of a feature of size specified at
MMC or LMC and the geometric tolerance for that material condition.

Inner Boundary (IB)


A worst-case boundary generated by the smallest feature of size minus the stated
geometric tolerance (and any addition tolerance, if applicable).

Outer Boundary (OB)


A worst-case boundary generated by the largest feature of size plus the stated geometric
tolerance (and any additional tolerance, if applicable).

Worst-Case Boundary (WCB)


A general term to refer to the extreme boundary of a feature of size. Depending on the part
dimensioning, a worst-case boundary can be a virtual condition, inner boundary, or outer
boundary.

NOTES:

271
Inner and Outer boundary

Feature Control Frame Placement

Virtual condition at MMC

NOTES:

272
NOTES:

273
Virtual condition at LMC

NOTES:

274
Inner and Outer boundary

NOTES:

275
Multiple Boundary Conditions

NOTES:

276
Bonus Tolerance

 A potential additional tolerance for a geometric tolerance


 Bonus tolerance is only permissible when an MMC (or LMC) modifier is shown in the
tolerance portion of a feature control frame
 Bonus tolerance comes from the size tolerance
 It is the amount that the actual mating size departs from MMC (or LMC).

NOTES:

277
NOTES:

278
NOTES:

279
UNIT -06
SURFACE TEXTURE

6.1 Introduction

 Surface texture or surface finish is the term refers to repetitive or random deviations from
the nominal surface, which from the pattern on the surface.
 It can also be explained as the amount of geometric irregularity produced on the surface.
 Engineering components are produced with different levels of surface finish for satisfying
the requirements. Hence, production drawings are prepared specifying the finish of the
surfaces also, in addition to the dimensional and geometric tolerances.
Roughness
Roughness is the relatively finely spaced surface irregularities that are produced by the
cutting action of tool edges and abrasive grains on surfaces that are machined.

Roughness Height
This is the average (arithmetical) deviation from the mean line of the profile. This is
expressed in microns (1/1000 of a mm).

NOTES:

280
Roughness Width
This is the distance between successive peaks or ridges which constitute the predominant pattern
of roughness and is measured in mm.

Roughness Cut-Off
This term indicate the greatest spacing of repetitive surface irregularities at one place. It
must always be greater than the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness height
rating. This value is indicted in mm and the standard value is assumed to be 0.8mm.

NOTES:

281
Waviness
Waviness is the surface undulations that are of mush greater magnitude than the roughness
irregularities.

Waviness Height
This is the distance from the peak of the wave to the valley, measured in mm.

Waviness Width
This is the spacing between successive waves to the valley or wave peaks.

NOTES:

282
Flaws
Flaws are irregularities like cracks, scratches blow holes, etc. that occur at one place or at widely
varying intervals on the surface.

Lay
Lay is the primary direction of the surface pattern produced by tools during machining.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS VALUE


 Surface roughness value is measured by Centre Line Average (CLA) method and is noted
in microns as per Bureau of Indian Standards. Fig.D3.02 shows the hypothetical profile of
a surface marked for sampling length L.
 The center line is the line which divides the area formed by the surface as shown in figure
into the equal halves for a sampling length.
 The y coordinates are marked for n values as y1, y2,y3, …..yn and the centre line average
is determined as:
 Centre Line Average Ra = (y1+y2+y3+…….+yn) / n ( Microns )
 This value is measured in microns (0.001mm) and is denoted by Ra.

NOTES:

283
 The value of roughness average Ra is ranging from 0.025 to 50 microns for highly smooth
surface to a rough surface.
 The sampling length is taken as 0.8mm unless otherwise stated.
 The surface roughness number represents the average departure of the surface from
perfection over a prescribed sampling length, usually selected as 0.8 mm and is expressed
in microns.
 The measurements are usually made along a line, running at right angle to the general
direction of tool marks on the surface. Surface roughness values are usually expressed as
the Ra value in microns

SURFACE ROUGHNESS NUMBER

The surface roughness may be measured, using any one of the following :

1. Straight edge

2. Surface gauge

3. Optical flat

4. Tool maker’s microscope

5. Profilometer

6. Profilograph

7. Talysurf

NOTES:

284
SURFACE ROUGHNESS VALUE GRADE

NOTES:

285
6.2 SYMBOLS TO INDICATE SURFACE TEXTURE

The complete form of a surface texture symbol, relative position of placing the specification and
properties. Here, the surface roughness value Ra (N1 to N12) has the primary importance.

The basic symbol may have three shapes:

1, The symbol as open tick mark, means that the surface finish ‘a’ can
be obtained by any manufacturing process.

The tick mark with a horizontal line forming a triangle, which


represents machining process to get the surface finish.

The tick mark with a circle, which represents that the surface should
have the roughness value ‘a’ without removal of material (Fig. C). A
cast or forged surface is an example for this.

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SURFACE TEXTURE

NOTES:

286
6.3 INDICATION ON DRAWINGS

 The symbol for surface texture as well as the inscriptions shall be indicated on drawings as
shown in. General rules to be followed for the indication of symbols are:

 As for as possible the symbol shall be oriented in such a way that they may be read from
bottom or the right hand side of the drawing.

 If it is difficult to execute this general rule, the symbol may be drawn in any position but it
does not carry any indication of special surface texture, machining allowance. Etc.

 If necessary, the symbol may be connected to the surface by a leader line.

 If the same texture is required all over the surface of a part, it can be specified near the title
block as a note or shown on the right hand top side as given in Fig.

 If some exemptions for all over surface texture is required, these can be marked on the
drawing. Here, near the all over symbol, an open tick mark (see Fig. ) or the extra symbol,
used (see Fig.) should be indicated a bracket.

 If the same surface texture is required on a large of surfaces, a simplified symbol may be
used and its meaning can be given as shown in Fig.

6.4 SYMBOLS TO INDICATE DIRECTION LAY

 The direction of lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern & it is determined
by the production method employed.

 If it is necessary to control the direction of lay it should be specified by a symbol added to


the surface texture symbol .

 Fig shows indication of direction of lay ( Letter d)

 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has recommended the following symbols (Refer
TableD3.3) for indicating direction of lay.

NOTES:

287
NOTES:

288
UNIT – 07

Assembly Drawing

CLASSIFICATION OF DRAWING

 MACHINE DRAWING
 PART DRAWING
 PRODUCTION DRAWING
 ASSEMBLY DRAWING
 DESIGNED
 DETAILLED
 SUB-ASSEMBLY
 ASSEMBLY FOR CATALOGUE

MACHINE DRAWINGS

 It is pertaining to machine parts or components. It is presented through a number of


orthographic views, so that the size and shape of the component is fully understood.

 Part drawings and assembly drawings belong to this classification. An example of a


machine drawing.

PRODUCT DRAWINGS

 A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, should furnish all the
dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing, lapping,
surface finish etc., to guide the craftsman on the shop floor in producing the component.

 The title should also mention the material used for the product, number of parts required
for the assembled unit etc.

NOTES:

289
 Since a craftsman will ordinarily make one component at a time, it is advisable to prepare
the production drawing of each component on a separate sheet. However, in some cases
the drawings of related components may be given on the same sheet.

PART DRAWINGS

 Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its


manufacture. All the principles of orthographic projection and the technique of graphic
representation must be followed to communicate the details in a part drawing. A part
drawing with production a detail is rightly called as a production drawing or working
drawing.

7.1 ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations is an
assembly drawing. There are several types of such drawings

DESIGNED ASSEMBLY DRAWING

 When a machine is designed, an assembly drawing or a design layout is first drawn to


clearly visualize the performance, shape and clearances of various parts comprising the
machine.

NOTES:

290
DETAILED ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

 It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a relatively smaller number of simple
parts. All the dimensions and information necessary for the construction of such parts and
for the assembly of the parts are given directly on the assembly drawing. Separate views of
specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of parts together, may also be drawn in
addition to the regular assembly drawing.

SUB- ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

 Many assemblies such as an automobile, lathe, etc., are assembled with many pre-assembled
components as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are known as sub-
assemblies. A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts that
form a part in a more complicated machine.

 Examples of such drawings are: lathe tail stock, diesel engine fuel pump, carburetor, etc.

INSTALLATION ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

 On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few important parts and overall dimensions
of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful information for
assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts of a machine in their correct
working position.

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS FOR CATALOGUES

 Special assembly drawings are prepared for company catalogues. These drawings show only
the pertinent details and dimensions that would interest the potential buyer shows a typical
catalogue drawing, showing the overall and principal dimensions.

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS FOR INSTRUCTION MANNULES

 These drawings in the form of assembly drawings, are to be used when a machine, shipped
away in assembled condition, is knocked down in order to check all the parts before
reassembly and installation elsewhere. These drawings have each component numbered on
the job.

EXPLODED ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

 In some cases, exploded pictorial views are supplied to meet instruction manual
requirements. These drawings generally find a place in the parts list section of a company
instruction manual. Shows drawings of this type which may be easily understood even by

NOTES:

291
those with less experience in the reading of drawings; because in these exploded views, the
parts are positioned in the sequence of assembly, but separated from each other.

7.2 SYSTEMATIC ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

 It is very difficult to understand the operating principles of complicated machinery, merely


from the assembly drawings. Schematic representation of the unit facilitates easy
understanding of its operating principle. It is a simplified illustration of the machine or of a
system, replacing all the elements, by their respective conventional representations. Figure
1.7 shows the schematic representation of a gearing diagram.

NOTES:

292
STEPS FOR ASSEMBLY DRAWING

 Understand the purpose, principle of operation and field of application of the given
machine. This will help in understanding the functional requirements of individual parts
and their location.

 Examine thoroughly, the external and internal features of the individual parts.

 Choose a proper scale for the assembly drawing.

 Estimate the overall dimensions of the views of the assembly drawing and make the
outline blocks for each of the required view, leaving enough space between them, for
indicating dimensions and adding required notes.

 Draw the axes of symmetry for all the views of the assembly drawing.

 Begin with the view from the front, by drawing first, the main parts of the machine and
then adding the rest of the parts, in the sequence of assembly.

 Project the other required views from the view from the front and complete the views.

 Mark the location and overall dimensions and add the part numbers on the drawing.

 Prepare the parts list.

NOTES:

293
 Add the title block

NOTE It is not advisable to complete one view before commencing the other. The better
method is to develop all the required views simultaneously

UNIT - 08

UNDERSTANDINGS SIMPLE SHOP FLOOR DRAWINGS

8.1 ASSEMBLY DRAWING

NOTES:

294
PART DRAWING

NOTES:

295
MACHINE DRAWING

NOTES:

296
NOTES:

297

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