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Sl. No. SUBJECT NAME CONTENT PAGE
NO.
1 ENGLISH COMMUNICATION 2
2 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 34
3 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - I 96
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Subject Title : ENGLISH COMMUNICATION
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1.0 Writing Skills
Writing skills are an important part of communication.
Good writing skills helps to communicate the message with clarity and ease to a far larger
audience than through face-to-face or conversations.
Correct Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation are key in written communication
Error Analysis
In order to master English proficiency, four skills are necessary. They are listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
Among these four skills writing is the hardest skills to be developed but very much needed
to communicate one’s thoughts.
Without proper knowledge of grammar rules, one might not be able to create
grammatically correct sentences.
It is inevitable that learners make mistakes and commit errors in the process of learning.
Error Analysis is a technique which aims to describe and explain the systematic nature
of deviations or errors generated in the learner’s language.
Types of Error
Grammatical-(prepositions, articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives, verb tenses
and possessive case)
Examples of Errors
Subject-Verb Agreement Errors
The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb of the sentence.
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Example: He walk every morning.
Correction: He walks every morning.
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Sentence Structure Errors
Refer to a broad range of errors that occur for a variety of reasons: a word (often a to be verb) is
left out; an extra word (often a duplicate subject) is added; word order is incorrect; or clauses that
don’t belong together are punctuated as one sentence.
Noun/Pronoun errors
Pronouns take place of nouns in sentences. The pronoun has to agree with the noun that is
replacing.
Example: Tom and John are friends and he went to movie last week
Correction: Tom and John are friends and they went to movie last week.
Punctuation Errors
1. Apostrophe for plurals: Apostrophe is used to form contractions (It is – It’s) and to indicate
possession ( Mary’s book), but not to form plurals.
Example: The boy’s will go to the school tomorrow.
Correction: The boys will go to school tomorrow.
2. Comma Splice: When the comma is used to separate independent clauses, there must be a
conjunction connecting them. If the conjunction is not there, it is called comma splice. The
comma splice can be fixed by using a period instead of the comma or by adding a coordination
conjunction.
When the comma is missing, the well-intentioned statement can turn into unintended meaning.
4. Unnecessary commas: A comma should never separate a subject from its verb.
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Example: up to date
Correction: up-to-date
Dash(--): A dash is longer than hyphen and commonly used to indicate a range or a pause.
6. Run-on sentences: A run-on sentence is an ungrammatical construction in which two or more
independent clauses are improperly joined without a conjunction or appropriate punctuation.
7. Quotation Marks: Used to denote a quotation from another source. Full stops or periods and
commas should be inside the quotation mark.
Sentence Fragments: Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that don’t have one
independent clause.
Wrong word usage: There are variety of words and phrases that are commonly confused and
misused in sentences. Using them incorrectly can change the meaning of the sentence.
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Spelling Mistakes:
Capitalization: The most common rule about capitalization is that the first letter of a sentence
in upper case. Should not use upper case letter un necessarily.
Always capitalize the name of a person, a company, days of the week and months, holidays and
institutions.
Exercises
Correct the errors in the following sentences
1. Shari was addictive to chocolate; she ate it every single day
2. I feel very healthily today.
3. I noticeable that you are not wearing a tie today.
4. My professor read my paper, she said it was excellent.
5. Slow children, crossing.
6. Let’s eat Grandpa.
7. We talks to the girl.
8. There are many peoples living in the room.
9. i went to england last month.
10. I like ice cream chocolates fruits and desserts.
Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is a group of sentences organized on a main topic
The cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on one idea
A paragraph has three main parts;
An introduction
A body of the paragraph
A conclusion.
Elements of a Paragraph
A good paragraph has the following elements.
Topic Sentence
A sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph. It is often located at the
beginning of the paragraph.
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Supporting Sentences
All sentences in a paragraph should support the topic sentence. A combination of details,
examples, statistics and quotations can be used to illustrate the idea.
Logical Order
The sentences need to be in an order that makes sense. This can be of chronological order,
order of importance or logical presentation of detail.
Concluding Sentence
The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should summarize the main idea
by reinforcing the topic sentence.
Unity
Unity in a paragraph means that the entire paragraph should focus on one single idea. The
supporting details should explain the main idea. The concluding sentence should end the
paragraph with the same idea.
EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise. A
nutritious diet includes eating a variety of foods from each of the four food groups: meat, dairy,
fruits and vegetables and grains. Regular exercise is also an essential part of keeping a healthy
lifestyle. Most experts recommend exercising at least thirty minutes a day, six days a week. These
two aspects, eating a healthy diet and exercising on a regular basis, will maintain a healthy
lifestyle.
Paragraph Organization
Paragraph organization refers to the way sentences are ordered and structured to create a unified
and cohesive body of text.
Supporting details
Organizational patterns
Signal words
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Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is an important feature of a paragraph. It has two parts:
Snow skiing is the topic, and the predicate of the sentence expresses the point or opinion about
the topic.
Supporting Details
The topic and controlling idea are developed with supporting details
Organizational Pattern
Along with having topic sentences and supporting details paragraphs are also organized to achieve
a certain purpose.
Cause and Effect : for showing how one thing leads to another
Chronological Order: for narrating events that occurred over time
Classification: for grouping things together according to their features
Compare and contrast: for showing how things are similar or different
Definition and example: for defining a term or idea then expanding it with examples
Description: for listing details
Episode: for presenting details or information about a specific event or anecdote
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Signal words
Signal words or transition words are phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next.
Listed below are signal words associated with different paragraph organizational pattern.
1. Computer 6. Cricket
2. My city 7. Water pollution
3. Diwali 8. Internet
4. Republic day 9. Global warming
5. Mahatma Gandhi 10. Punctuality
Correspondence
A correspondence is any written or digital communication exchanged by two or more parties.
Letters
Emails
Voicemails
Circulars
Notices
Memos, or
Post cards
Notices
A notice is usually a straight forward written communication giving some information or
instruction to an individual or a group or the public
A notice may be issued inside an organization or sent outside it
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The main function of a notice is to inform or making people aware of upcoming news,
events of actions
Notices are needed to be pasted, clipped or published at a place where intended people can
see it
Purpose of Notices
Announce social events
Report on matters of interest to staff
Inform staff of new procedures
Advertise posts for internal appointment
Remind staff of company procedures
Format of Notice
A notice has three parts- head, body and authority /contact person
Authority/contact person- Name or signature of notice issuing authority is included in the end.
Notices-Example
Delhi Public School, New Delhi
Notice
Date: 18 Feb 2015
On the occasion of National Science and Technology Day, the school has decided to organize a
fair. All office bearers are requested to attend a meeting in the School Library on 20th Feb 2015
at 10 A.M. to discuss the arrangements for the fair.
(Signature)
Vikram Singh
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Exercises
1. You are Sidharth, head boy of KIGL international school. Your school is publishing annual
magazine next month. Write a notice for your school notice board and invite write ups from
the students.
2. You are secretary of Mahatma Gandhi library. There are changes in membership fees and
book rental charges from next month. Write a notice for library notice board to provide all
these information to the members.
Office Memorandum
Uses of Memorandum
To issue an instruction
To give suggestions
Format of Memorandum
MEMORANDUM
TO: _____________________________
FROM:__________________________
DATE:__________________________
SUBJECT:________________________
(MESSAGE)_______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Memorandum-Example
To: All Staffs
The annual company picnic will be held at Memorial Park on May 27, 1999. The event will be
catered by Fresh Air Barbeque, with desserts by Nancy’s Sweet Things. Immediate family
members are invited. Pease plan to join us! RSVP with Mrs. Taylor by May 1, 1999.
Exercises
1. Write a memo up to three paragraphs long for the below scenario.
You are an administrative assistant. You want to tell 10 people about an upcoming training
seminar.
2. The Hard drive in your computer is full of valuable files and data.Write a memo to Joseph
Magellan, your supervisor, requesting that your hard drive
be replaced with greater capacity( or that a second hard
drive be added to your system.
OFFICE CIRCULARS
It is drafted in such a way that the information is useful and understandable to all
concerned
Whenever the management has to inform anything to the entire organization or department
, it uses office circulars
EFFECTIVE CIRCULARS
The Circular must be written in simple language.
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Circulars should bear a reference number which is self explanatory of the
purpose/department for which it is issued
PQR Limited
New Delhi
February1, 2011
Circular No. HR/02/2011/5
To all employees
A four-hour computer training program has been arranged for all employees on Sunday, 5
February 2011, in the office premises. The program will start at 10 A.M. All employees
are required to attend the programme.
Sd/
Arvind Sahni
Human Resource Manager
Exercises
1. Draft a circular letter to customers and dealers announcing the opening of a new branch
BUSINESS LETTERS
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To exchange business information
Widening the approach-A business letter can send to any place instead of sending business
representatives.
Body:
Type single space, with two line spaces between paragraphs
Devote one paragraph to each important point
(2 line spaces)
Closing:
Sincerely, Yours sincerely
If two-word closing, only the first word is capitalized
(4line spaces, within which your written signature appears)
Signature:
Full name typed
Below your name, your job title
Never precede a written or typed signature with a title (Mr., Mrs., Mr., Dr.)
(2 line spaces)
Enclosure (if there is one)
cc: (John Doe)
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BUSINESS LETTER
Mr.Marshal M Smith
Mass Spectrum Plastics
142 South Seabay Drive
Sea Island, FL 33617
Thank you for inquiring about our Web services. Carter Web Design specializes in creating
websites. Your satisfaction is our priority. We work on projects of any size from large to small.
Our prices ranges from $75 an hour to design a basic logo to $150 an hour to design and
implement a fully featured website.
Our staff includes seven web designers who will help you to turn your image of a perfect website
into reality. We can fulfill any of your Web design needs, from developing high-end graphics and
animation to incorporating video and sound.
We realize that your organization may not be clear on what your Web needs are. Our talented,
insightful staff will work with you to develop a vision and implement your strategy.
I have enclosed a brochure that explains the four website design packages we offer. Choose the
one that is right for your needs and give us a call anytime at 1-800-543-6677. We will be glad to
set up a free consultation.
Sincerely,
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Exercises
1. You are a sales representative of your company. Write a letter to Mike Mason of ABC
Enterprises, introducing one of your new products or services.
Email
An email is fastest means of communication
stands for electronic mail.
It is a method of composing, sending, storing
and receiving message over an electronic
system.
By making use of emails, executives and
personnel can effectively communicate with
their counterparts anywhere in the world, irrespective of their location.
2. Subject contents : Keep the subject short and clear. Eg. Delayed Shipment, Laboratory
Equipment Order etc.
3. Greetings : Start the message with a greeting. Eg. Dear Mr. /Ms. Raj,
4. Purpose : Start with a clear indication of what the message is about in the first paragraph.
Give full details in the following paragraph(s). Make sure that the final paragraph indicates
what should happen next.
5. Action : Any action that you want to do should be clearly described, using politeness
phrases. Eg. “Could you… “ or “ I would be grateful if …”
6. Attachments : If you use an attachment , make sure the file name describe the content.eg
‘QA report 2012.doc’.
7. Endings : End the message in a polite way. Common endings are Yours sincerely, Best
regards etc.
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Email-Format
Date: ______________________
To:_________________________
CC:_________________________
BCC:________________________
Subject:_____________________
Dear Sir/Madam,
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Yours sincerely,
(Name)
Exercises
1. You are Mr Deepak, the librarian of KV AFA. Write an email to Rana book depot,
Hyderabad requesting them to cancel your order for English literary books and Children's
story book. Give reasons for cancellation of the order.
2. Send an email to John Smith to tell him that the goods he ordered are now in stock and
ready for him to collect.
Make connections between what they read and what they already know
Henry Ford was born in 1863 in Michigan. He had 4 siblings, and his family owned a
farm. He worked on the farm when he was young, but he soon discovered that he loved taking
things apart to see how they worked, then putting them back together again. He worked on
watches a lot, and ended up helping many people fix their watches. In 1879, when he was 16 years
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old, he moved to Detroit to start working with machines, though he did come home and work on
the farm a little, too.
Ford got married to Clara Bryant in 1888, and worked on a saw mill. He eventually
became an engineer. Ford worked for the Edison Illuminating Company and even got to meet
Thomas Edison! Edison encouraged him to keep working on his plans for his horseless carriage,
powered by a motor. Ford’s gasoline -powered horseless carriage was called the Quadricycle.
He sold the Quadricycle and started his own company to continue his work making
vehicles. He did not stay with the first company for very many years, but eventually started the
Ford Motor Company. He spent many years developing cars, which were made only a few at a
time.
Ford was not the first person to create a car, but he was the one who began to make them
accessible to a lot of people in the United States. His “Model T” car, released in 1908, was easy to
drive and to repair, which made many people want one. He needed to make a lot of cars very
quickly. His company, Ford Motor Company, hired skilled workers to work on an assembly line.
The car would move through the line, and each worker had a job along the line. One worker might
put on the steering wheel, while at a different spot on the line, another worker put on tires. Every
Model T was painted black. The company could make many cars at a time this way, which made
them cheaper to produce.
In addition to using the assembly line to produce cars, Ford was also known for paying his
workers fair wages. Henry Ford died in 1947, but his company is still around and making cars
today.
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EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS
Earthquakes are the sudden shock of the earth’s surface that result in the earth shaking and
rolling. They can be felt over large geographical areas for brief moments of time. This is a natural
way for the earth to release stress. Did you know that more than a million earthquakes shock the
world each year? Let’s look at what causes this unpredictable phenomenon.
There are nearly 20 tectonic plates that are along the earth’s surface that continuously
move past each other. When these plates stretch or squeeze, huge rocks form at their edges and the
rocks shift causing an earthquake. You can visualize an earthquake by holding a pencil
horizontally in the air and applying force to both ends by pushing down on them. Eventually, the
pencil will break somewhere between the two pencil ends to release the stress placed on it. This is
exactly how the earth’s crust reacts to produce an earthquake. The plates move and put forces on
each other so the earth’s crust breaks for this stress to be released in the form of energy. This
energy then moves at a terrifying rate through the earth as an earthquake.
The points on the Richter scale correspond to the amount of shaking of the earth (ten times
the amount of shaking and 33 times the amount of energy). It has been reported that the energy
released by a large earthquake may be equal to 10,000 times the energy of the first atomic bomb
and cause anxiety-ridden victims to panic. Following is a chart that shows the types of
earthquakes and the rating of each on the Richter Scale:
Richter scale
Minor Earthquake
Moderate Earthquake
Strong Earthquake
Major Earthquake
Great Earthquake
If you live in a region of the world that has been known to have a history of earthquakes, it
is devised that you assemble a well-equipped safety and emergency kit. It is also imperative to
have an established disaster plan so everyone remains safe. During an actual earthquake, it is
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advisable to get under a sturdy piece of furniture where nothing can fall on you and to stay clear
of glass windows and larger objects. If you are outdoors, you need to stay far away of buildings,
trees, and power lines. If you are in a car, it is important to drive to a safe area and stay in the car
until the trembles stop.
There may be aftershocks, movements after the earthquake. Check for personal injuries
and damage to your home when all movement has subsided. Depending on the strength of the
earthquake, you may be horrified and need someone for reassurance. It is urgent that you remain
calm. You may be able to reassemble some of the items that were tossed about and repair the
disorder that has occurred during this disaster at a later time.
Tsunamis are formed by the displacement of water, either a landslide, volcanic eruption or
by the slippage of the earth’s plates, rock about 15-200 kilometers (50,000-650,000 feet) deep that
carry the continents and seas of the earth on an underground ocean of hot, semi-solid material.
Tsunamis are large ocean waves that flow straight avoiding any winding and circular turns like
most every day waves. Tsunamis travel up to 965 kph (600 mph), thus capable of causing severe
damage with their treacherous speed alone. They travel the fastest in deeper water, yet hit near the
shoreline at 48-64 kph (30-40 mph)
What are sustainable energy sources? Sustainable energy sources are often regarded as
including all renewable sources (naturally replenished) such as sunlight, wind, rain, and
geothermal heat. Included in this definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind,
ocean, hydropower, biomass (energy from plants), geothermal (energy from inside the earth), and
biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources. These resources usually also include
technologies that improve energy efficiency. Fossil fuels are not considered sustainable energy
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sources because human consumption of fossil fuels creates a decrease in this type of fuel, not a
constant or continual growth.
Solar Energy: The Latin word for sun is “solar” and thus solar energy is a powerful
source of energy coming from the sun. For billions of years, the sun has produced energy. It is
estimated that the sunlight that shines on the Earth for one hour is capable of meeting the energy
demands of the whole world for an entire year! Can you imagine that?
Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, most commonly heat and
electricity. John Herschel, a British astronomer in the 1830s, used a solar collector box to cook his
food while on an African expedition exploring differing terrain. Today, people use solar energy as
an integral part of their lives and for all sorts of things ranging from heating water in homes to
space heating in buildings, from drying farm products to generating electrical energy, and even
heating their swimming pools!
Photovoltaic is the process of using solar energy directly to make electricity using specific
devices. Electricity can also be produced indirectly from steam generators which use solar thermal
collectors in heating a working fluid. How does solar energy actually work? The sun’s light is
harnessed by passive solar systems for heating or cooling buildings, flat plate solar collectors, and
solar concentrator power systems. The sun’s heat is used to create steam, which then turns a
turbine to produce electricity.
The drawbacks to solar energy are the large area required for collection and the manner in which
it comes to the surface of the earth.
Wind: Wind is classified as sustainable because wind will continually be produced as long
as there is the sun shining on the Earth in orbit. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun. Today, wind energy is used to generate electricity.
The modern use of wind turbines originated in the 17th century when the Dutch used wind
power to recover hundreds of thousands of acres of land by draining the Rhine River Delta. For
the next 300 years, this design was used to pump water, grind grain, and to saw wood. Now,
through advances in the fields of aerodynamics and composite materials, modern electric power
generating turbines was invented. These machines vary in size from as small as one meter to a
hundred meters in rotor diameter, and from 100-1000 kilowatts in power output. Wind energy cost
is determined by the cost of installing the wind turbine and the amount of energy produced. The
use of wind -generated electricity is growing around the world.
Biomass: Organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy is
considered biomass. This type of fuel includes wood, wood waste, straw, manure, sugar cane, and
additional byproducts from a variety of agricultural processes.
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By undergoing the process of photosynthesis, the chlorophyll in plants with the help of energy of
the sun converts the carbon dioxide from both the water and air from the ground into
carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). When these
carbohydrates are burned, they change back into carbon dioxide and water to release the sun’s
energy.
In addition to the typical process of burning, biomass can be changed into liquid fuels or
cooked in a process called “gasification” to make combustible gases. Scientists are exploring
which crops in these contemporary times are best suited for energy generation. More efficient and
cleaner ways to use biomass are also being studied.
Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy, heat from the earth, is used as an efficient heat
source in small applications like greenhouses. This heat energy can be found almost anywhere
from the dirt in our own backyards to remote wells in countries like Indonesia. In most cases,
mineral water is heated from the earth. Using geothermal energy is affordable, sustainable, and a
good choice for the environment.
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TYPES OF ROCKS
Mount Rushmore is an amazing sight, with the faces of four presidents carved into a giant
rock mountain. But even a small rock you find in your yard is pretty amazing. After all, most
rocks have been around for millions of years. Some are billions of years old!
Rocks come in many sizes. A grain of sand can be considered a very tiny rock. Small,
smooth rocks you can hold in your hand are called pebbles. A boulder is a very large rock that is
detached, or separate from, other rocks. Some boulders are so big you can climb on them.
A scientist who studies rocks is called a geologist. Geologists will tell you that there are
three main kinds of rocks on earth, and each kind started in a different way. The three types have
long names that are a little difficult to say. The first type of rock is igneous, which you pronounce
“ig-knee-us.” Igneous means “fire rocks,” which is a good description of how they were formed.
Most come from deep inside the earth’s core where it is so hot that rocks are in a liquid form
called magma. Magma that cools very slowly inside earth’s crust creates one kind of igneous rock.
Another kind of igneous rock forms after a volcano erupts. Liquid magma is called lava when it
reaches the earth’s surface and blasts out of a volcano. When the lava cools, it creates igneous
rock.
About a quarter of the rocks on earth are igneous. The most common type is granite.
Granite has big clumps of crystals that are either gray, white, pink, or red. Granite is often used as
a building material, and can be found in everything from kitchen counters to bridges. Another
kind of igneous rock is obsidian, which you pronounce “ub-sid-ee-un.” This is a shiny black
volcanic rock with sharp edges that was often used for knife blades and arrowheads.
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Answer the following questions
PROCESS OF LISTENING
The process of listening occurs in five stages. They are hearing, understanding, remembering,
evaluating, and responding
HEARING – It is referred to the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory
receptors of the ear; it is physical response; hearing is perception of sound waves; you must hear
to listen, but you need not listen to hear (perception necessary for listening depends on attention).
Brain screens stimuli and permits only a select few to come into focus- these selective perception
is known as attention, an important requirement for effective listening.
UNDERSTANDING- This step helps to understand symbols we have seen and heard, we
must analyze the meaning of the stimuli we have perceived; symbolic stimuli are not only words
but also sounds like applause… and sights like blue uniform…that have symbolic meanings as
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well; the meanings attached to these symbols are a function of our past associations and of the
context in which the symbols occur. For successful interpersonal communication, the listener
must understand the intended meaning and the context assumed by the sender.
REMEMBERING- Remembering is important listening process because it means that an
individual has not only received and interpreted a message but has also added it to the mind”s
storage bank. In Listening our attention is selective, so too is our memory- what is remembered
may be quite different from what was originally seen or heard.
EVALUATING- Only active listeners participate at this stage in Listening.At this point
the active listener weighs evidence, sorts fact from opinion, and determines the presence or
absence of bias or prejudice in a message; the effective listener makes sure that he or she doesn’t
begin this activity too soon ; beginning this stage of the process before a message is completed
requires that we no longer hear and attend to the incoming message-as a result, the listening
process ceases.
RESPONDING- This stage requires that the receiver complete the process through
verbal and/or nonverbal feedback; because the speaker has no other way to determine if a message
has been received, this stage becomes the only overt means by which the sender may determine
the degree of success in transmitting the message.
Good listening skills make workers more productive. The ability to listen carefully will allow a
person to:
• understand assignments in better way and to find what is expected from him.
• build rapport with co-workers, bosses, and clients;
• show support;
• work better in a team-based environment;
• resolve problems with customers, co-workers, and bosses;
• answer questions
• find underlying meanings in what others say.
In this methodology, a topic or a situation will be given to the group, a few minutes to think and
then asked to discuss it among themselves for 15-20 minutes.
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1. Communication skills 2. Initiative
7. Emotional maturity
Communication Skills
Interpersonal Skills
Negotiation and Convincing skills
Assertiveness
Empathy and consideration for others opinion
Ability to negotiate and convince the customers or member of the team
Emotional maturity and behavior.
Do not initiate the discussion if you do not have sufficient knowledge about the given
topic.
Do not over speak, intervene and snatch other’s chance to speak.
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Do not argue and shout during the Group Discussions
Do not look at the evaluators or a particular group member
Do not pose negative body gestures like touching the nose, leaning back on the chair,
knocking the table with a pen etc.
Do not display low self-confidence with shaky voice and shaky hands.
Do not try to dominate the discussion.
Do not put others in an embarrassing situation by asking them to speak if they do not want.
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GD Phrases
3. Which child has a better future that of rich parents or poor parents?
Debates
A debate is a discussion about a subject on which
people have different views.
A debate, therefore, is a formal, disciplined and
rule-governed contest /competition that is
conducted within a set framework.
Why Debate?
When debating, teams explore arguments for and against a specific proposition (topic)
Debate Terms
Preposition (Resolution):The preposition is the arguable statement.
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A good preposition :
Negative Team: Opposes the arguments offered by the affirmative team and offering arguments
against the resolution.
Rebuttal : Explains why one team disagrees with the other team.
Judge : Neutral third party, decides which side is more persuasive.
Debate Format
A debate follows a clearly defined format
Who speaks first and last.
How long each team/individual speak.
Do’s of a debate
Learn about the topic well in advance
Analyze the given topic and discuss with the co participants
Be loud and clear
Don’ts of a debate
Don’t get deviated from the topic
Do not interrupt others
Do not get too personal or emotional
Do not shout and argue
Don’t loose patience when encountering illogical questions
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Debate on selected topics
1. Homework should be banned
2. Nations should stop making nuclear weapons. Do you agree or disagree?
3. Technology is good or bad
4. Television is good or bad?
5. Mobile phones are good or bad?
6. Who are more hardworking, men or women?
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Importance of Presentation
Following are some examples wherein the importance of presentation is observed:
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Plan and organize your presentation
Read the draft and revise the draft as per requirement
If possible show it to your friend or guide or teacher and get guidance
Have relevant examples or photos or video clippings
Follow “PPP” method i.e. Prepare-Practice and Present
Practice presentation with timings
Remember the two important terms - “Matter and Manner”
During Presentation:
Greet the audience-Good morning/afternoon/evening
Get people’s attention and Welcome them
Introduce yourself-I am Kishan, or my name is Kishan-(but not Myself Kishan – it is a
wrong usage)
State the purpose of your presentation with confidence
Start with a comfortable speed and as per slides prepared
Keep an eye contact with all and Watch the timings
Follow voice modulation
Request the audience to ask questions
Answer politely and convincingly
Finally thank the judges and/or audience
Exercise
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Subject Title : ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
NOTES:
34
1.0 UNITS
SYSTEM OF UNITS
Types of physical Quantities
The physical quantities are broadly divided in to two types
i) Fundamental Physical quantities
ii) ii) Derived physical quantities
The fundamental physical quantities are described below, they are
FPS system : FPS stands for foot, pound and second. It is British system
The CGS system : CGS stands for centimetre, gram and second
MKS system : MKS stands for meter, kilogram and second
SI system : SI stands for international system of units. Extension of MKS
system
FPS, CGS, MKS systems are used for measuring the following fundamental physical
quantities such as Length, Mass, Time
S.I systems are used for measuring the following fundamental physical quantities. Which
are i)Mass ii)Length iii) Time iv)Electric current v) Thermo dynamic temperature vi)
Luminous intensity vii) Quantity of substance
NOTES:
35
Multiples and Submultiples
Conversion of Units
Metric length conversions
Metric weight conversions
Metric capacity conversions
Metric length conversions
x 1000 x 100 x 10
km m cm mm
i) 2 km = _________ m i) 5m = _________ km
= 2000m = 0.005km
NOTES:
36
Conversion from metre to centimetre Conversion from centimetre to metre
= 300m = 0.06m
=40mm =0.2cm
Exercises
1. 24 km = __________ m
2. 0.076 km = _________ m
3. 27 m = __________ cm
4. 0.65 m = __________cm
5. 15 cm = __________ mm
6. 2.8 cm = __________ mm
7. 400 m = _________ km
8. 8.75 m = _________ km
9. 240 cm = _________ m
10. 18.2 cm = _________ m
11. 17 mm = _________ cm
12. 25 mm = _________ cm
NOTES:
37
Metric weight conversions
Tonne kg g cg mg
Examples
Conversion from tonnes to kilograms Conversion from kilogram to tonnes
=10000kg = 0.5tonne
=15000g = 0.3kg
NOTES:
38
Conversion from centigram to milligrams Conversion from milligram to centigram
=300mg = 3cg
Exercises
NOTES:
39
2.0 MENSURATION
INTRODUCTION
Mensuration is the branch of mathematics which deals with the study of different geometrical
areas and Volume.
There are two types of geometric shapes 1) 2D and 2) 3D
2D shapes are
1) Square 2) Rectangle 3) Triangle 4) Circle
AREA
It is written as : 1cm2
1cm
AREA OF SQUARE
Area = a2 = a x a
NOTES:
40
Example
Solution
Area = a2 = a x a
Area = 6 m × 6 m = 36 m2
AREA OF RECTANGLE
Examples
Breadth
Length
(1)
(2)
A= L x B A= L x B
A = 6 x 6 =36cm2 A = 12 x 3 =36cm2
NOTES:
41
Examples
7cm
3m
Solution:
Solution:
A = LB
A=LB
L = 7cm B = 4 cm
L=3m B=5m
A= 7 x 4
A=3x5
A = 28cm2
A=15m2
5cm
3cm
8cm
Solution:
5 A1 3
A2
NOTES:
42
Area = A1 + A2
Area = (2 x 5) + (6 x 3)
Area = 10 + 18
Area = 28cm2
Exercise Problems
(2)
(1)
2.7m
6cm
4.2m
8cm
17cm
(3)
5cm
12cm
8cm
AREA OF TRIANGLE
Examples
6cm
3.2m
10cm 6.4m
NOTES:
43
Solution: Solution.
12m
10m A1
A2
16m
Divide the shape into parts:
Area = LB + 1/2 BH
Area = A1 + A2
Area = 10 x 12 + ½ x 4 x 10
10 Area = 120 + 20
10 A1
A2
Area = 140m2
12 16-12 =4
Exercise problems
(1)
(2)
10cm
6.3m
8cm
10.2 m
NOTES:
44
18m
(3)
12m
Examples
1)
2)
20 cm 2.7m
Solution:
Solution:
A=r 2
A=r2
r = 10
r = 1.35m
A = 3.14 x 10 x 10
A = 3.14 x 1.35 x 1.35
A = 314 cm2
A = 5.72m2 (to 2 d.p)
NOTES:
45
3)
7cm
12cm
Area = A1 + A2
Area = LB + ½ r 2.
L = 12 B=7 r = 3.5
A = 84 + 19.23
Exercise problems
(3)
(1)
(2) 6.3
m
4.2cm
7cm
6.7cm
VOLUME OF CYLINDER
NOTES:
46
Examples
= π*52*14
=1100cm3
VOLUME OF A CONE
3(V) = π r2h
r
V = 1/3 π r2h
A Cone is a three dimensional solid with a circular base and a curved surface that gradually
narrows to a vertex.
+ + =
Volume of a Cone
NOTES:
47
Examples
Find the volume of a cone whose base radius is 2.1 cm and height 6 cm.
Volume of a cone
VOLUME OF SPHERE
as radius of sphere.
V = 4/3 π r3
Examples:
1) Find the volume of a sphere of radius 9.6 m, rounding your answer to two decimal places.
Solution:
4 3
V πr
3
4 3
xπx9.6
3
4
xπx884.736
3
3705.97
Exercise problems
1) Find the volume of a cylinder with a radius r=1 m and height h=2 m.
2) Find the volume of a cone with a radius r=1 m and height h=1 m
3) Find the volume of a sphere of radius 15.6 m, rounding your answer to two decimal places.
NOTES:
48
4) Base area and volume of a solid right circular cylinder are 13.86
sq.cm, and 69.3cu.cm respectively. Find its height and radius.
5) The volume of a solid right circular cone is 4928 cu. cm. If its
height is 24 cm, then find the radius of the cone.
VOLUME OF CUBE
Volume is length by length by length, so the basic unit of volume is a cube that is 1 meter
on each side.
So, a cube that is 1 meter on each side is a cubic meter (m3) ...
1 m3 = 1,000 Liters
Example:
Find the volume if the length of one side is 2 cm
Solution:
Vcube = 23
Vcube = 2 × 2 × 2
Vcube = 8 cm3
Exercises
NOTES:
49
The volume is found using the formula:
Volume = Length × Width × Height
Solution:
10m×5m×4m = 200 m3
Exercises:
VOLUME OF HEMISPHERE
A Hemisphere is a half sphere, one half of a sphere or globe that is divided by a plane passing
through its center
Examples:
Solution:
= (2/3) x π x 73
= 718.66 cm3
NOTES:
50
Exercises:
1) How many litres of milk can a hemispherical bowl of diameter 10.5 cm hold?
2) A hemispherical tank is made up of an iron sheet 1 cm thick. If the inner radius is 1 m then
find the volume of the iron used to make the tank.
3) A right circular cylinder having diameter 12 cm and height 15 cm is full with ice cream.
The ice cream is to be filled in comes of height 12 cm and diameter 6 cm having a
hemispherical shape on the top. Find the number of such cones which can be filled with
ice cream.
Example:
70 / 2 = 35
The reason you divide by two is because there are two fifties in one hundred.
Solved examples:
1) Find 60 % of 180?
0.60*180 = 108.00
Answer: 108
NOTES:
51
2) Find 5 % of 70?
=5/100= 0∙05
= 0∙05*70=3∙5
Answer: 3.5
(30/100)*X = 12
3 * X = 12
10
3*X = 12*10
X = 120/3
X=40.
SO 30% of 40 is 12.
(25/100)*X=15
5 * X =15
20
X=60
SO 25% of 60 is 15.
Solved examples:
1) 15 is? Percent of 60
15=X * 60
X=15/60
X=0.25
X=25%
NOTES:
52
Total students =30
=0.4 =40%
Exercise Problems:
1) There were 30 questions on a test. If a student got 80% correct, how many questions did he get
correct?
2) 23% of the 600 students at SMMS take band. How many students are taking band?
3) In a school, 25 % of the teachers teach basic math. If there are 50 basic math teachers, how
many teachers are there in the school?
4) 24 students in a class took an algebra test. If 18 students passed the test, what percent do not
pass?
5) Nova school students are good players of Soccer. They won 16 games out of 20 played. Find
the percentage of games won by Nova school students.
6) In a play school, 12 balls are red, 14 balls are green, 16 balls are white and 8 balls are blue.
Find the percentage of i) Blue balls and ii) White balls
7) In a garden, 20% of trees are Guava, 35% of trees are Orange and rests of the trees are Mango.
If there are 500 trees in total, find the number of Mango trees.
8) What is the percentage of the squares of the first ten natural numbers?
9) A booklet has 10 pages with the following numbers of words: 271, 354, 296, 301, 333, 326,
285, 298, 287 and 314 what is the percentage of words per page?
DECIMAL – PERCENT:
NOTES:
53
Examples:
Decimal Percent
.93 93%
.08 08%
.67 67%
.41 41%
FRACTION - DECIMAL:
Examples:
FRACTION DECIMAL
7/8 .875
9/11 .81
4/9 .4
DECIMAL-FRACTION:
Examples:
PRECENT – DECIMAL:
2. Move the decimal point two places to the left, adding in zeros as needed.
Examples:
NOTES:
54
Percent Decimal
55% .55
7% .07
81.7% .817
41.7% .417
FRACTION –PERCENT:
Example:
(OR)
PERCENT – FRACTION:
Examples:
NOTES:
55
Exercise problems:
We generally separate the two numbers in the ratio with a colon (:)
Solved Examples:
Solution:
36 yards: 48 yards
= 36 : 48
Dividing both numbers by 4
NOTES:
56
= 9 : 12
Dividing both numbers by 3
=3:4
36 yards : 48 yards
Ans = 3 : 4
Solution:
1 day = 24 hours
2 days = 2 * 24 = 48 hours
36 hours : 2 days
= 36 hours : 48 hours
= 36 : 48
Dividing by 6
=6:8
Dividing by 2
Ans = 3 : 4
Solution:
4) There are 250 students in a certain school. If the number of boys in a school are 120. Find
the ratio between
i) number of girls to number of boys
ii) number of boys to total number of students
iii) number of students to number of girls
Solution:
Number of students = 250
Number of boys = 120
NOTES:
57
Number of girls = Total number of students – Total number of boys
= 250 – 120
Number of girls = 130
Exercise Problems:
i) 200 m to 600 cm
ii) 350 bags to 500 bags
iii) 25 feet to 125 cm
iv) 150 pencils to 225 pencils
v) 69 m to 9 km
vi) 22 yards to 77 yards
vii) 36 hours to 600 seconds
viii) $64 to $48
ix) 121 inches to 99 cm
x) Mr. Mac has 12 white balls, 15 black balls and 18 green balls. Find the ratio of
i) Black balls to white balls
NOTES:
58
ii) White balls to total number of balls
iii) Black balls to white balls to green balls
PROPORTIONS
When two ratios expressed in its simplest form are equal they are said to be in
proportion.
If the ratio a:b is equal to the ratio c:d then a, b,c, d are said to be in proportion
When two ratios are equal, then the cross products of the ratios are equal.
100 = 100
Two ratios form a proportion when the cross products are equal.
Write a ratio of the shaded parts to all parts for each circle. Do the ratios form a proportion?
NOTES:
59
Example
Solution:
2.9 = 3.x
2 4 18 = 3x
1)
3 6 x = 18/3
1 5
2)
8 13 x=6
4 16
3)
5 20
3 12 Exercise Problems
4)
4 20
3 9 Decide if each pair of ratios forms a proportion:
5)
5 15
1 ?
1)
2 15
3 ?
2)
7 42
4 28
3)
5 ?
? 7
4)
7 49
2 18
5)
? 63
NOTES:
60
4.0 BASICS OF ALGEBRA
ALGEBRA
ALGEBRAIC TERMS
Like terms
Like terms are terms that contain the same variables raised to
the same power.
Example:
3x2 and 7x2 are like terms.
Unlike terms
The terms having the same variable with different exponents or different variable with same
exponents are called Unlike terms.
Example:
1) 5x and 5y
2) 2x 2 and 3y 2
NOTES:
61
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
An algebraic expression is a combination of variables and constants connected by
arithmetic operations.
Expressions:
Contain any number of algebraic terms
use signs of operation—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
do not contain an equality sign (=)
–3ax + 11wx2y
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
An equation is a mathematical statement that two expressions are equal.
The following three statements are equations:
4 + 5 = 9 x – 35 = 56 k2 + 3 x + 3 = 15
Real Numbers:
All the numbers that we use in normal day-to-day activities to represent quantities such as
distance, time, speed, area, profit, loss, temperature, etc., are called Real Numbers.
Natural Numbers
The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ……… are called natural numbers.
The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N.
The line extends
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, ..........} endlessly only to
the right side of 1
Whole Numbers
The set of natural numbers together with zero forms the set of whole numbers. The set of
whole numbers is denoted by W.
W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, …… }
Integers
The natural numbers, their negative numbers together with zero are called integers. The set
of all integers is denoted by Z
NOTES:
62
Z = {…….. -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ………}
Rational Numbers:
Irrational Numbers:
Irrational numbers are in the form of infinite non-repeating decimals. These numbers
cannot be expressed in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q≠0. The symbol for irrational
numbers is S.
Real numbers:
The real numbers is the set that consists of all rational numbers and all irrational numbers.
Example
Simplify 13x + 7y − 2x + 6a
Solution:
13x + 7y − 2x + 6a
The only like terms in this expression are 13x and −2x. We cannot do anything with the 7y or 6a.
So group together the terms we can subtract and just leave the rest:
(13x − 2x) + 6a + 7y
= 6a + 11x + 7y
NOTES:
63
Subtraction of Algebraic Terms
Example:
Solution :
= 5x – (-7x)
=5x + 7x
= 12x
Example
Solution:
=(4x 2 + 2xy – 3y 2 ) – (x 2 + y 2 + 3xy)
= 4x 2 + 2xy – 3y 2 - x 2 - y 2 - 3xy
= 4x2 + 2xy – 3y2 - x2 – y2 - 3xy
= 3x 2 – x y – 4y 2
Exercise problems
1. (2x2+4x-8) + (x2-3)
2. (3x3+2x-5) + (2x2+x+9)
3. (x2-8x) + (3x2-5)
4. (10x3-4x+11) + (9x3+3x2-2x+4)
5. (x3-20x+1) + (17x3+2x2-x+21)
1. (5x3+7x2-2x) – (3x3-7x+4)
2. (11x2+2x+16) – (2x2+x+2)
NOTES:
64
3. (35x2+30x-14) – (x2+10x+28)
4. (10x2+6x) – (4x2-3)
5. (62x2-32x+45) – (24x2+19x-12)
Examples
(i) x x 5y = x x 5 x y = 5 x x x y = 5xy
Example
= 6x2 + 10x
Example (y2)(y3)
So y2y3 = yyyyy
y2y3= y5
Example (x3y5)(x2yz)
Answer = x3+2y5+1z
= x5y6z
NOTES:
65
Example (2xy)(4y)
Answer = 2.4xy1+1
= 8xy2
Exercises
1. 2p(3pq-5qt)
2. (Y-3)(2y+5)
3. (6xy)(-3x2y3)
4. (7ab2)(-4a2b)
Example:
3xy(4x 2 y 5)
8x 2 y 3
Solution:
12x 3 y 6
Multiply the numerator,
8x 2 y 3
Cancel out the same variables from the numerator and the denominator. The answer is 3 xy 3
2
Example
4x2 6x
2x 2x
2x 3
NOTES:
66
Algebraic long method
Arrange the indices of the polynomial in descending order. Replace the missing term(s)
with 0
Divide the first term of the dividend (the polynomial to be divided) by the first term of
the divisor. This gives the first term of the quotient
Subtract the product from the dividend then bring down the next term
The difference and the next term will be the new dividend
Note: Remember the rule in subtraction "change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed
to addition".
Continue the process until a remainder is obtained. This can be zero or is of lower index
than the divisor
Example
x3 6 x 2 12 13 x x3 6 x 2 13 x 12
x3 x3
(x3/x=x2)
x2
x 3 x 3 6 x 2 13 x 12
x2
x 3 x 3 6 x 2 13 x 12
x 3 3x 2
3x 2 x2
x 3 x 3 6 x 2 13 x 12
NOTES:
67
x 3 3x 2
3x 2 13 x
x 2 3x
x 3 x3 6 x 2 13 x 12
x 3 3x 2
3x 2 13 x
3x 2 9 x
4 x 12
Divide 4x by x to get the next term of the quotient , 4 and Multiply the divisor by 4
x 2 3x 4
x 3 x 6 x 13 x 12
3 2
x 3 3x 2
3x 2 13 x
3x 2 9 x
4 x 12
4 x 12
0
In this case the remainder is 0. This means that x+3 is a factor of x3+6x2+13x+12.
Exercise problems
1. (3x2 − 11x − 4) ÷ (x − 4)
NOTES:
68
3. (2x3 – 9x2 + 15) ÷ (2x – 5)
5. (x3 – 7x – 6) ÷ (x – 4)
5.0 TRIGONOMETRY
INTRODUCTION
The word Trigonometry is a derivation from the Greek language and means Measurement
of Triangles
Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer and mathematician known as “The Father of
Trigonometry”
Angle
An angle is a portion of the 2-dimensional plane which resides between two different directed line
segments.
Pythagoras Theorem:
The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.
AC2=AB2+BC2
The side that is opposite to the right angle is called the Hypotenuse.
A
Opp Hypotenus
osite e
side
(C
B Adjacent
side
NOTES:
69
Trigonometric Ratios Relation
1
Sin cosec
1
cosec Sin
1 1
cos Sec
Sec cos
1 1
tan Cot
Cot tan
Trigonometric Ratios:
Let 0 be an acute angle of a right triangle. The six trigonometric ratios of 0 are as follows:
Oppositeside Hypotenuse
Sin Cosec
Hypotenuse Oppositeside
Examples:
1) In the right triangle PQR as shown at right, find the six trigonometric ratios of the angleϴ.
SOLUTION:
NOTES:
70
2) From the Fig, find the six trigonometric ratios of the angle θ .
Solution: Q
From the fig PQ=7,PR=24.
By Pythagoras theorem,
7
QR2=QP2+PR2
=72+242
P 24 R
=49+576
QR = √625
QR =25
NOTES:
71
Sec ϴ 1 2/√3 √2 2 Not Defined
Example:
Solution:
= (1/ √ 2 ) 2 +1 2 + (1/ √ 2 ) 2
Ans=2.
Exercise problems:
Evaluate:
6) In ∆ABC, right angled at B, AB = 10 and AC = 26. Find the six trigonometric ratios of the
angles A and C.
7) From the following diagrams, find the trigonometric ratios of the angle θ .
Q
Q
37
10 35
6
P P 12 R
8 R
NOTES:
72
3Cos 4 sin
8) If sec θ=26/10 find
4Cos 2 sin
1 sin Cos 3
9) If tan θ=20/21 show that
1 sin Cos 7
6. GRAPHS
There are different types of graphs in mathematics and statistics which are used to represent data
in a pictorial form. Among the various types of charts or graphs, the most common and widely
used ones are explained below.
Types of Graphs
Statistical Graphs
A statistical graph or chart is defined as the pictorial representation of statistical data in graphical
form.
The statistical graphs are used to represent a set of data to make it easier to understand and
interpret statistical information.
NOTES:
73
Types of Graphs in Statistics
The four basic graphs used in statistics include bar, line, histogram and pie charts. These are
explained here in brief.
Bar Graph
Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of grouped data in vertical or horizontal rectangular
bars, where the length of bars is proportional to the measure of data.
The chart’s horizontal axis represents categorical data, whereas the chart’s vertical axis defines
discrete data.
Line Graph
A graph that utilizes points and lines to represent change over time is defined as a line graph.
In other words, it is a chart that shows a line joining several points or a line that shows the
relation between the points.
The diagram depicts quantitative data between two changing variables with a straight line or curve
that joins a series of successive data points. Linear charts compare these two variables on a
vertical and horizontal axis.
NOTES:
74
Histogram
A histogram chart displays the frequency of discrete and continuous data in a dataset using
connected rectangular bars.
Here, the number of observations that fall into a predefined class interval represented by a
rectangular bar
Pie Chart
A pie chart used to represent the numerical proportions of a dataset.
This graph involves dividing a circle into various sectors, where each sector represents the
proportion of a particular element as a whole. This is also called a circle chart or circle graph.
NOTES:
75
Exponential Graphs
Exponential graphs are the representation of exponential functions using the table of values and
plotting the points on a graph paper.
It should be noted that the exponential functions are the inverse of logarithmic functions.
For example, the graph of y = 3x is an increasing one while the graph of y = 3-x is a decreasing
one.
Graph of y = 3x:
Graph of y = 3-x
NOTES:
76
Logarithmic Graphs
Logarithmic functions are inverse of
exponential functions and the methods of
plotting them are similar.
To plot logarithmic graphs, it is required to
make a table of values and then plot the points
accordingly on a graph paper.
Trigonometric Graphs
Trigonometry graphs are plotted below for the 6 trigonometric functions, which include sine
function, cosine function, tangent function, cotangent function, cosec function, and sec function.
Applications
Graphs can be used to model many types of relations and processes in physical, biological, social
and information systems. Many practical problems can be represented by graphs.
NOTES:
77
Computer science (used to represent networks of communication, data organization,
computational devices, the flow of computation.)
Linguistics
Physics and chemistry (used to study molecules in chemistry and physics.)
Social sciences (used in sociology as a way, for example, to measure actors' prestige or to
explore rumor spreading)
Biology (useful in biology and conservation efforts where a vertex can represent regions
where certain species exist)
Mathematics (useful in geometry and certain parts of topology such as knot theory)
Interpreting graphs
Interpreting graphs involves understanding what the shape of a curve represents in real life
situations.
We should also understand what slope means and how to interpret what a high or low slope value
represents. An understanding of plotting points is also important.
NOTES:
78
7. BASIC STATISTICS
Statistics:
Statistics is the science of making inference based on the data.
Data:
Data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements.
Data can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just descriptions
of things.
Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
1) Discrete
2) Continuous
Discrete data:
It can only take certain values (like whole numbers) .
Example: the number of students in a class (you can't have half a student).
Continuous data:
It can take any value (within a range) .
Examples:
A person's height: could be any value (within the range of human heights),
Variable:
Property of an object or event that can take on different values.
NOTES:
79
For example:
College major is a variable that takes on values like mathematics, computer science,
English, Psychology, etc.
Types of Variable:
Discrete Variable:
A variable with a limited number of values (e.g., gender (male/female), college class
(freshman/sophomore/junior/senior).
Continuous Variable:
A variable that can take on many different values, in theory, any value between the
lowest and highest points on the measurement scale.
Independent Variable:
A variable that is manipulated, measured, or selected by the researcher as an
antecedent condition to an observed behavior. In a hypothesized cause-and-effect relationship,
the independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the outcome or effect.
Dependent Variable:
A variable that is not under the experimenter's control -- the data. It is the variable
that is observed and measured in response to the independent variable.
MEAN:
The Mean (or average) of a set of data values is the sum of all of the data values divided
by the number of data values.
NOTES:
80
Where x (read as 'x bar') is the mean
Example:
1) The marks of seven students in a mathematics test with a maximum possible mark of 20 are
given below: 15 13 18 16 14 17 12
Solution:
= 15+13+18+16+14+17+12
= 105/7 Ans: 15
Median:
The Median of a set of data values is the middle value of the data set when it has been
arranged in ascending order. That is, from the smallest value to the highest value.
If the number of values in the data set is even, then the median is the average of
the two middle values.
If the number of values in the data set is odd, then the median is the middle value
of the data set.
NOTES:
81
Examples:
1) The marks of nine students in a geography test that had a maximum possible mark of 50
are given below:
47 35 37 32 38 39 36 34 35
Solution:
Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
32 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 47
The fifth data value, 36, is the middle value in this arrangement.
So Median = 36
Solution:
Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
10 12 13 16 17 18 19 21
The number of values in the data set is 8, which is even. So, the median is the average of the
two middle values.
=16+17
So Median = 16.5
Mode:
The Mode of a set of data values is the value(s) that occurs most often.
It is possible for a set of data values to have more than one mode.
If there are two data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of data values
is bimodal.
NOTES:
82
If there is no data value or data values that occur most frequently, we say that the set of
data values has no mode.
Example:
Find the mode of the following data set:
48 44 48 45 42 49 48
Solution:
Exercise Problems:
1) Find the mean, median, and mode for the data set 5, 12, 7, 14, 8, 9, 4, 12
2) Find the mean, median and mode for the data set 20, 39, 31, 37, 32, 33, 34, 32
3) Find the mean, median and mode for the marks 72, 73, 75, 82, 74, 73 obtained by a student in
5) The marks obtained by 15 students of a class are given below. Find the modal marks.
42,45,47,49,52,65,65,71,71,72,75,82,72,47,72
NOTES:
83
Calculating the Variance and/or Standard Deviation:
• Normal distribution is developed by karl gauss hence its often called as Gaussian
distribution.
• Density is given by
•
1 ( x )2
f ( x) exp
2 2 2
• μand σ2 are two parameters: mean and standard variance of a normal population
The mean is at the middle and divides the area into halves;
It is completely determined by its mean and standard deviation σ (or variance σ2)
NOTES:
84
F(X)
Examples: X
1) Find the area under the normal curve lies between z=0 & z=1.96
2) Find the area under the normal curve to the left of z=1.96
NOTES:
85
=0.9750
3) Find the area under the normal curve to the right of z=1.96
=0.0250
Hence P(x < 40) = P(z < 2.5) = [area to the left of 2.5] = 0.9938
= 0.5000+0.4678=0.9678
Hence P(30 < x < 35) = P(0 < z < 1.25) = [area to the left of z = 1.25] - [area to the left of 0]
Exercise problems:
1) A radar unit is used to measure speeds of cars on a motorway. The speeds are normally
distributed with a mean of 90 km/hr and a standard deviation of 10 km/hr. What is the probability
that a car picked at random is travelling at more than 100 km/hr?
2) For a certain type of computers, the length of time bewteen charges of the battery is normally
distributed with a mean of 50 hours and a standard deviation of 15 hours. John owns one of these
computers and wants to know the probability that the length of time will be between 50 and 70
hours.
NOTES:
86
3) Entry to a certain University is determined by a national test. The scores on this test are
normally distributed with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. Tom wants to be
admitted to this university and he knows that he must score better than at least 70% of the students
who took the test. Tom takes the test and scores 585. Will he be admitted to this university?
5) The length of life of an instrument produced by a machine has a normal ditribution with a mean
of 12 months and standard deviation of 2 months. Find the probability that an instrument
produced by this machine will last
a) less than 7 months.
b) between 7 and 12 months.
6) The time taken to assemble a car in a certain plant is a random variable having a normal
distribution of 20 hours and a standard deviation of 2 hours. What is the probability that a car can
be assembled at this plant in a period of time
a) less than 19.5 hours?
b) between 20 and 22 hours?
7) A large group of students took a test in Physics and the final grades have a mean of 70 and a
standard deviation of 10. If we can approximate the distribution of these grades by a normal
distribution, what percent of the students
a) scored higher than 80?
b) should pass the test (grades≥60)?
c) should fail the test (grades<60)?
8) Suppose that IQ scores have a bell shaped distribution with a mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15.what percentage of people should have IQ score between 85 and 115.
9) The annual salaries of employees in a large company are approximately normally distributed
with a mean of $50,000 and a standard deviation of $20,000.
a) What percent of people earn less than $40,000?
b) What percent of people earn between $45,000 and $65,000?
c) What percent of people earn more than $70,000?
10) Suppose that IQ scores have a bell shaped distribution with a mean of 100 and standard
deviation of 15.what percentage of people should have IQ score between 75 and 130.
NOTES:
87
Check Sheet:
Check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data.
When to Use:
When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, etc.
When collecting data from a production process.
Why to Use:
Probability:
Probability provides a way to make decisions when the person is uncertain about the things,
quantities or actions involved in the decision.
Though probability started with gambling, it has been used extensively, in the fields of
Physical Sciences, Commerce, Biological Sciences, Medical Sciences, Insurance,
Investments, Weather Forecasting and in various other emerging areas.
Examples:
Probably Anitha will stand first in the forth coming annual examination.
NOTES:
88
Possibly Thamizhisai will catch the train today.
The words “Probably”, “Possibly” , “Likely” ,“Chance” , etc., will mean “the lack of
certainty” about the events mentioned above.
To measure “the lack of certainty or uncertainty”, there is no perfect yardstick, i.e., But
based on some assumptions uncertainty can be measured mathematically. This numerical measure
is referred to as "Probability".
Experiment
Random Experiment
Trial
Sample Space
Sample Point
Events
Experiment:
An Experiment is defined as a process whose result is well defined.
1) Deterministic 2) Random
Random Experiment:
A random experiment is one in which the exact outcome cannot be predicted before
conducting the experiment. However, one can list out all possible outcomes of the experiment.
NOTES:
89
Sample Space:
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called its sample space and it is
denoted by the letter S.
Trial:
Each repetition of the experiment is called a trial.
Events:
A subset of the sample space S is called an event.
Classification of Probability
According to various concepts of probability, it can be classified mainly in to three types
as given below:
1) Subjective Probability:
Subjective probabilities express the strength of one’s belief with regard to the
uncertainties. It can be applied especially when there is a little or no direct evidence about the
event desired, there is no choice but to consider indirect evidence, educated guesses and perhaps
intuition and other subjective factors to calculate probability .
NOTES:
90
2) Classical Probability:
Classical probability concept is originated in connection with games of chance. It applies
when all possible outcomes are equally likely. If there are n equally likely possibilities of which
one must occur and s of them are regarded as favorable or as a success then the probability of a
success is given by (s/n).
3) Empirical Probability:
It relies on actual experience to determine the likelihood of outcomes.
(1) The above classical definition of probability is not applicable if the number of possible
outcomes is infinite and the outcomes are not equally likely.
That is 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1.
(6) The probability that the event A will not occur is given by
P(A) =1-P(A)
Example:
NOTES:
91
(iii) a prime factor of 6 (iv) a number greater than 4.
Solution
n(S) = 6.
A = {4} n(A) = 1.
=1/6.
B = {2,4,6} n(B) = 3.
P (B)= n(B)/n(S)
=3/6
=1/2
P (C)=n(C)/n(S)
=2/6
Hence P(C)=1/3
D = {5,6} n(D) = 2.
Hence, P (D )=n(D)/n(S)
=2/6
=1/3
2) An integer is chosen from the first twenty natural numbers. What is the probability that it is a
prime number?
NOTES:
92
Solution
n(S) = 20.
n(A) = 8.
= 8/20
= 2/5
STANDARD DEVIATION:
Standard Deviation represents the deviation of the values of a set of data from its
average or mean. It shows how the different values of a particular data set are dispersed.
When standard deviation is lower, it means that the values are very close to their average.
On the other hand, when standard deviation is higher, it means that the values are scattered far
from the average value
1) In a survey, 6 students were asked that how many hours per day they study on an
average? Their answers were as follows: 2, 6, 5, 3, 4, 1. Evaluate the standard deviation ?
Solution:
x¯ = (2+6+5+3+4+1)/6
= 3.5
NOTES:
93
Construct the following table for standard deviation :
xi xi−x¯ (xi−x¯)2
2 -1.5 2.25
6 2.5 6.25
5 1.5 2.25
3 -0.5 0.25
4 0.5 0.25
1 -2.5 6.25
∑(x−i−x¯)2 = 17.5
(i) Two heads (ii) at least one head (iii) exactly one tail−
2) Two unbiased dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting
3) From a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, one card is drawn at random. Find the
probability of getting
(i) a king (ii) a black king (iii) a spade card (iv) a diamond 10.
4) There are 20 boys and 15 girls in a class of 35 students . A student is chosen at random. Find
the probability that the chosen student is a
5) A bag contains 6 white balls numbered from 1 to 6 and 4 red balls numbered from 7 to 10. A
ball is drawn at random. Find the probability of getting
(i) at least one head (ii) exactly two tails (iii) at least two heads.
NOTES:
94
7) A box contains 4 Green, 5 Blue and 3 Red balls. A ball is drawn at random. Find the
probability that the selected ball is
8) Two coins are tossed together. What is the probability of getting at most one head.
9) For a sightseeing trip, a tourist selects a country randomly from Argentina, Bangladesh, China,
Angola, Russia and Algeria. What is the probability that the name of the selected country will
begin with A?
10) A ticket is drawn from a bag containing 100 tickets. The tickets are numbered from one to
hundred. What is the probability of getting a ticket with a number divisible by 10?
11) Marks obtained by 4 students in a class are 25, 15, 20, 18. Find the standard deviation of the
sample ?
Interpreting data
Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is reviewed for
the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a meaning to
the information analyzed and determines its signification and implications.
One good example of data interpretation is looking at pie charts or bar charts.
Through analyzing data, we bring order, manipulate, categorize and summarize raw data that was
aggregated through data collection. The final step of data analysis is data interpretation, as it turns
the results into actionable items.
NOTES:
95
Subject Title : MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - I
NOTES:
96
1.0 SAFETY
SAFETY:
The quality or condition of being safe; freedom from danger, injury, or damage.
PPE:
NOTES:
97
Types of PPE
Eyes
Goggles provide better protection for eyes, and are effective in preventing eye injury from
hazards.
Hazards
Flying particles
Molten metal
Liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids
Chemical gases or vapours
Options
Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, face shields, visors
Head
Hazards
Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting
tangled in machinery, chemical drips or splash, climate or temperature
Options
Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets and firelighter’s helmets
Ears
Hazards
Noise – a combination of sound level and duration of exposure, very
high-level sounds are a hazard even with short duration
Options
Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal caps
NOTES:
98
Hands and arms
Hazards
Options
Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and sleeving that covers part or all of the arm.
Hazards
Wet, hot and cold conditions, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and
punctures, falling objects, heavy loads, metal and chemical splash,
vehicles
Options
Safety boots and shoes with protective toe caps and penetration-resistant, mid-sole wellington
boots and specific footwear, eg foundry boots and chainsaw boots
NOTES:
99
1.2 Electrical Safety
NOTES:
100
1.2 Mechanical Safety
Never use a machine if you are not trained or not familiar with it.
Must tie loose hair, secure or remove loose clothing, Id batches and jewelleries
(watch, ring, bracelets) before you operate any machine.
Never remove shields or machine guards
Keep hands and body clear when operating machines, always maintain a safe
distance.
Avoid distraction, don’t listen to music using head phones, ear buds
Wear proper PPE to include eye, ear, and hand & foot protection.
(Be cautions of gloves as they can become snagged or pulled into rotating
Machinery.)
Lift It Right: Position your body close to the object. Keep your back straight.
Move It Right: Don't twist your back.
Lower It Right: When you put the load down, bend your knees not your waist.
NOTES:
101
GET HELP IF YOU NEED IT
DO…
NOTES:
102
1.5 Identification of Unsafe Conditions and Unsafe Acts
Unsafe activities are the actions of the person, which is possible or certainly leads to accidents
or increase the risk of accidents.
Unsafe conditions are the condition of equipment or environment that is considered to be unsafe
and possibly leads to an accident in a workplace.
Unsafe Acts
Unsafe Ladder Use
Using Unsafe Tools
Improper Lifting
Removing Safety Guards
Speeding
Overloading outlets
Unsafe Conditions
Wet Floors
Broken Stairs
Damaged Ladders
Unsafe Storage
Cords Across Aisles
Blocked Exit Doors
Condition: Flammable & liquid items
stored on top of electrical device.
NOTES:
103
2.0 Hand Tools
SPANNERS
A spanner is a hand tool with jaws or opening or a ring at one end or at both ends for tightening or
slackening nuts and bolts and screw heads. It is made of drop forged, high tensile or alloy steel
and heat treated for strength.
Types of spanners
Open end spanners
Ring spanners
Open end spanners
They can be single ended or double ended.
Single-ended spanners
These are general-purpose spanners. Single-ended spanners
are mostly supplied with machine tools for a specific purpose.
Double-ended spanners
Double-ended spanners are standard spanners having two
different size openings. Some spanners are made of chrome
vanadium steel. They are available in a set of 8, Nos 8 to 27 mm.
(Fig 3) 8x10, 9x11, 12x13, 14x15, 16x17, 18x19, 20x22 and
24x27 mm.
Bigger than 27 mm size open end spanners are also available.
NOTES:
104
2.2 Screw Driver
Screwdrivers are used to tighten or loosen screws and are available in various lengths.
Hand-held screwdrivers are of the following types.
Standard Screw Driver: (Light duty)
It is of round shank/blade with metal, wood or molded, insulated material handle
.
Standard screwdriver (Heavy duty)
It has a square blade. The shank is also of square section for applying extra twisting force with the
end of a spanner.
It has a flat blade and is mostly used by carpenters for fixing and removing wood screws
Philips screwdriver
These are, made with cruciform tips that are unlikely to slip from the matching
slots. The sizes of Philips screwdrivers are specified by point size1, 2,3and4.
NOTES:
105
Offset screwdrivers
These are useful in some situations (Fig 10) where the normal screwdriver cannot be used because
of the length of the handle. They are also useful for applying greater turning force.
Specification
Screwdrivers are specified according to the
• Length of the blade
• Width of the tip
Safety Precautions
Use screwdrivers with tips correctly fitting into the screw slot.
Make sure your hand and the handle are dry.
Hold the screwdriver with its axis in line with the axis of the screw.
While using a Philips screwdriver apply more downward pressure.
Keep your hand away to avoid injury due to slipping of screwdriver.
Do not use screwdrivers with split or defective handles.
While using screwdrivers on small Jobs, brace the jobs on the bench or hold them in a
vice.
2.3 Torque Wrenches
A torque wrench is a tool used to apply a specific torque to a fastener such as a nut or bolt.
It is usually in the form of a socket wrench with special internal mechanisms.
A torque wrench is used where the tightness of screws and bolts is crucial.
It allows the operator to set the torque applied to the fastener so it can be matched to the
specifications for a particular application.
Types:
There are two basic types of torque wrenches including:
o Clicker Type
o Beam Type
NOTES:
106
Clicker Type Beam Type
Clicker Type: Using a torque wrench to tighten connecting rod nuts on an engine.
Beam Type: A beam-type torque wrench that displays the torque reading on the face of the dial.
The beam display is read as the beam defects, which is in proportion to the amount of torque
applied to the fastener.
Always use the proper size socket that correctly fits the bolt or nut.
All sockets and ratchets should be cleaned after use before being placed back into the toolbox.
Bolts: A bolt has a head on one end and threads on the other end and it is paired with anut.
Screws: Screws are used to join two mating parts together and similar to bolts, they have head on
one end and threads on the other end. However, screws usually have longer threads than bolts, also
they can be made with slotted heads.
Screws are sometimes divided into two sub-categories; Cap Screws and Machine Screws. Machine
screws are generally smaller in size than cap screws and they are used for screwing into thin materials.
Studs: Astud is arodthatis threaded on both ends and joins two mating parts. A nut may be used on one
end
NOTES:
107
Types of Bolts and Screws
There are many different types of bolts and screws where each is suitable for different types of
applications. the most commonly used types of bolts and screws are given below.
Carriage Bolts
Hex tap bolts, hex cap screws, trim head hex cap screws, and hex serrated
flange bolts fall under this category. They share a hexagonal head and are
driven with a wrench. Referred to as both bolts and screws.
Socket cap screws are available in button socket, button flange socket
head, flat socket, and socket cap. Driven with a socket wrench or a hex
Allen key. The term socket head cap screw typically refers to a type of
threaded fastener whose head diameter is nominally 1.5 times or more
than that of the screw shank diameter.
Set screws are most often headless, meaning that the screw is fully
threaded and has no head. A blind set screw, known as a grub screw,
is almost always driven with an internal wrenching drive, such as a
hex Allen key.
Deck Screws
Deck screws point (notched point at the tip) to aid in chip removal
during thread cutting which allows for an easy installation in wood and
composite deck materials. A bugle head and square drive help to
eliminate the stripping effect sometimes experienced with other types of drives.
NOTES:
108
Self-Drilling Screws
Wood Screws
Wood screws are partially threaded with large cutting threads and a smooth shank. They are
designed to slide through the top piece of wood and tightly pull all boards
together.
Cap Nuts
The cap nut, gets its name from its shape. The nut has a domed top to
prevent contact with the external thread.
Coupling Nuts
A coupling nut is a threaded fastener used for joining two male threads,
most commonly threaded rod. The outside of the fastener is a hex so it
can be driven with a wrench.
Hexagonal Nuts
Hex finish nuts are used for fastening to a hex cap screw, socket cap screw
or bolt. The most common nuts, hex finish nuts are hex shaped with internal
threads and driven with a wrench.
A knurled head thumb nut or thumb nut has a knurled outside surface
rather than a hex, which facilitates tightening by hand. Often used in
decorative finishes or applications.
Square Nuts
A four-sided nut that may be flat or beveled on top. Square nuts provide a
greater surface contact area which provides more resistance to loosening.
Typically mated with square head bolts.
NOTES:
109
Wing Nuts
Wing nuts are threaded nuts with wings on each side of the body
allowing for manual turning and installation. Easy hand assembly and
used when the nut needs to be removed often.
2.5 Washers
Washers are commonly used under the heads of bolts and screws and they
are used under nuts as well.
The most common type of washers is the Flat Washer, where it is used to
increase the bearing areas of the head, and protect the material finish
during assembly.
The use of washers also prevents the sharp corner of the hole into
which the bolt or screw is being inserted from biting into bolt head fillet where that can
cause the failure of the bolts during service.
The other common type of washers is the Lock Washers where they are used to prevent
loosening of screws and nuts by providing continuous friction due to their spring action. Some
of the common types of lock washers are shown in the figure.
2.6 Introduction to Electrical and Pneumatic Nut Runners, Screw Drivers and Wrenches
A power tool is a tool that is actuated by an additional power source and mechanism other
than the solely manual labour used with hand tools.
Types
Fastening tools
Impact tools
Material removal tools
Torque wrenches
Impact wrench (air gun)
Nut runner
Caulking gun
NOTES:
110
An impact wrench (also known as an impactor, impact gun, air wrench, air gun, rattle
gun, torque gun, windy gun) is a socket wrench power tool designed to deliver high torque output
with minimal exertion by the user, by storing energy in a rotating mass, then delivering it
suddenly to the output shaft.
Impact wrenches are widely used in many industries, such as automotive repair, heavy
equipment maintenance, product assembly, major construction projects, and any other instance
where a high torque output is needed.
Applications
Precautions
A pneumatic tool, air tool, air-powered tool or pneumatic-powered tool is a type of power
tool, driven by compressed air supplied by an air compressor.
Most pneumatic tools convert the compressed air to work using a pneumatic motor.
Compared to electric power tool equivalents, pneumatic tools are safer to run and
maintain, without risk of sparks, short-circuiting or electrocution.
Advantages
Pneumatic tools have many benefits which have contributed to their rise in popularity. The
benefits of using compressed air to power tools are:
Inexpensive
Safe to use
Easy to operate
Portable
Low theft rates
NOTES:
111
3.0 METROLOGY
Metrology is the branch of science, which deals with measurement depending upon the field of
application.
Objective of Metrology
The basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at a minimum cost
NOTES:
112
The steel rule is one of the most useful tools in the shop used for taking linear measurements of
blanks and articles to an accuracy of 0.5 to 1mm. A Steel rule that has both inches and
centimeters.
Steel tape
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler and used to
measure distance. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass,
or metal strip with linear-measurement markings.
3.1.3Least Count :
Least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made with that
instrument.
NOTES:
113
Metric vernier – L.C : 0.02
49 Main scale div. = 50 Vernier scale div.
1 Main scale div. = 1 mm
1 Vernier scale div.= 49/50 mm
L.C = 1m.s.d – 1 v.s.d
= 1- 49/50 = 0.02 mm
NOTES:
114
The difference between a scale division and a vernier division equals 1-9/10 =1/10 of a scale
division.
In figure each scale division be equal to 1mm.Then L.C =0.1mm.
Hence when measuring with a scale and a vernier, the length of object = main scale reading +
div of coincidence of vernier x least count.
Types of Vernier:
Vernier height gauge
Vernier depth gauge
3.1.5 Micrometer
Micrometer is one of the most useful close-tolerance measuring devices.
It works on the principle of screw and nut.
A micrometer is a widely used device in mechanical engineering for precisely
measuring thickness of blocks, outer and inner diameters of shafts and depths of slots.
Micrometers have several advantages over other types of measuring instruments like
the vernier caliper they are easy to use and their readouts are consistent.
A micrometer generally provides greater precision than a caliper, but can measure a
smaller range of lengths.
Least count is the highest degree of accuracy of measurement that can be achieved.
Least Count (L. C) = Pitch
No. of divisions on micrometer barrel (thimble)
NOTES:
115
Barrel reading = 12.00 Barrel reading = 9.5
Thimble reading ; 31(31x0.01) = 0.31 Thimble reading 7(7x0.01) = 0.07
Total reading = 12.31 Total reading = 9.57
Types Of Micrometer:
Outside micrometer:
Typically used to measure wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.
Inside micrometer:
It is used to measure the diameter of holes.
Depth micrometer:
It measures depths of slots and steps.
Anvil micrometer:
It is outside micrometer with a small V-block for an anvil
Digital micrometer:
It uses an encoder to detect the distance and displays the result on a digital screen.
Ball micrometer:
It is used to check round work pieces accurately, it is also used to check wall thickness of the
pipes
A= 7.38mm
B=7.72mm
Error on micrometer
Zero error is the reading when the jaws are closed. It is the calibration error of the device - often
caused by knocks or overstrains.
The way to use a micrometer with zero error is to use the formula
actual reading = main scale + micro scale - (zero error).
NOTES:
116
Positive error: When the micrometer is closed, if the zero on the
thimble scale is below the index line, the error is positive and the
error is to be deducted from the reading.
Eg. Reading = 12.57 and error = 0.02, Actual reading = 12.57 –
0.02 = 12.55
NOTES:
117
conventional sense, but instead returns a state, which is either acceptable (the part is within
tolerance and may be used) or unacceptable (the part must be rejected).
3.2.1 Advantages of Gauges
1. Quicker Inspection method
2. Use in mass production
3. Ensure interchangeability
4. Need semiskilled operator
5. Economical
They are main eight main types of limit gauges. The types are:
1. Plug Gauge
2. Pin Gauge
3. Snap Gauge
4. Ring Gauge
5. Ball Gauge
6. Thickness or Feeler Gauge
7. Radius or Fillet Gauge
8. Screw Pitch Gauge.
3.2.2 Plug Gauge:
A plug gauge is a cylindrical type of gauge, used to check the accuracy of holes. The plug gauge
checks whether the whole diameter is within specified tolerance or not. The ‘Go’ plug gauge is the
size of the low limit of the hole while the ‘Not-Go’ plug gauge corresponds to the high limit of the
hole.
It should engage the hole to be checked without using pressure and should be able to stand in the
hole without falling.
NOTES:
118
Ring Gauge
A ring gauge, or ring gage, is a cylindrical ring of a thermally stable material, often steel, whose
inside diameter is finished to gauge tolerance and is used for checking the external diameter of a
cylindrical object.
NOTES:
119
Fillet Gauge:
A radius gauge is also known as fillet gauge. (this gauge measures both concave and
convex radius of the object).
This gauge requires a bright light behind the object to be measured.
The gauge is placed against the edge to be checked and any light leakage between the
blade and edge indicates a mismatching that requires correction
NOTES:
120
3.2.5 Thread Pitch Gauge
A thread gauge, also known as a screw gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the pitch or lead
of a screw thread. Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in determining the pitch of a
thread that is on a screw or in a tapped hole.
NOTES:
121
3.2.7 Profile projector:
3.3.1 Elements Limit system – Nominal size, Base size, Actual size
The term shaft is meant for any external dimension of the part whereas the hole represents for the
internal dimension of the part.
NOTES:
122
Nominal size
The exact size of the component which is mentioned in the drawing for the ideal condition.( For
the convenience purpose only).
Example: A 30mm shaft. Here 30mm is the Nominal size. where we use 30mm hole for this shaft.
but further, we apply limits accordingly with the type of fits
Basic Size
This basic size an nominal size often same. This basic size is the dimensions where we apply
tolerances.
Example: 30.000±0.015 where the 30.00 is the basic size.
Actual Size
This is the actual dimension of the part taken by a measuring instrument. This actual dimension
should not exceed the tolerance limits mentioned to the basic size.
Example: The size of the Shaft measured with the vernier calliper is 30.010 (This is an actual
dimension of the shaft)
3.3.2 Tolerance:
The difference between the Upper limit and the lower limit of a hole or a shaft is known as the
Tolerance. We can also be said as the maximum permissible deviation with the basic size is
known as the Tolerance.
Tolerance can be a unilateral system of tolerance or bilateral system of tolerance.
3.3.2.1 Bilateral and Unilateral
Example:
Tolerance= 30.030-30.000 = 0.030 (Unilateral System)
Tolerance = 30.015-29.985 = 0.030 (Bilateral System)
Limits of Sizes
The extream possible deviation is called as the limit of the size. there are two extream
possible limits of sizes. they are the maximum limit(Upper Limit), The Minimum Limit(Lower
limit).
3.3.2.2 High and Low Limit:
Example: A shaft dimensioned is mentioned 30.000±0.015 then 30.015 is the maximum
limit(Upper Limit), 29.985 is the minimum Limit(Lower Limit)
NOTES:
123
Tolerance Zone
The zone between the Upper limit and the lower limit is known as the tolerance zone.
3.3.2.3 Upper and Lower deviation
Zero Line
The imaginary straight line corresponding to the basic size of the shaft or hole, which is used to
measure the deviations.
Upper Deviation
The difference between the basic size and the Maximum size is known as the upper deviation.
Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015
Upper Deviation = 30.015-30.000 = 0.015
Lower deviation
The difference between the basic size and the Minimum size is known as the Lower deviation.
Example: Shaft = 30.000±0.015
Lower Deviation = 30.000-29.985 = 0.015
NOTES:
124
4.0 DRILLING
The Process of producing circular hole in a work piece by using a tool called drill bit in a machine
called as drilling machine.
Necessity
Portable hand drills of different types are used for certain jobs which cannot be handled on
stationary drilling machines.
4.1 TYPES
There are two types of portable drilling machines, power operated and hand operated.
This drill has an additional feature; the drill speed can be varied through a system of gears.
This is particularly useful for drilling larger diameter holes. This type of drill is operated by
compressed air. An air driven motor is housed in the casing, and a handle is fitted along with an
air pipe to operate the drill conveniently. This drill is used where electrically operated drills are
prohibited i.e. explosives factories, petroleum refineries etc.
NOTES:
125
Hand operated drilling machines
For normal drilling, the work- surface is kept horizontal. If the holes are to be drilled at an angle,
the table can be tilted. Different spindle speeds are achieved by changing the belt position in the
stepped pulley.
This is an enlarged version of the sensitive bench drilling machine. These drilling
machines are mounted on the floor and driven by more powerful electric motors. They are used
for heavy duty work. Pillar drilling machines are available in different sizes. (Fig 3)
NOTES:
126
RADIAL DRILLING MACHINES
NOTES:
127
Multiple spindle head drilling machine
Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces. The tool used for drilling is a drill and it is
rotated with a downward pressure causing the tool to penetrate into the material.
• This type of drill is used where the required size of twist drill is not
available.
• It is made from a round tool steel piece which is forged to shape and
ground to size, and then hardened and tempered.
• This type of drill is used for hand drilling (without power) or with a
ratchet brace.
Straight fluted drill
• It has grooves or flutes running parallel to the drill axis. It is mainly used in drilling brass,
copper or soft materials.
• This type of drill is inconvenient in standard practice, as the chips do not come out from
the hole automatically.
• It is used to drill sheet metals and cores in the castings.
NOTES:
128
Twist drills
• In this type, two spiral flutes or grooves run lengthwise around the body of the drill.
• It is the most common type of drill used for all purposes, and especially for faster drilling
of accurate holes and for harder materials - in comparison with the other drills.
PARTS OF A DRILL
Shank
This is the driving end of the drill which is fitted to the machine. Shanks are two types. Taper
shank is used for larger diameter drills & straight shank is used for smaller diameter drills.
Point
The cone shaped end, which does the cutting, is called the point. It consists of a dead centre, lips
or cutting edges, and a heel.
Tang
This is a part of the taper shank drill, which fits into the slot of the drilling machine spindle.
Body
The portion between the point and the shank is called the body of a drill. The parts of the body are
flute, land/margin, body clearance and web.
Flutes
Flutes are the spiral grooves, which run to the length of the drill.
NOTES:
129
Land/Margin
The land/margin is the narrow strip, which extends to the entire length of the flutes. The diameter
of the drill is measured across the land/ margin.
Web
Web is the metal column, which separates the flutes. It gradually increases in thickness towards
the shank.
Drill chuck
WORK-HOLDING DEVICES
NOTES:
130
Work pieces to be drilled should be properly held or clamped to- prevent from rotating along with
the drill. Improperly secured work is not only a danger to the operator but can also cause
inaccurate work, and breakage to the drill. Various devices are used to ensure proper holding.
• Drilling machine tables are provided with T-slots for fitting bolt heads.
• Using clamps and bolts, the Workpieces can be held very rigidly.
• While using this method, the packing should be, as far as possible, of the same height as
the work, and the bolt nearer to the work.
There are many types of clamps and it is necessary to determine the clamping method according
to the work.
NOTES:
131
4.4 Drilling Machine Operations
Drilling
Reaming
Counter boring
Countersinking
Spot Facing
Tapping
4.4.1 Drilling:
• Drilling is the operations, of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal by the
rotating edge of a cutting tool called the drill.
• Before drilling the centre of the hole is located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at
right angles to each other and then a centre punch is used to produce an indentation at the
centre.
• The drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required hole.
4.4.2 Countersinking:
• Countersinking is the operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a hole
to provide a recess for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the hole.
• The tool used for countersinking is called a countersink. Standard countersinks have 60o or
90o included angle and the cutting edges of the tool are formed at the conical surface.
4.4.3 Counter boring:
• Counter boring is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole cylindrically.
• The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary in
some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
• The tool used for Counter boring is called a counter bore. The counter bores are made with
straight or tapered shank to fit in the drill spindle, the cutting edges may have straight or
spiral teeth.
• The tool is guided by a pilot which extends beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot
tits into the small diameter hole having running clearance and maintains the alignment of
the tool. These pilots may be interchanged for enlarging different sizes of holes.
4.4.5 Reaming:
• Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been previously
drilled.
• In order to finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly
undersize.
NOTES:
132
• The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which has multiple cutting edges.
• Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the path which has been previously
drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.
4.4.6 Tapping:
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called a tap.
Tapping operation may be performed by hand or by machine.
A tap maybe considered as a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. the threads act as cutting,
edges which are hardened and ground.
When the tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts internal threads which will
fit into external threads of the same size.
NOTES:
133
materials.
• The recommended cutting speeds for different materials are given in the table. Based on
the cutting speed recommended, the r.p.m. at which a drill has to be driven, is determined.
Aluminum 70-100
Brass 35-50
Copper 35-45
Calculating r.p.m
n - r.p.m.
v - cutting speed in m/min.
d - diameter of the drill in mm
π= 3.14.
4.6 DRILLING DEFECTS AND CAUSES
The common defects in drilling are listed below.
Oversized holes
Overheated drills
Rough holes
Unequal and interrupted flow of chips
NOTES:
134
Split webs or broken drills
Oversized holes
Oversized holes can be due to
Unequal length of cutting edges
Unequal angle of cutting edges
Unequal point thinning.
Spindle running out of centre
Drill point not in centre.
Overheated drills
The drills may get overheated if the
• Cutting speed is too high.
• Feed rate is too high.
• Clearance angle is incorrect.
• Cooling ineffective.
• Point angle is not correct.
Rough holes
Rough holes are caused if the
• Feed rate is too much
• Drill cutting edges are not sharp
• Cooling is ineffective.
Unequal flow of chips
Unequal flow of chips is caused if the cutting edges are not equal and the point angle is not
in the centre of the drill.
Broken drill or split web
Broken drill or split web occurs when the
• Cutting speed is too high
• feed rate is too high
• Work is not held rigidly
• Drill is not held correctly
NOTES:
135
• Drill is not sharp
• Point angle is incorrect
• Cooling is insufficient
• Flutes are clogged with chips.
5.0 TURNING
The lathe is father of all machine tools; in early days it was equipped with a fixed tool rest
and was used for woodworking. In operation, the lathe holds the job between two rigid
supports called centres or by some chuck or face plate screwed to the nose or and of the
spindle.
Function of lathe
The main function of lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine
and then turning it against cutting tool, which will remove, metal from the work in the form of
chips.
NOTES:
136
Following are the principal parts:
1. Bed.
2. Headstock.
3. Tailstock.
4. Carriage.
5. Feed mechanism.
6. Screw cutting mechanism
The bed
The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. The headstock and the tailstock are located at
either end of the bed and carriage rests over the lathe bed and slides on it. The bed is made up
of cast-iron. The bed consists of guide ways. The guide ways of the lathe may be flat and
inverted- v having included angle of 90.
The headstock
The headstock is secured permanently on the inner ways as the left hand end of the lathe bed,
and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at multiple speeds. It comprises
essentially a hollow spindle and mechanism for driving and alternating the spindle speed. All
parts are housed within the head stock casting. The spindle of headstock is made of carbon or
nickel-chrome steel.
Tail stock
Tailstock is located at the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed. This has two main
uses:
1. It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined between
centers.
2. It holds a tool for performing operations such as drilling, reaming, taping, etc.
To accommodate different length of work, the body of the tailstock can be adjusted along the
ways chiefly by sliding it to the desired position where it can be clamped by bolts and plates.
The body is bored to act as barrel which carries the tail stock spindle that moves in and out of
the barrel by means of the screw when the tail stock handle is turned. The front of the spindle
has taper hole into which the dead center or other tool fits.
Carriage
The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serve to support, move and control the cutting tool.
It consists of the following parts:
• Saddle
NOTES:
137
• Cross-slide
• Compound slide or compound rest
• Tool post and
• Apron
Compound rest
The compound rest or compound slide is a mounted on the top of the cross-slide and has a
circular base graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short taper as well
as convenient positioning of the tool to work. By loosening two setscrews, which fit in a v-
grove around the compound-rest base, the rest slide may be swiveled to any angle within
circle.
Tool post
This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool enable it to be adjusted to a
convenient working position. Following are the common tool post:
• Single screw tool post
• Four bolt tool post
• Open side tool post
• Four way tool post
The apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. It contains gears,
clutches, and levers for operating the carriage by hand and power feeds. The apron also
contains function clutches for automatic feeds. In addition, there is a split nut which engages,
when required with the lead screw, when cutting either internal or external threads. The layout
of the apron includes an inter locking device which prevents the simultaneous engagement of
the feed shaft and the lead screw. The apron handle wheel can turned to move the carriage
back and forth longitudinally by hand.
Feed rod
The feed rod is a long shaft that has the key way extending from the feed box across and in
front of the bed. The power is transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through a
feed rod via large number of gears. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or cross-slide for
turning, boring, facing and all other operations except thread cutting.
Lead screw
The lead screw is a long threaded shaft used as a master screw, and is brought into operation
only when threads have to be cut. In all other times the lead screw is disengaged from the
gear box and remains stationary.
NOTES:
138
Apron Mechanism
The apron mechanism is used for transforming rotary motion of the feed rod and the lead
screw into feed motion of the carriage. The mechanism also ensures that when the half nut
engaged with the lead screw the worm drops down disconnecting the feed motion.
5.2 Types of lathes
Lathes of various designs and constructions have been developed to suit the various
conditions of metal machining. But all of them employ the same fundamental principle of
operation and perform the same function. The lathes are classified as follow.
Speed lathe
Wood working
Centering
Polishing
Spinning
Engine lathe
• Belt drive
• Individual motor drive
• Gear head lathe
Bench lathe
Tool room lathe
Capstan and turret lathe
Special purpose
Wheel lathe
Gap bed lathe
T-lathe
Duplicating lathe
Automatic lathe
The speed lathe
The speed lathe, in construction and operation, is the simplest of all types of lathes.
It consists of a bed, a headstock, and a tailstock and tool post mounted on an adjustable
slide.
There is no feed box, lead screw or conventional type carriage.
The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into work purely by hand
control.
This characteristic of the lathe enables the designer to give high spindle speeds, which
is usually, range from 1200 to 3600 rpm.
As the tool is controlled by hand, the depth of cut and thickness of chip is very small.
Light cut and high speed necessitate the use of this type of machine where cutting
NOTES:
139
force is minimum such as in wood working, spinning, centering, polishing, etc.
The engine lathe or center lathe
This lathe is most important member of lathe family and is most widely used. Similar
to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has got all the basic parts, e.g. bed, headstock, and
tailstock.
But the headstock of an engine lathe is much more robust in construction and it
contains additional mechanism of driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds.
The engine lathe that can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction
with reference to the lathe axis with help of a carriage feed rod and lead screw.
The bench lathe
This is a small lathe usually mounted on bench.
It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost
all the operations, its only difference being in size this is used for small and precision
work
The tool room lathe
A tool room lathe having features similar to an engine lathe is much more accurately built
and has a wider range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to
2500 r.p.m.This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, and gauges and in
machining work where accuracy is needed.
The capstan and turret lathe
These lathes are development of the engine lathe and are used for production work. The
distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced
by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work
in proper sequence.
Special purpose lathe
As the name implies, they are used for special purpose and for job, which cannot be
accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The gap bed lathe, in which a
section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is recoverable, is used to swing extra-large
diameter pieces.
NOTES:
140
Taper Turning
Knurling
Thread cutting
Grooving
5.3.1 Facing
It is a operation mainly used to create a smooth, flat, face very accurately made perpendicular to
the axis of a cylindrical part.
It is a process of removing excess material from the work piece to produce a cylindrical
components.
5.3.4 Taper turning
It is a machining operation is the
gradual reduction in diameter from
one part of a cylindrical work
piece to another part. Tapers can
be either external or internal. If a
work piece is tapered on the
outside, it has an external taper, if
NOTES:
141
it is tapered on the inside, it has an internal taper.
5.3.5 Grooving
It is the process of reducing the diameter of a work piece over a narrow surface, In grooving
work piece is revolved at half the speed of turning
A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and the shank. The
point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the chips slide as they are cut by the tool),
the side flank or major flank the end flank, or minor flank and the base. The side cutting edge, is
formed by the intersection of the face and the end flank. The chips are cut from the work piece by
the side-cutting edge. The point "a" where the end and side-cutting edges meet is called the nose
NOTES:
142
of the tool. Figure is for a right hand tool. Below, we give the definitions of the various tool
elements and tool angles:-
A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part and the shank and main parts or
elements which are:
Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
Flank
The surface or surfaces below the adjacent to the cutting edge is called flank of the tool.
Face
The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
Cutting Edge
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work piece. The cutting
edge consists of the side cutting edge(major cutting edge) and cutting edge(minor cutting edge)
and the nose.
NOTES:
143
Cutting-Tool Nomenclature
The elements of tool signature or nomenclature of single point cutting tool is illustrated in the
figure below
(i) Back rake angle: Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting tool
and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting
edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if it is
upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. Back rake angle helps in removing the chips
away from the work piece.
ii) Side rake angle: Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined sideways.
Side rake angle is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the
line down from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the
thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide clearance between
work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work piece with end flake of tool.
(iii) End relief angle: End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end
flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,
NOTES:
144
measured at right angles to the flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the
work piece.
(iv) Side relief angle: Side rake angle is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right
angles to the side. Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the work piece
surface.
(v) End cutting edge angle: End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge and
a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and
work piece.
(vi) Side cutting edge angle: Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting edge
on the side of tool and the side of the shank. It is responsible for turning the chip away from the
finished surface.
1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
The characteristic of ideal cutting tool material are
Hot Hardness: The material must remain harder than the work material at elevated operating
temperatures.
Wear resistance: The material must withstand excessive wear even though the relative hardness
of the tool-work materials changes.
Toughness: The term "toughness" actually implies a combination of strength and ductility. The
material must have a sufficient toughness to withstand shocks and vibrations and to prevent
breakage.
Frictional co-efficient: The frictional co-efficient at the chip tool interface must remain low for
minimum wear and reasonable surface finish.
Cost and easiness in fabrication: The cost and easiness of fabrication should have within
reasonable limits.
NOTES:
145
5.5 WORK HOLDING DEVICES:
Chuck: A chuck is a specialized type of clamp used to hold an object with radial symmetry,
especially a cylinder. In a drill or a mill, a chuck holds the rotating tool; in a lathe, it holds the
rotating workpiece. Chucks commonly use jaws to hold the tool or workpiece.
Types of Chuck:
i) Three jaw self-centeric Chuck
ii) Four jaw independent chuck
Face Plate:
A lathe faceplate is a basic work holding accessory for a wood or
metal turning lathe. It is a circular metal (usually cast iron) plate
which fixes to the end of the lathe spindle. The workpiece is then
clamped to the faceplate, typically using t-nuts in slots in the faceplate, or less commonly threaded
holes in the faceplate itself.
Mandrel:
Mandrel is used to hold the hollow workpiece
A shaft or bar the end of which is inserted into a workpiece to hold it during
machining.
A spindle on which a circular saw or grinding wheel rotates.
The driving spindle in the headstock of a lathe.
NOTES:
146
πdn
v m/min
1000
Where
d = Diameter of Work piece in mm
n = Spindle speed in Rpm
Feed:
The feed of a cutting tool in a lathe work is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of
the work. Feed is expressed in mm/rev
Increased feeds reduce the cutting time. But increased feed greatly reduces the tool life.
The feed depends on factors such as, size, shape, strength and method of holding the work, tool
shape, setting, rigidity of machine, depth of cut etc. Coarser feed rates are used for roughing and
finer feeds for finishing cuts.
Depth of cut:
The depth of cut (t) is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the
uncut surface of the work piece. In a lathe depth of cut is expressed as
Dd
Depthofcut mm
2
Where
The machining time in a lathe work can be calculated for a particular operation if the feed
speed and length of hob are known. Hence time taken for a complete cut
𝐿
𝑇=
𝑆𝑟 × 𝑁
Where L= Length of the job in mm.
NOTES:
147
6.0 Introduction To Welding
Welding is a process in which two or more parts are joined permanently at their touching
surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Often a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence. The assembled parts that are joined by welding are called weldments.
Welding is primarily used in metal parts and their alloys.
Most of companies using the standard names of calling the welding types that is by the IWS and
AWS.
IWS-Indian Welding Society
AWS-American Welding Society
Welding Classification as per standards
IWS AWS
ARC Welding SMAW-Shielded Metal Arc Welding
MIG-Metal Inert Gas Welding GMAW-Gas Metal Arc Welding
MAG-Metal Active Gas Welding FCAW-Flux Cored Arc Welding
TIG-Tungsten Inert Gas Welding GTAW-Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
6.1 Arc Welding
Arc welding is one of the many types of fusion welding. Arc welding joins two pieces of
metal together by using an intermediate filler metal.
The way this works is by completing an electrical circuit to create an electrical arc. This
electrical arc is 6500oF in its center.
This electrical arc is created at the tip of the filler metal. As the arc melts the metal, it is
moved either by a person or a machine along the gap in the metals, creating a bond.
This method is very common as it is typically done with a hand held machine.
Arc welding machines are portable and can be brought onto job sites and hard to reach
areas.
Classification of Welding Processes:
Welding processes can be classified based on following criteria;
1. Welding with or without filler material.
2. Source of energy of welding.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding.
4. Fusion and Pressure welding.
NOTES:
148
AC & DC Welding
Arc welding involves the use of a power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the material intended to be welded to melt the metals at the welding point. Any electrical current
is either a direct current (DC) or an alternating current (AC).
AC and DC are terms that refer to the polarity of the electrical current that the welding machine
creates and runs through the electrode.
6.1.1 Alternating current (AC) is electricity that switches direction back and forth so the voltage
also periodically reverses because the current changes direction. Typical AC currents are what
you would expect to see from your electrical outlets in your home and often used in higher voltage
devices such as household appliances.AC current changes its polarity 120 times per second with a
60-hertz current. Reversed polarity (AC) results in deeper penetration. In Alternate Current (AC)
welding, since the current and the magnetic field of the arc reverse direction many times a second,
there is no net deflection of the arc.
Applications of AC Welding
AC welding can be used to weld magnetic metals.
This cannot be done with DC welding. AC welding is ideal for the following types of welds:
Down hand heavy plate
Fast fill
Aluminum TIG welding with high frequency
AC welding is also the preferred method for:
NOTES:
149
TIG welding aluminum, because the current supports welding at a higher temperature.
Making repairs on machinery because the machinery usually has a magnetized field and is
older and may have rusty areas where there is concern about the higher heat penetration that
can occur with DC welding.
Seam welding in shipbuilding because the current settings can often be higher than those used
in DC welding and a deeper penetration of plate metals can be obtained.
6.2 Direct current (DC):
It is electricity flowing in a constant direction and/or possessing a voltage with constant
polarity, either positive or negative. Typical DC currents include the current in batteries and often
used in low voltage devices such as cell phones and remote controls.In welding, electrode
negative (DC) or straight current provides faster deposition rates because there is quicker melt-off
of the electrode. Electrode positive (DC) results in deeper penetration.
Applications of DC Welding
Welding with DC is best used for
Hard facing.
Overhead or vertical welding.
Build-up of heavy deposits
Single carbon brazing.
Stainless steel TIG welding
Cutting tap.
As a rule of thumb, DC is preferred for welding because:
It produces a smoother weld and there is less spatter because of the constant linear direction of
the current.
It maintains a constant and stable arc and is thus is easier to handle and more reliable than AC
current.
Machinery that uses DC current is generally cheaper and easier to use.
It welds thinner metals better than AC current.
NOTES:
150
Setting up the Machine for Welding:
NOTES:
151
Arc Welding Accessories
Electrode Holder:
An electrode holder, commonly called a stinger, is a clamping device for holding the
electrode securely in any position. The welding cable attaches to the holder through the
hollow insulated handle.
The design of the electrode holder permits quick and easy electrode exchange.
Two general types of electrode holders are in use: insulated and non-insulated. The
non-insulated holders are not recommended because they are subject to accidental
short circuiting if bumped against the work- piece during welding. For safety reasons,
try to ensure the use of only insulated stingers on the jobsite.
Electrode holders are made in different sizes, and manufacturers have their own system
of designation.
Each holder is designed for use within a specified range of electrode diameters and
welding current.
Larger welding holder is required, when welding with a machine having a 300-ampere
rating than when welding with a 100-ampere machine. If the holder is too small, it will
overheat.
Earth Clamps
Without proper grounding, the circuit voltage fails to produce enough heat for proper
welding, and there is the possibility of damage to the welding machine and cables.
NOTES:
152
The ground cable must be fasten to the workbench with a C-clamp.
Spring-loaded clamp to be attached directly onto the work piece.
The end of the ground cable to be bolt or tack-weld to the welding bench.
Welding Cables
A welding cable is defined as cable designed for use in secondary circuits of electric
welders.
Welding cable typically consists of a single, finely stranded conductor and a single layer of
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer, also referred to as EPDM, is a form of
synthetic rubber insulation) or neoprene thermoset insulation with an operating
temperature rating of 90°C or 105°C.
A durable cable is important since welding often takes place in industrial environments
where abrasions, cuts, burns from sparks, and oil and water exposure can quickly wear out
a weaker cable.
NOTES:
153
Disadvantages of DC Arc Welding
NOTES:
154
Available power supply, for example, single phase or three phase
Amount of available current
Time requirements
Setting up the Machine for Welding:
The term 'polarity' is used to describe the electrical connection of the electrode in
relation to the terminal of a power source.
With direct current (DC), when the electrode is connected to the positive terminal, the
polarity is designated as direct current electrode positive (DCEP).
When the electrode is connected to the negative terminal, the polarity is designated as
direct current electrode negative (DCEN).
NOTES:
155
metal are connected with the positive terminal.
Direct Current Reverse Polarity (DCRP) or Direct Current Electrode Positive(DCEP) – When
the base metals are connected with the negative terminal of the power source and the electrode is
connected with the positive terminal.
Application:
Metals with high melting temperature (such as stainless steel, titanium) can be suitably
joined by DCSP.
Metals with low melting temperature (such as copper, aluminum) can be suitably
joined by DCRP.
DC Reverse Polarity:
In DC reverse polarity the electrode is positive and the current flows from the work piece
to the electrode. Welding with reverse DC polarity is ideal for:
Overhead welding
Vertical welding
Cast iron welding
Heavy aluminum
Rivet welding
Sheet metal
Low hydrogen welding
Arc bronze rod
NOTES:
156
The visual characteristics and mechanical properties of aluminum weldments are
controlled by weld bead penetration and shape.
A number of variables affect the end properties of the weld bead and they can be
controlled by the welder.
6.2.5 Defects in MIG Welding – Causes and Remedies:
NOTES:
157
Porosity A Porous weld 1.Insufficient Weld
structure generally Time
caused by improper 2.ImProper rate of
application of heat current rise
and force is 3.Improper
observed by electrode counter
sectioning and 4.Incorrect &
etching the weld. insufficient force
and sequence
Over Lap 1.Wrong Direction 1.Train & Qualify
of Arc Welder
2.Inadequate 2.Increase Current
current 3.Reduce Filler
3.Excess Filler Metal
Wire
1.Less deposition of 1.More deposition of
Incomplete penetration weld metal the weld metal
2.Uses of improper size 2.Use a proper size of
of electrode electrode
3.Improper Welding 3.By using proper
Technique welding Technique
NOTES:
158
Power source:
For example, if the arc momentarily shortens, arc voltage will decrease and welding current
will be momentarily increased to burn back the wire and maintain pre-set arc length.
There is a wide range of power sources available, mode of metal transfer can be:
Dip:
A low welding current is used for thin-section material, or welding in the vertical position.
The molten metal is transferred to the work piece by the wire dipping into the weld pool.
As welding parameters will vary from around 100A \17V to 200A \ 22V (for a 1.2mm
diameter wire), power sources normally have a current rating of up to 350A.
Spray:
In spray metal transfer, metal transfers as a spray of fine droplets without the wire touching
the weld pool.
The arc voltage is higher to ensure that the wire tip does not touch the weld pool. Typical
welding parameters for a 1.2mm diameter wire are within 250A \ 28V to 400A \ 35V.
Pulsed:
Synergic pulsed MIG power sources, which are advanced transistor-controlled power
sources, are preprogrammed so that the correct pulse parameters are delivered automatically as the
welder varies wire feed speed.
Wire feed system
The system must be capable of feeding the wire smoothly, attention should be paid to the
feed rolls and liners.
There are three types of feeding systems:
Pinch rolls, Push-pull, Spool on gun.
NOTES:
159
Conduit:
The conduit can measure up to 5m in length, and to facilitate feeding, should be kept
as short and straight as possible. (For longer lengths of conduit, an intermediate push-
pull system can be inserted).
Gun:
In addition to directing the wire to the joint, the welding gun fulfils two important
functions - it transfers the welding current to the wire and provides the gas for
shielding the arc and weld pool.
There are two types of welding guns: 'air' cooled and water cooled.
NOTES:
160
NOTES:
161
Gas Flow Regulator for MIG Welding
The flow rate of the shield gas is adjustable with just a touch versus flow meter type
regulators.
It helps to reduce gas waste by allowing the operator to set the exact flow setting
quickly and easily, thus preventing excessive use of expensive shielding gas.
Keep a first aid kit on hand
Use proper welding gear that includes eye protection and protective clothing
Keep a fire extinguisher on hand
Advantages of the GMAW Process
Low cost equipment
Low cost consumables
High deposition rates
Low hydrogen deposits
Can weld almost all metals
Low levels of spatter
Unlimited thickness
Easy to learn
Little clean up
High electrode efficiencies
6.3.3 MIG Welding Process Parameters
Cables to be checked before striking an arc
Electrode polarity should be selected. MIG welding requires DC electrode positive, or
reverse polarity.
Gas flow to be set. The shielding gas to be turned on and the flow rate to be set as 20
to 25 cubic feet per hour.
Tension should be checked. Too much or too little tension on either the drive rolls or
the wire spool hub can lead to poor wire feeding performance.
NOTES:
162
Consumables must be inspected. Excess spatter from contact tubes to be removed.
Electrode Selection
For steel, there are two common wire types. Use an AWS classification ER70S-3 for
all-purpose welding. Use ER70S-6 wire when more deoxidizers are needed for
welding on dirty or rusty steel.
As for wire diameter, .030-in. diameter makes a good all-around choice for welding a
wide range of metal thicknesses in home and motorsports applications.
For welding thinner material, use a .023-in. wire to reduce heat input. For welding
thicker material at higher total heat levels, use .035-in.
6.3.4 Machine Setting:
Electrode Position
Before touching the wire tip to the metal, ensure it is extruding from the welding torch by
approximately 6mm to 10mm.
Hold the torch at a 10 to 20 degree angle is ideal for flat surfaces. When it comes to
welding two pieces at a corner, you will want to hold the torch at a 45 degree angle so it can
create an even bond between each piece.
NOTES:
163
6.3.6 MIG Welding Defects, Causes & Remedies
Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal
defects:
External Welding Defects:
1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater
Internal Welding Defects:
1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or incomplete penetration
NOTES:
164
Before welding in cleaning & edge preparation
During welding
After welding in removal of slag, peening & post welding treatment.
6.4.1 Visual Inspection
It is mainly carried out to assess ground realties in respect of progress of the work or how
meticulously things are being implemented.
Testing helps to:
a) Assess the suitability of the weld joint for a particular application
b) To take decision on whether to go ahead (with further processing or accept/reject the
same) at any stage of welding and
c) To quantify the performance parameters related with soundness and performance of
weld joints.
Testing methods of the weld joint are broadly classified as destructive testing and non-
destructive testing.
In Non-destructive tested specimen, the extent of damage on tested specimen is either
none or negligible which does not adversely affect their usability for the intended purpose in
anyways.
6.4.2 Non- destructive testing
To determine the presence of surface and surface imperfections, non-destructive testing of
weld joints can be carried out using variety of techniques as per needs. Apart from the visual
inspection ,many non-destructive testing methods including dye penetrate test (DPT),magnetic
particle test(MPT),eddy current test(ECT),ultrasonic test(UT), radio graphic test(RT) etc. are
used in manufacturing industry for assessing the soundness of weld joints .In following section,
principle and capability of some non- destructive testing methods have been described.
6.4.2.1 Dye penetrant test
This is one of the simplest non-destructive testing
methods primarily used for detecting the presence of
surface defects. In this method, a thin low viscosity and
low surface tension liquid containing suitable dye is applied
on the surface to be tested (Fig.32.8).The thin liquid
penetrates (by capillary action)into fine cavities ,pores and
cracks ,if any, present on the surface. Excess liquid present
at surface is wiped out. Then suitable developer like tal
corchalk powder is sprinkled over the surface. Developer
sucks out thin liquid with dye wherever it is present inside
NOTES:
165
the surface discontinuities present on the weld joints. Dye with liquid changes colour of developer
and indicates location, and size of surface defects.
6.4.2.2 Magnetic particle testing
This method is mainly used for assessing the surface and near surface defects in magnetic
material. It is based on the simple principle of the flow of magnetic line of forces. Magnetic flux
flows easily through metal from south to north-pole. The component to be evaluated is magnetized
using electrical energy or suitable permanent magnetic.
The electro-magnetization is performed using suitable yoke which is applied across the
location/area to be tested. Presence of any dis-continuity in the form of crack, porosity ,near
surface defects in the path of flow of these lines results in leakage of magnetic flux forming two
additional poles. The magnetic powder particles(in dry form or suspension form in thin liquid)are
sprinkled over the surface of components to be tested.
The magnetic particles tend to migrate toward the location wherever leakage of magnetic
flux had taken place and then get piled up(Fig). The particles along discontinuities on the surface
near or shallow sub-surface discontinuities. The location and pattern of piled up magnetic powder
particles suggest the location, size ,type of discontinuity present on the surface or near surface
region. Hazypile of powder particle indicates the sub-surface defect. Formation of very thin line of
powder particles suggests presence of crack with details of size and location testing is found fit for
Ferro magnetic metal only of crack.
NOTES:
166
Toughness Test
7.0 MILLING
7.1 MILLING CUTTERS
7.1.2 Inserted Teeth Cutter:
A milling cutter designed with replaceable cutting tooth inserts to save the expense of a
new cutter whenever the teeth become damaged or worn. Generally, they are made 6 inches or
more in diameter.
NOTES:
167
7.1.5 Plain Milling Cutter
The plain milling cutters are cylindrical in shape and have teeth on the circumference surface
only. The cutters are intended for the production of flat surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation of
the spindle. The cutter teeth may be straight or helical according to the size of the cutter.
7.1.6 Side and Face Cutters
These cutters have teeth on its periphery and also on one side or both of
its sides. The side milling cutters are intended for removing metals from
the side of the work. Plain side milling cutters have straight
circumferential teeth and side teeth on both of its sides, two or more
cutters may be mounted on the arbor to mill different faces of work
simultaneously.
7.1.7 Angular Cutters
They are made as single or double angle cutters and are used to machine angles other than 90
degree.
NOTES:
168
7.2 Nomenclature of Milling Cutter:
Body of cutter: It is the main frame of milling cutter, on which the teeth rest.
Periphery: It is defined as the locus of cutting edges of tooth of cutter.
Cutting edge: It is the portion that touches the workpiece during cutting action. It is the
intersection of teeth face and tooth flank.
Fillet: portion where one teeth joins the face of another tooth. It is a reinforcement to cutting
tooth.
Face of teeth: it is the surface upon the chip is formed while cutting. It may be curved or flat.
Back of tooth: it is the created by fillet and the secondary clearance angle.
Land: it is the narrow surface on the back of cutting edge. Land is the result of providing the
clearance angle.
Bottom Land: the blank space between the consecutive teeth.
NOTES:
169
Root diameter: diameter passing through centre of cutter and joining two ends of the periphery.
Root diameter: passing through centre of cutter and joining two bottom fillet.
Lip angle: It is the angle between the face of the teeth and the land of the teeth. Land is a narrow
surface on the back of teeth.
Relief angle: it is the angle between the tangent to the outside diameter of the cutter at cutting
edge and the land of the tooth. The function relief angle is to avoid the interference between the
land of the tooth and the work surface. The relief angle varies with the type of material to be
machined.
Radial rake angle: it is the angle between the face of teeth and the radial line passing through the
cutting edge of the tooth. The radial rake angle may be positive, negative or zero. It is provided
free cutting by allowing chips to flow smoothly on the face of the cutter.
7.3 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut:
Milling feeds and depth of cut
The two other factors which affect the efficiency of a milling operation are the milling
FEED or the rate at which the work is fed into the milling cutter and the DEPTH of CUT taken at
each pass.
Feed
Feed is the rate at which the work moves into revolving cutter. It is measured in millimetres per
min (mm/min.)
The feed is expressed in milling machines by following three different methods.
Feed Per Tooth:
Feed per tooth is defined by the distance the work advances in the time between engagements by
two successive teeth. It is expressed in mm/tooth.
Feed per Cutter revolution
It is the distance the work advances in the time when the cutter runs through one complete
revolution. It is expressed in mm/revolution.
Feed Per Minute
It is defined by the distance the work advances in one minute. It is expressed in mm/minute.
NOTES:
170
7.4 Calculation of RPM and Feed Rate:
7.5.1 T-bolts and clamps: Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the
milling machine table by using T-bolts and clamps. Different designs of , clamps are used for
different pattern of work.
7.5.2 Vices : Vices are the most common appliances for holding the work on milling machine
table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. There
are mainly three types of vices commonly used in milling
machines. They are plain vice, swivel vice, and tool makers
universal vice.
NOTES:
171
Plain vice: The plain vice bolted directly on the milling machine
table is the most common type of machine vice used for plain
milling operations. The vice may be fastened to the table with 'the
jaws set either parallel or at right angles to the table T-slots. Work
is clamped between the fixed and movable jaw and for holding
work pieces of irregular shape special jaws are sometimes used.
Swivel vice: The swivel vice is used to mill an angular surface in relation to a straight surface
without removing the work from the vice. In construction, it may be considered as a plain vice
which is mounted on a circular base graduated in degrees. The base is clamped on the table by
means of T-bolts.
7.6. TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
7.6.1Arbor
Types of arbors and their uses
An arbor is considered as an extension of the
machine spindle on which milling cutters are
mounted. Arbors are quick-release taper shanks for
proper alignment with the spindle. There are two
types of arbors, normally used for holding the cutters.
They are (1) long arbor and (2) short or stub arbor.
Long arbors are used for holding cutters in both horizontal and universal milling machines. The
milling cutter (a) is driven by a key (b) which fits into the keyway (c) on the arbor and cutter. This
prevents the cutter from turning on the arbor. The spacer (d) and bearing bushings (e) hold the
cutter in position on the arbor after the nut (f) has been tightened.
7.6.2 Collet:
A milling chuck is a small piece of metal that connects the cutting tool to the machine. Many
industries make use of clamps to hold onto interchangeable tools or drill bits. ... The most
common clamp used in metalworking is the collet, or an unusually shaped collar that tapers into a
cone at one end.
NOTES:
172
8.0 GRINDING:
Grinding is a finishing process
used to improve surface finish, abrade
hard materials, and tighten the tolerance
on flat and cylindrical surfaces by
removing a small amount of material.
In grinding, an abrasive material
rubs against the metal part and removes
tiny pieces of material. The abrasive
material is typically on the surface of
a wheel or belt and abrades material in a
way similar to sanding.
8.1 Grinding machines:
Grinding machines are precision machine tools, designed to remove metal from a work
piece to close tolerances (up to 0.0025 mm) and to produce high quality surface finish .It uses an
abrasive wheel for cutting.
The common types of precision grinders are:
Surface grinders.
Cylindrical grinders
Centreless grinders
Portable grinding machine
Bench grinders
Tool and cutter grinders.
1.1.1 Surface Grinder:
Surface grinders are used to grind flat, parallel surfaces or stepped surfaces. The surface produced
by a surface grinder is more economical and more accurate than the surface obtained by filing or
scraping.
NOTES:
173
8.1.2 Cylindrical Grinder:
A cylindrical grinder is used for shaping the outside of a workpiece. These machines accept
workpieces in a variety of shapes as long as they can be rotated through a central axis. In a
cylindrical grinder, both the workpiece and grinding wheel are simultaneously rotated. Outside
diameter grinders, internal diameter grinders, and centerless grinders are all types of cylindrical
grinders.
Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive cutting to remove material from a
workpiece. Centerless grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that no spindle or
fixture is used to locate and secure the workpiece; the workpiece is secured between two rotary
NOTES:
174
grinding wheels, and the speed of their rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which
material is removed from the workpiece.
The size of a grinding machine is specified according to the size of the largest workpiece
that can be mounted on the machine.
The cylindrical centre type grinding machine is specified by the diameter and length of the
largest workpiece the machine can accommodate between centers.
The internal centre type grinder is specified by the diameter of workpiece that can be
swung and the maximum length of the stroke of the grinding wheel.
The reciprocating table type surface grinders are specified by the table area and the
maximum height of the grinding wheel from the table surface. The rotary table type
surface grinder is specified by the diameter of the chuck or table. A tool and cutter grinder
is specified further by the maximum size of tool that can be sharpened and dressed.
NOTES:
175
8.3 Work Holding Methods:
In grinding, different work-holding devices are used to keep the work piece in position.
Magnetic chuck
Vice
Angle plates
V blocks
Clamps.
Magnetic chuck:
Electromagnetic chuck
Uses:
Vices:
Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work pieces, which cannot
be conveniently held on magnetic chucks.
A vice may be set on the grinder table directly or on the magnetic chuck.
Types of vices:
Plain vice
Tilting vice
Universal vice
NOTES:
176
A Plain vice is used to hold work pieces for
plain or step grinding.
A Tilting Type vice is used to hold the work
piece while grinding angular surfaces. If
required, the tilting base can be removed and
can be mounted on the magnetic chuck as a
plain vice
A Universal vice is used to hold the work
Piece while grinding the angular surface in
two different planes. This is small in size. So
it is mainly used in tool grinding.
V- block:
V blocks are used to hold the round work pieces while grinding
a flat on the work piece.
These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding
flat surfaces on the exterior. Square work pieces may also be supported
in Vee blocks for grinding the external corners of the work.
Magnetic Vee blocks can be used also in combination with other mounting devices, such
as angle plates which themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a
magnetic chuck.
NOTES:
177
8.4 Grinding Wheels:
Straight wheel are the most common mode of wheel that is found on pedestal or bench grinders.
This is the one widely used for centreless & cylindrical surface grinding operations. As it
is used only on the periphery, it forms a little concave surface on the piece.
This is used to grind on several tools like chisels. The size of these wheels differs to a
great extent, width & diameter of its face obviously depends on the category of its work, machines
grinding power.
Cylinder or wheel ring: A cylinder wheel has no center mounting support but has a long & wide
surface. Their width is up to 12" and is used purely in horizontal or vertical spindle grinders. This
is used to produce flat surface, here we do grinding with the ending face of the wheel.
Tapered Grinding wheels: Tapered Grinding wheel is a straight wheel that tapers externally
towards the midpoint of the wheel. As this pact is stronger than straight wheels, it accepts
advanced lateral loads. Straight wheel with tapered face is chiefly used for gear teeth, grinding
thread, etc.
NOTES:
178
Straight cup: This Straight cup wheels forms an option for cup wheels in cutter and tool
grinders, having an extra radial surface of grinding is favorable.
Dish cup: In fact this is used primarily in jig grinding and cutter grinding. It is a very thin cup-
style grinding wheel which permits grinding in crevices and slot.
NOTES:
179
All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make sure that they have
not been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise.
The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing test. For this purpose, the grinding wheel
is put on an arbor while it is subjected to slight hammer blows.
A clear, ringing, vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains fine cracks,
discordant sound that fail to vibrate will be emitted. This test is applicable to vitrified and
silicate wheels. Shellac, resinoid or rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or locating spigots. They
should not be forced on.
The hole of grinding wheels mostly is lined with lead. The lead liner bushes should not
project beyond the side of wheels.
There must be a flange on each side of the wheel. The mounting flanges must be large
enough to hold the wheel properly, at least the flange diameter must be equal to the half of
the grinding wheel diameter.
Both the flanges should be of the same diameter, other-wise the wheel is under a bending
stress which is liable to cause fracture.
NOTES:
180
8.4.4 Wheel Balancing:
The sides of the wheel and the flanges
which clamp them should be flat and
bear evenly all round. All flanges must
be relieved in the center so that the
flanges contact the wheel only with the
annular clamping area.
If they are not properly relieved, the
pressure of the flanges is concentrated
on the sides of the wheel near the hole, a
condition which should be avoided.
Washers of compressible materials such
as card board, leather, rubber, etc. not over 1.5 mm thick should be fitted between the
wheel and its flanges.
In this way any unevenness of the wheel surface is balanced and a tight joint is obtained.
The diameter of washers may be normally equal to the diameter of the flanges.
The inner fixed flange should be keyed or otherwise fastened to the spindle, whereas the
outer flange should have an easy sliding fit on the spindle so that it can adjust itself
slightly to give a uniform bearing on the wheel and the compressible washers.
The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue tightness is unnecessary and
undesirable as excessive clamping strain is liable to damage the wheel.
The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the machine is started for work.
8.4.5 Truing:
NOTES:
181
Both dressing and truing are done with the diamond wheel dresser.
8.4.6 Dressing:
Dressing the wheel refers to removing the current layer of abrasive, so that a fresh and
sharp surface is exposed to the work surface.
When the sharpness of grinding wheel becomes dull because of glazing and loading,
dulled grains and chips are removed (crushed or fallen) with a proper dressing tool to
make sharp cutting edges and simultaneously, make recesses for chips by properly
extruding to grain cutting edges.
Press tools are used to produce a particular component in large quantity, out of sheet metals
where particular component achieved depends upon press tool construction and its configuration.
The different types of press tool constructions leads to different operations namely blanking,
bending, piercing, forming, drawing, cutting off, parting off, embossing, coining, notching,
shaving, lancing, dinking, perforating, trimming, curling etc.
When a component is produced with one single punch and die where the entire outer
profile is cut in a single stroke the tool is called a blanking tool. The outer area of metal remaining
after a blanking operation is generally discarded as waste. It is a metal cutting operation. In
blanking metal obtained after cutting is not a scrap or it is usable. The size of the blank depends
on the size of the die.
NOTES:
182
9.2.2 Piercing tool:
Piercing involves cutting of clean holes with a resulting scrap slug. The operation is called
die cutting and can also produce flat components where the die, the shaped tool, is pressed into a
sheet material employing a shearing action to cut holes. This method can be used to cut parts of
different sizes and shapes in sheet metal, leather and many other materials.
A progressive tool differs from a stage tool in the following respect: in a progressive tool
the final component is obtained by progressing the sheet metal or strip in more than one stage. At
each stage the tool will progressively shape the component towards its final shape, with the final
stage normally being cutting-off.
NOTES:
183
9.2.4 Compound tool:
NOTES:
184
Bending is a method of producing shapes by stressing metal beyond its yield strength, but
not past its ultimate tensile strength. The forces applied during bending are in opposite directions,
just as in the cutting of sheet metal. The two types of bending process are Air Bending and
Bottom Bending.
The bend allowance (BA) is the length of the arc of the neutral line between the tangent
points of a bend in any material. Adding the length of each flange taken between the center of the
radius to the BA gives the Flat Pattern length.
Forming tools are parts that act as dies that bend, stretch, or otherwise form sheet metal to
create form features such as louvers, lances, flanges, and ribs.
Forming is the operation of deforming a part in curved profile. Forming tools apply more
complex forms to work pieces. The line of bend is curved instead of straight and the metal is
subjected to plastic flow or deformation.
NOTES:
185
9.2.7 Embossing tool:
NOTES:
186
some metals, the plastic flow reduces surface grain size, and work hardens the surface, while the
material deeper in the part retains its toughness and ductility. The term comes from the initial use
of the process: manufacturing of coins.
Coining is a cold working process similar in other respects to forging, which takes place at
elevated temperature; it uses a great deal of force to plastically deform a workpiece, so that it
conforms to a die. Coining can be done using a gear driven press, a mechanical press, or more
commonly, a hydraulically actuated press.
NOTES:
187
Cutting off work is a method of blanking work in which the material is cut by shearing
into two parts without generating any scrap. If this method is used, the rate of utilization of the
material (yield) can be increased to the maximum possible extent.
The cutting is done in the condition in which the material is passed through the tunnel part
of a fixed stripper and has butted against a block.
The most common sheet metal used in automotive to make bodies is steel. It is reasonably cheap
and easy to press into shape to make body parts.
The next best is aluminum. It is lighter but harder to bend into tight shapes without cracking.
NOTES:
188
The Sheet Metal Components used in Auto industries are
Casting: The idea behind die casting was originally created for automobiles. Since vehicles
require complex shapes and sizes for different parts of the vehicle, it is almost mandatory to use
zinc die casting. Due to the precise accuracy of this process, the need for further machining is
practically non-existent. This alone saves an exuberant amount of time and money for the
manufacturing of automobile parts. One can typically use zinc for retractor gears, seat belt
pulleys, and camshafts, as well as a multitude of other parts on most vehicles. This amazing metal
NOTES:
189
provides strength, flexibility, and malleability that you cannot match with other materials. Zinc
has a lowering melting point, allowing for less energy during production.
Forged components are commonly found at points of shock and stress such as wheel spindles,
kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms and steering
arms.
NOTES:
190
Subject Title : PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
NOTES:
191
2.0 ETHICS, CULTURES AND VALUES
2.1 ETHICS DEFINITION
A study on ‘Professional Ethics’ will improve one’s ability and judgement and
refine one’s behavior, decisions, actions in performing duty to the family,
organization and society.
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
These shared values have a strong influence on the people in the organization and dictate
how they dress, act, and perform their jobs.
NOTES:
192
2.2.1 STRONG CULTURE
Are those in which the key values are deeply held and widely
shared and have a greater influence on employees. Eg: Google
culture
Weak Culture: are those in which the key values are only limited to few people (mostly top
management) and don’t have much influence on the employees.
E.g.: Stardust and Persona
No sense of identity
NOTES:
193
1.3 VALUES
2.3.1 Definition
Values means beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is
important in life
We have the ability to choose our values and establish our beliefs
Values within
Love
Kindness
Compassion
Mercy
Sympathy
Empathy
Values to be practiced
Punctuality
Discipline
Obedience
Behavior
Conduct
Character
NOTES:
194
2.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUES
Set of moral principles that an employee uses in the performance of his job. Work ethic
can refer to how you feel about your
job or career, so it covers your
attitude and behaviour.
NOTES:
195
3.2 CHARACTER
Be honest: Be honest about your successes and failures, take credit only where due, do not
steal other’s works or ideas, and own up to your failures.
Openness: Share your ideas, results and resources with the other team members, so that
everyone has the same opportunity and know what you are doing. Being secretive is
counterproductive.
Be a contributing member: the ability to carry your own weight and help others who are
struggling
3.4 APPEARANCE
The first impression of who
you are can last a lifetime
Dress appropriately
Personal hygiene
Good manners
NOTES:
196
3.5 PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDE
Competence
Reliability
Honesty
Integrity
Being Positive.
Supporting Others
Staying Work-Focused
Accept ones responsibility for ones work: if you make mistake, admit it
Self-Upgrading
NOTES:
197
This goes a long way in aligning behaviours within the
organization towards achievement of one common goal or
mission.
Essential work ethics traits that encourage development of positive work habits beneficial to
business and industry are:-
Attitude
NOTES:
198
Communication ability
Honesty
Accountability
4.1 ATTITUDE
RESPECT
FOR INNOVAT
OTHERS IVE IDEA
COMMI
TTMNET HELPFUL
TO THE NESS
JOBS
INFECTIO
US
ENTHUSIS
M
Project notebook
Executive summary
Annual report
NOTES:
199
Verbal communication: - Being able to communicate well allows you to:
Negotiate
Influence people
4.4 HONESTY
A key component of workplace ethics and behaviour is integrity, or being honest and
doing the right thing at all times.
Tell people the reasoning behind your decisions so that your intent is understood.
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If something is misinterpreted, quickly correct the record.
Hold people accountable when their words do not match their actions.
4.5 ACCOUNTABILITY
Taking responsibility for your actions is a major factor when it comes to workplace ethics
and behaviour.
That means:-
Arriving on time
Employees who have good work ethics can be very helpful for companies. This is because they
are more likely to work hard, and do quality work for the company.
1. Dedication
2. Honesty
4. Respect to others
5. Co-operation
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5.1 DEDICATION
Dedication can be described as an exceedingly strong feeling of loyalty and support for
someone or something.
Fairness at work
Feeling of accomplishment
Appreciation
SHOW DEDICATION
Putting in overtime:- willing to give up his personal time, volunteering for special
assignments.
5.2 HONESTY
Having integrity / honesty means you are true to yourself and would do nothing that
degrades or shames you.
Employers value employees who maintain a sense of honesty and integrity above all.
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Good relationships are built on trust.
EMBRACING DIVERSITY
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5.4 RESPECT TO OTHERS
Respect is thinking and acting in a way that shows others you care about their feelings and
their well-being.
You can have respect for others, and you can have respect for
yourself.
Say thankyou
Be helpful
5.5 CO-OPERATION
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6.0 DEVELOPING STRONG WORK ETHICS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Work ethics one of those things that many of us strive for and that employers look for.
No one wants to have employees who work for them and don’t try to do anything at all.
Similarly, work ethic is not necessarily something that you can teach someone how to do
or how to value.
Some factors that can strengthen your work ethics in accomplishing your goals are:-
1. Stay positive
2. Refuse to procrastinate
5. Meet deadline
Employers seek employees who take the initiative and have the
motivation to get the job done in a reasonable period of time.
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Go slowly.
Write it down.
NOTES:
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6.4 KEEP YOUR FOCUS
Make a to do list
Time yourself
Award yourself
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Handle all the tasks accorded with a professional view not overlooking any detail
Five tips will help you stay on track with your deadlines
Don't Set Yourself Up to Fail:- Don't take on a two-week task with a one-week deadline
unless you're really sure you can get it done. And if your plate is already full, don't hesitate
to say no.
Don't Procrastinate:-We all have feeling that, "I have plenty of time to get this done. I'll
work on something else for now." Then, suddenly the deadline is two days away and you
haven't even started on the project yet.
Stay Organized;-If you have a complicated schedule with lots of deadlines, meetings and
projects going on, it's essential that you keep a calendar with all your deadline dates on it
Practice punctuality
Develop professionalism
Develop integrity
Focus on quality
Be responsible
Work in teams
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7.0 PROFESSIONALISM AND WORK ETHICS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 DEFINITION
7.3 FEATURES
Be punctual
Be accountable
Be well organised
7.4 FUNCTIONS
A professional work place attitude and appearance allow employees to take pride in their
work and improve worker performance.
Respect is increased
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listen well
Be useful
Be kind
Don’t make excuses
Let go anger
Be willing to change
Business reputation will flourish
improved product sale
Boosting revenue
Minimized costs
Conflict is mini
Mized
7.5 EFFECTS
BENEFITS OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
Better employee motivation and recruitment
Improved brand image
Higher revenue-demand from positive consumer support
New sources of finance
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To behave in a professionally ethical way always consider:
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Organisations can encourage their employees to adopt attitudes and behave ethically which
will result in positive workplace and happy customer.
There are some basic guidelines you can follow to motivate employees to work ethically:-
1. Set an example
2. Pubic recognition
Role models are those who possess the qualities that we would like to have.
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HOW TO SET EXAMPLE
Show respect and concerns for others, listen them attentively and valuing their
contribution
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Subject Title : ENGINEERING DRAWING
NOTES:
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UNIT - 01
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
An engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of a three dimensional object. It is
the graphic language, from which a trained person can visualize the object.
It is not only shows the shape of the object but also describes the size and other specifications
necessary for its constructions in the form of dimensions and notes. Writing of the specifications
and important particulars (includes name of the drawing, title block etc.) on a drawing is called
Lettering.
Features of lettering:
The main features of lettering are,
1. Legibility
2. Uniformity
3. Ease and rapidity of execution
4. Suitability for micro filming (tracing), Photographic re-production, Ammonia printing etc.
Dimensions
The height of the capital letter is taken as the base of dimensioning (Tables 1 and 2).
The two standard ratios for d/h, l/14 and l/10, are most economical as they result in a minimum
number of line thickness as is illustrated in Tables 1 and 2.
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Recommended ratios for the height of lower-case letters for the space between characters, for the
minimum space of words are given in Tables 1 and 2.
The lettering may be inclined 15’ to the right, or may be vertical.
The spacing between the two characters may be reduced by half if it gives better visual effect.
NOTES:
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Note:
Use of instruments (pencils) for lettering is not preferred, as it will consume more time. Free hand,
single stroke engineering script with proper strokes should be used to faster and proper lettering.
Efficiency in the art of lettering can be achieved by careful and continuous practice.
NOTES:
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VERTICAL LETTERS
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1.3 Scale:
Ratio of the liner dimension of an element of an object as represented in the original drawing to
the real linear dimension of the same element of the object itself.
The scale of a print may be different from that of the original drawing.
Full size
If the object size and the drawing size is same, then it is called full scale or a scale with the ration
1:1.is called full scale
Enlargement scale
If the drawing size is larger than the object size, then it is called enlarged scale or a scale where
the ratio larger than 1:1 is called enlarged scale.
Reduction scale
If the drawing size is smaller than the object size, then it is called reduced scale or a scale where
the ratio smaller than 1:1 is called reduced scale.
Designation
The designation of the scale shall consist of the word SCALE.
The designation of the scale used on the drawing shall be inscribed in the title block of the
drawing. Where it is necessary to use more than one scale on a drawing, the main scale shall be
inscribed in the title block and all other scales will be indicated adjacent to the item
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In exceptional cases where for functional reasons the recommended scales cannot be applied,
intermediate scales may be chosen.
The scale chosen depends on the complexity of the object and the purpose of the representation.
The selected scale should be larger enough to permit easy and clear interpretation of the
information depicted.
Details that are too small for complete dimensioning in the main representation shall be shown
adjacent to the main representation in a separate detail view (or section) which is drawn to large
scale.
NOTES:
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UNIT - 02
Nomenclature
1. Projection is the image of an object thrown upon a plane by drawing straight lines called visual
rays from the eye of an observer.
2. Observer’s eye or station point is a point where the eye of the observer is assumed to be
located while sighting the object. Station point is called center of projection or point of sight.
3. Plane of projection is a plane on which the image is formed. In general, plane of projection is
called picture plane.
4. Projector is a straight line drawn from the point on the contour of an object to the plane on
which the image of the object is obtained.
Planes of projections
The plane surfaces which are used for projecting the views of an object in an orthographic
projection are called planes of projection. Usually two views are required to describe an object
completely. Hence, two planes which are mutually perpendicular are sufficient for projecting the
views of an object.
1. Principle planes are the plane surfaces which are mutually Perpendicular and used for
projecting the views of an object. These planes are called reference planes, co-ordinate planes or
dihedral planes.
2. Horizontal plane is one of the principle planes which is horizontal. This plane is denoted by
H.P. The view obtained on the horizontal plane is called top view or plan. The direction of
viewing for getting the top view is marketed by T.
NOTES:
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3. Vertical plane is one of the principle planes which is vertical. This plane is denoted by V.P.
The view obtained on the vertical plane is called front view or elevation.
This plane is also called frontal plane. The direction of viewing for getting the front view is
marked by F.
4. Reference line is the line of intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes. This is also
called reference line or ground line or simply line of intersection and is denoted by xy-line.
5. Quadrants The reference planes divide the space into four quadrants or angles of 900 or
dihedral angles and can be marked as I,II,III,IV representing the first, second, third and fourth
quadrants respectively, if these planes are sighted in the direction marked by A. The arrangement
of the four quadrants is in the anti-clockwise order and hence this arrangement represents the anti-
clockwise system.
Systems of Projections:
Based upon the types of projectors or visual rays, projections may be broadly classified into two:
1. Parallel projections
Parallel Projection:
Parallel projection is a geometric method of projection obtained on a plane of projection when the
observer’s eye is imagined to be located at infinity so that the projectors are considered to be
parallel to each other. The further subdivisions of parallel projections are:
1. Orthographic projections
2. Oblique projections
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
The word ortho means right-angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. Orthographic
projection is a geometric method of projection obtained on the plane of projection when the
projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. Here, the number
of planes of projections may be one or more. The further subdivisions of orthographic projections
are:
1. Multi view projections
2. Axonometric projections
NOTES:
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Multi view Projection:
Multi view projection is an orthographic
projection in which the exact shape of an object is
represented by two or more separate views obtained
on different planes of projection which are usually at
right angles to each other.
Even though multi view projection is only one of the
orthographic projection methods, because of its wide
popularity the term orthographic projection is very
commonly used to represent a multi view projection.
For the clear understanding of different types of
multi view projections, one should have the clear
concept of the various planes of projections.
Multi view projections are classified into two:
1. First angle projections
2. Third angle projections
NOTES:
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Arrangement of views
The arrangement of six views of object looked in six
directions are made, based on clockwise or right hand
system.
2.2 Theory of projections
1. For getting the front view of an object placed in any of
the four quadrants, it should be viewed only from the right
hand side in the anti-clockwise or left hand system.
2. Front view of an object is always projected on the
vertical plane whatever may be the quadrant in which the
object is situated irrespective of left hand or right
hand system.
3. For getting the top view of an object placed in any of
the four quadrants, it should be viewed only from the top side whatever be the system followed.
4. Top view of an object is always projected on the horizontal plane whatever may be the quadrant
in which the object is situated irrespective of left hand or right hand system.
5. For getting the front view of an object placed in any of the quadrants it should be viewed only
from the left hand side in a clockwise or right hand system.
NOTES:
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Difference between 1st angle and 3rd angle projection
The following are the important differences between the first angle and third angle projections:
1. In the first angle projection, the object is assumed to be situated in the first quadrant while in
the third angle projection; it is to be in the third quadrant.
2. In first angle projection the object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection
while in the third angle, the plane of projection is in between the observer and the object.
3. In first angle projection, the front view will be above the xy-line while in the third angle
projection the front view will be below the xy-line.
4. In the first angle projection, the top view will be below the xy-line while in third angle
projection, the top view will be above the xy-line.
5. In first angle projection, the side view is projected on the other side of the object. i.e. the view
from left side is projected on the plane on right side while in third angle projection, the side view
of the object is projected on the same side of the object. i.e. the view from the left side is projected
on the plane on the left side.
NOTES:
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ISOMETRIC VIEW
NOTES:
225
2.3 EXERCISE
Draw orthographic views in first angle.
NOTES:
226
2.4 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Representing 3 dimensions on a flat piece of paper is a very important skill for designers
enabling them to communicate their ideas to other people. This is especially useful when showing
your design to non-designers such as managers and marketing personnel.
There are several tried and tested 3 Dimensional drawing systems used to produce a
realistic representation of an object. Some techniques such as isometric are based on mathematical
systems, others a try to convey a larger degree of realism by applying perspective to the drawing.
Amongst the methods covered in this tutorial are oblique, isometric, axonometric, and perspective
drawing techniques.
Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two
dimensions in technical and engineering drawings.
NOTES:
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One of the things that make isometric drawings so attractive is the ease with which 60 degree
angles can be constructed with only a compass and straightedge.
Isometric scale
A constructed by stepping off true measurements along line 'AB1' which is a true length
line. The measurements are then transferred back to line 'AB' to get a smaller scale, in this
case an isometric scale
Lines drawn using the isometric scale are approximately 80% of true size. This scale is
usually marked off on a piece of paper and used to step off the foreshortened
measurements along the projection of axes lines and lines parallel to them.
Lines parallel to the projection of axes are known as isometric lines.
Lines which are not parallel to theses axes are known as non-isometric lines.
It is important to note that you can only use the scales on isometric lines.
Drawing a box in isometric:
1. Draw the front vertical edge of the cube.
2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal to the required length.
Note: All lengths are drawn as actual lengths in standard isometric.
3. Draw in the back verticals
4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30 degrees to the horizontal
Initially when you first start using isometric it can be useful to use a simple box as a basic
building block a guide to help you draw more complicated shapes.
NOTES:
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This simple example shows you how you
can use a box to help you accurately draw a
more complicated shape.
NOTES:
229
The finished shape
EXERCISE
NOTES:
230
UNIT - 03
SECTIONAL VIEWS
The orthographic views of an object may not be always give all the information clearly:
they give only the external information of the object.
The invisible features like holes, slots and internal contour are shown by means of hidden
lines.
But, when such features are too many or of complex nature, then the use of hidden lines
makes the views more complicated and difficult to understand.
In order to avoid too many hidden lines and to make the views more understandable, the
object is assumed to be cut by one or more planes(imaginary) called section plane (also
called cutting plane)
In such a way that one portion of the part is assumed to be removed as to expose the
required internal details of the object, to the direct view of the observer.
The cutting plane is generally assumed to be parallel to the plane on which the view of the
object is projected.
The part of the object between the section plane and the observer is assumed to be
removed away and the remaining sectioned part is projected to get the sectional view.
The sectional view thus, shows not only the shape of the section but also all the visible
edges and contours of the object behind the section plane.
The surfaces cut by section plane are specially marked by means of hatching lines.
Section line is a chain thin line thickened at the ends. The direction of viewing the section
is shown by arrows resting on the thickened ends and named by upper case letters like A-
Al, B-Bl.
NOTES:
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3.2 Different ways of sectioning
The following are the different ways of sectioning a object.
a. Full section
b. Half section
c. Local section
d. Removed section/Revolved section
e. Offset section
f. Thin section.
Full section:
When an object is assumed to be cut right through and the front half ( the portion in between the
section plane and the observer) is removed, it is said to be in full section. The projection of the
remaining portion is known as full sectional view. In the sectional front view the complex internal
details are clearly defined and the hatching lines denote the sectioned area. In the top view the
location of the section plane is shown by section line with the direction of view.
For obtaining full sectional front view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane parallel
to the vertical plane.
For obtaining full sectional side view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane parallel
to profile plane.
Similarly, for obtaining full sectional top view of an object, it is assumed to cut by a section plane
parallel to the horizontal plane.
NOTES:
232
Half section:
If the object is symmetrical, then a full section is not essential, since the sectional view will also
be symmetrical. For such objects, a half section is enough to show the internal features. In half
section two cutting planes at right angles to each other are assumed to cut the object. That quarter
of the object which is between the two cutting planes is removed and the remaining three by four
portion of the object is projected to get the half-sectional view. The projection will be drawn half
in full view and half in section. The sectioned half and the other half are separated by a centre
line.
NOTES:
233
Revolved section/Removed section:
When the cutting plane is passed at right angles to the axis of the object, a cross section is
obtained. The cross sectional view thus obtained is revolved through 900 and drawn on the front
view itself, to give a revolved section. A removed section is obtained in the same manner, but the
sectional view is drawn outside the main view. Generally the sectional view is drawn with
reference to the extension of the cutting plane line. (if it is not convenient, it may be drawn away
from its location.)
NOTES:
234
Offset section:
In some objects, the internal features are placed at different positions. To show these internal
features a single straight cutting plane is not enough. An offset cutting plane is assumed to cut the
object, so that the cutting plane passes through the internal features which are required to be
shown in sectional view. The section thus obtained is called as Offset section.
Thin section:
Objects of small thickness like sheet metals, steel sections, gaskets, packing materials, shims and
washers are shown entirely thickened in sectional view.
NOTES:
235
5. In the case of large areas, the hatching may be limited to a zone following the contour of
the hatched area.
6. where sections of the same part in parallel planes are shown side by side, the hatching shall
be identical, but offset along the dividing line between the sections if greater clarity is
considered necessary.
7. Hatching shall be interrupted when it is not possible to place inscriptions outside the
hatched area.
Eg: Dimensioning in hatched area:
Dimension lines are normally shown outside the drawing, but in some unavoidable cases they can
be shown inside the drawing itself. However dimension is to be drawn on the hatched area, the
hatching lines are broken at the place where dimension value is to be written.
For practical purpose, the cast iron symbol is used most often for any materials
Section Lining
The symbol for cast iron can be used for most section views.
NOTES:
236
All lines should be uniformly spaced
Thin sections may be blackened in completely
Spacing lines by eye increases speed
Lines should never be parallel or perpendicular to the object lines.
If the outline of the object has 45 degree lines, 30 or 60 degree lines should be used.
Assemblies with several parts should be lined with varying angle section lines
3.4 EXERCISE:
Draw the top view, full sectional front
view and full sectional side view for
the given drawings.
NOTES:
237
UNIT - 04
DIMENSIONING
What is Dimensioning?
The indicates on a drawing which are essential to construct the object and to understand shape of
the object, Lines, Numerals, Symbols, notes etc is called Dimensioning.
Dimension line
Extension line
Arrow head
Leader
NOTES:
238
Dimension Line
A dimension line is a continuous thin line and terminated by arrowheads. The dimension lines
should be placed at least 10mm away from the outline and all other parallel dimension lines
should be placed at least 8mm. normally the dimension lines should be placed outside the views
wherever possible.
A projection or an extension line is a thin continuous line drawn without leaving a gap from the
outline to be dimensioned. The projection lines should extend slightly beyond the dimension line.
Arrow Head
Arrowheads are used to terminate a dimension line. It is recommended that the ratio between
lengths to width of the arrowhead can be in the ratio of 1:3
Leader
Leader or pointer lines are thin continuous lines. Drawn for note or dimension figures to the
feature to which it refers. The leader lines may be drawn at 45 to the point it touches
NOTES:
239
Projection line:-
These lines are drawn as continuous thin Lines They should be drawn:
Dimension lines are drawn from visible outlines and not from hidden lines
Leader line should not be parallel to the adjacent dimension lines where confusion might
arise.
Leader lines should not be parallel to the adjacent projection lines where confusion might
arise.
leader line may be drawn at an angle not less than 300 with the horizontal.
Parallel Dimensioning
Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions originating from one projection line.
NOTES:
240
Chain Dimensioning
Chains of dimension should only be used if the function of the object won't be affected by the
accumulation of the tolerances.
Combined Dimensions
NOTES:
241
4.4 Rectangle coordinates
The Cartesian plane consists of two perpendicular axes that cross at a central point called
the origin.
Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane is given below. Four points are marked and
labeled with their coordinates: (2, 3) in green, (−3, 1) in red, (−1.5, −2.5) in blue, and the
origin (0, 0) in purple.
NOTES:
242
Polar co-ordinates
The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a
plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction.
Points in the polar coordinate system with pole O and polar axis L. In green, the point with radial
coordinate 3 and angular coordinate 60 degrees or (3, 60°). In blue, the point (4, 210°).
NOTES:
243
4.5 EXERCISE
NOTES:
244
UNIT -05
GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the total permissible variation from the specified basic size of the part. It is
defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension or measured control
criterion from specified value.
Tolerance is a total amount the feature of part is permitted to vary from specified
dimension. The tolerance is a difference between maximum and minimum limits.
Geometrical tolerances should be specified only where they are essential, otherwise the
manufacturing and inspection costs may be increased.
In any case tolerances should be as large as possible, subject to the design requirements
being met. As geometrical tolerance symbols are internationally agreed (see ISO 1101),
language difficulties cannot occur.
The use of geometrical tolerances does not imply that any particular method of production
or inspection is to be used.
Feature
NOTES:
245
Feature Control Frame
A rectangular box that is divide into compartments within which the geometric characteristic
symbol, tolerance value, modifiers and datum reference are placed.
Basic dimension
Datum targets
NOTES:
246
Actual Mating Envelope
A similar perfect feature counterpart if the smallest size that can be circumscribed about
the feature so that it just contacts the surface of the highest points.
Modifiers
NOTES:
247
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) of an External and Internal Feature of Size
It is the condition in which a feature of size contains the maximum amount of material
everywhere within the stated limits of size.
EXAMPLE
The condition in which a feature of size contains the least amount material everywhere within the
stated limits of size
NOTES:
248
EXAMPLE
NOTES:
249
Radius
Controlled Radius
When radius is specified, the part may have no flats or reversals allowed on the surface of the
radius
NOTES:
250
5.2 Form and Position Tolerances
Form Controls
Flatness Definition
NOTES:
251
Rule #1 – Effects on flatness
Flatness Application
NOTES:
252
NOTES:
253
Legal Specification test for Flatness
Inspecting Flatness
NOTES:
254
Straightness
A straightness control applied to a surface limits the amount of straightness error allowed to
surface line elements.
The tolerance zone is two parallel lines; the distance between the lines is equal to the straightness
tolerances value.
NOTES:
255
Rule #1’s Effects on surface straightness
Rule #1
Whenever rule #1 applies to a feature of size, it provides an automatic indirect straightness control
for its surface elements.
NOTES:
256
Straightness applied to a surface or feature of
Size
How to determine when a straightness control
applies to a surface or feature of size
Rule #1
Whenever rule #1 applies to a feature of size, it provides an automatic straightness control for its
axis or centre plane.
NOTES:
257
Legal specification test for straightness applied to a feature of size
NOTES:
258
Inspecting Straightness applied to a Feature of size at MMC
NOTES:
259
Circularity
Circularity Control
A geometric tolerance that limits the amount of circularity error of circular elements of a
surface of revolution.
The radial distance between the circles is equal to the circularity control tolerance value.
NOTES:
260
Circularity Application
NOTES:
261
Inspecting Circularity
Cylindricity
NOTES:
262
Cylindricity Application
NOTES:
263
Legal specification test for Cylindricity
Inspecting Cylindricity
This is an example of a read out of cylindricity results.
Typically a cylindricity check results in a chart that shows a map of surface elements
compared to the cylindricity tolerance zone.
NOTES:
264
Summarization of Form controls
Objectives
Definition
True position is the theoretically exact location of a FOS as defined by basic dimensions.
Tolerance of position (TOP) control is a geometric tolerance that defines the location
tolerance of a FOS from its true position.
NOTES:
265
Implied basic 900 angles:
A 900 basic angle applies where centerlines of features in a pattern (or surfaces shown
at right angles on a drawing) are located and defined by basic dimensions and no angle is
specified.
Advantages
NOTES:
266
Types of Part Relationship
The distance between features of size, such as holes, bosses, slots, tabs, etc.
The location of features of size (or patterns of features of size) such as holes, bosses, slots,
tabs, etc.
The axis theory: The axis (or center plane) of a FOS must be within the tolerance zone.
NOTES:
267
5.6 RULES & CONCEPTS
Rule #1
Where only a tolerance of size is specified, the limits of an individual feature prescribe the
extent to which variations in size – as well as form – are allowed.
Whenever a drawing invokes Y14.5. Rule#1 automatically applies to all features of size.
In industry, Rule #1 is often paraphrased as “Perfect form at MMC” or the “Envelope
Principle”.
Rule #1 Boundary
Rule #1
Automatically applies to all features of size, Rule #1 requires perfect flatness, straightness,
circularity and cylindricity at MMC.
NOTES:
268
Rule #1 Limitations
NOTES:
269
Inspecting an internal feature of size
Rule #2
RFS is a default condition for tolerances and datum feature references (as appropriate)
Rule #2a
For tolerance of position, RFS may be stated for the tolerance and datum feature references (as
appropriate)
NOTES:
270
Examples
NOTES:
271
Inner and Outer boundary
NOTES:
272
NOTES:
273
Virtual condition at LMC
NOTES:
274
Inner and Outer boundary
NOTES:
275
Multiple Boundary Conditions
NOTES:
276
Bonus Tolerance
NOTES:
277
NOTES:
278
NOTES:
279
UNIT -06
SURFACE TEXTURE
6.1 Introduction
Surface texture or surface finish is the term refers to repetitive or random deviations from
the nominal surface, which from the pattern on the surface.
It can also be explained as the amount of geometric irregularity produced on the surface.
Engineering components are produced with different levels of surface finish for satisfying
the requirements. Hence, production drawings are prepared specifying the finish of the
surfaces also, in addition to the dimensional and geometric tolerances.
Roughness
Roughness is the relatively finely spaced surface irregularities that are produced by the
cutting action of tool edges and abrasive grains on surfaces that are machined.
Roughness Height
This is the average (arithmetical) deviation from the mean line of the profile. This is
expressed in microns (1/1000 of a mm).
NOTES:
280
Roughness Width
This is the distance between successive peaks or ridges which constitute the predominant pattern
of roughness and is measured in mm.
Roughness Cut-Off
This term indicate the greatest spacing of repetitive surface irregularities at one place. It
must always be greater than the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness height
rating. This value is indicted in mm and the standard value is assumed to be 0.8mm.
NOTES:
281
Waviness
Waviness is the surface undulations that are of mush greater magnitude than the roughness
irregularities.
Waviness Height
This is the distance from the peak of the wave to the valley, measured in mm.
Waviness Width
This is the spacing between successive waves to the valley or wave peaks.
NOTES:
282
Flaws
Flaws are irregularities like cracks, scratches blow holes, etc. that occur at one place or at widely
varying intervals on the surface.
Lay
Lay is the primary direction of the surface pattern produced by tools during machining.
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The value of roughness average Ra is ranging from 0.025 to 50 microns for highly smooth
surface to a rough surface.
The sampling length is taken as 0.8mm unless otherwise stated.
The surface roughness number represents the average departure of the surface from
perfection over a prescribed sampling length, usually selected as 0.8 mm and is expressed
in microns.
The measurements are usually made along a line, running at right angle to the general
direction of tool marks on the surface. Surface roughness values are usually expressed as
the Ra value in microns
The surface roughness may be measured, using any one of the following :
1. Straight edge
2. Surface gauge
3. Optical flat
5. Profilometer
6. Profilograph
7. Talysurf
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SURFACE ROUGHNESS VALUE GRADE
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285
6.2 SYMBOLS TO INDICATE SURFACE TEXTURE
The complete form of a surface texture symbol, relative position of placing the specification and
properties. Here, the surface roughness value Ra (N1 to N12) has the primary importance.
1, The symbol as open tick mark, means that the surface finish ‘a’ can
be obtained by any manufacturing process.
The tick mark with a circle, which represents that the surface should
have the roughness value ‘a’ without removal of material (Fig. C). A
cast or forged surface is an example for this.
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6.3 INDICATION ON DRAWINGS
The symbol for surface texture as well as the inscriptions shall be indicated on drawings as
shown in. General rules to be followed for the indication of symbols are:
As for as possible the symbol shall be oriented in such a way that they may be read from
bottom or the right hand side of the drawing.
If it is difficult to execute this general rule, the symbol may be drawn in any position but it
does not carry any indication of special surface texture, machining allowance. Etc.
If the same texture is required all over the surface of a part, it can be specified near the title
block as a note or shown on the right hand top side as given in Fig.
If some exemptions for all over surface texture is required, these can be marked on the
drawing. Here, near the all over symbol, an open tick mark (see Fig. ) or the extra symbol,
used (see Fig.) should be indicated a bracket.
If the same surface texture is required on a large of surfaces, a simplified symbol may be
used and its meaning can be given as shown in Fig.
The direction of lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern & it is determined
by the production method employed.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has recommended the following symbols (Refer
TableD3.3) for indicating direction of lay.
NOTES:
287
NOTES:
288
UNIT – 07
Assembly Drawing
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAWING
MACHINE DRAWING
PART DRAWING
PRODUCTION DRAWING
ASSEMBLY DRAWING
DESIGNED
DETAILLED
SUB-ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY FOR CATALOGUE
MACHINE DRAWINGS
PRODUCT DRAWINGS
A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, should furnish all the
dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing, lapping,
surface finish etc., to guide the craftsman on the shop floor in producing the component.
The title should also mention the material used for the product, number of parts required
for the assembled unit etc.
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289
Since a craftsman will ordinarily make one component at a time, it is advisable to prepare
the production drawing of each component on a separate sheet. However, in some cases
the drawings of related components may be given on the same sheet.
PART DRAWINGS
A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations is an
assembly drawing. There are several types of such drawings
NOTES:
290
DETAILED ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a relatively smaller number of simple
parts. All the dimensions and information necessary for the construction of such parts and
for the assembly of the parts are given directly on the assembly drawing. Separate views of
specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of parts together, may also be drawn in
addition to the regular assembly drawing.
Many assemblies such as an automobile, lathe, etc., are assembled with many pre-assembled
components as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are known as sub-
assemblies. A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts that
form a part in a more complicated machine.
Examples of such drawings are: lathe tail stock, diesel engine fuel pump, carburetor, etc.
On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few important parts and overall dimensions
of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful information for
assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts of a machine in their correct
working position.
Special assembly drawings are prepared for company catalogues. These drawings show only
the pertinent details and dimensions that would interest the potential buyer shows a typical
catalogue drawing, showing the overall and principal dimensions.
These drawings in the form of assembly drawings, are to be used when a machine, shipped
away in assembled condition, is knocked down in order to check all the parts before
reassembly and installation elsewhere. These drawings have each component numbered on
the job.
In some cases, exploded pictorial views are supplied to meet instruction manual
requirements. These drawings generally find a place in the parts list section of a company
instruction manual. Shows drawings of this type which may be easily understood even by
NOTES:
291
those with less experience in the reading of drawings; because in these exploded views, the
parts are positioned in the sequence of assembly, but separated from each other.
NOTES:
292
STEPS FOR ASSEMBLY DRAWING
Understand the purpose, principle of operation and field of application of the given
machine. This will help in understanding the functional requirements of individual parts
and their location.
Examine thoroughly, the external and internal features of the individual parts.
Estimate the overall dimensions of the views of the assembly drawing and make the
outline blocks for each of the required view, leaving enough space between them, for
indicating dimensions and adding required notes.
Draw the axes of symmetry for all the views of the assembly drawing.
Begin with the view from the front, by drawing first, the main parts of the machine and
then adding the rest of the parts, in the sequence of assembly.
Project the other required views from the view from the front and complete the views.
Mark the location and overall dimensions and add the part numbers on the drawing.
NOTES:
293
Add the title block
NOTE It is not advisable to complete one view before commencing the other. The better
method is to develop all the required views simultaneously
UNIT - 08
NOTES:
294
PART DRAWING
NOTES:
295
MACHINE DRAWING
NOTES:
296
NOTES:
297