Postulates and Theorems

A postulate is a statement that is assumed true without proof. A theorem is a true statement that
can be proven. Listed below are six postulates and the theorems that can be proven from these
postulates.

 Postulate 1: A line contains at least two points.

 Postulate 2: A plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
 Postulate 3: Through any two points, there is exactly one line.
 Postulate 4: Through any three noncollinear points, there is exactly one plane.
 Postulate 5: If two points lie in a plane, then the line joining them lies in that plane.
 Postulate 6: If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
 Theorem 1: If two lines intersect, then they intersect in exactly one point.
 Theorem 2: If a point lies outside a line, then exactly one plane contains both the line and the point.
 Theorem 3: If two lines intersect, then exactly one plane contains both lines.

Example 1: State the postulate or theorem you would use to justify the statement made about
each figure.

Figure 1 Illustrations of Postulates 1–6 and Theorems 1–3.

 (a)
Through any three noncollinear points, there is exactly one plane (Postulate 4).

 (b)

Through any two points, there is exactly one line (Postulate 3).

 (c)

If two points lie in a plane, then the line joining them lies in that plane (Postulate 5).

 (d)

If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line (Postulate 6).

 (e)

A line contains at least two points (Postulate 1).

 (f)

If two lines intersect, then exactly one plane contains both lines (Theorem 3).

 (g)

If a point lies outside a line, then exactly one plane contains both the line and the point (Theorem
2).

 (h)

If two lines intersect, then they intersect in exactly one point (Theorem 1).

Segments Midpoints and Rays

The concept of lines is straightforward, but much of geometry is concerned with portions of lines.
Some of those portions are so special that they have their own names and symbols.

Line segment

A line segment is a connected piece of a line. It has two endpoints and is named by its endpoints.
Sometimes, the symbol – written on top of two letters is used to denote the segment. This is line
segment CD (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Line segment.

It is written CD (Technically, CD refers to the points C and D and all the points between them,

and CD without the   refers to the distance from C to D.) Note that CD is a piece of  .

Postulate 7 (Ruler Postulate): Each point on a line can be paired with exactly one real number
called its coordinate. The distance between two points is the positive difference of their
coordinates (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Distance between two points.

Example 1: In Figure 3, find the length of QU.

Figure 3 Length of a line segment.

Postulate 8 (Segment Addition Postulate): If B lies between A and C on a line, then AB + BC =

AC (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Addition of lengths of line segments.

Example 2: In Figure 5, A lies between C and T. Find CT if CA = 5 and AT = 8.

Figure 5 Addition of lengths of line segments.

Because A lies between C and T, Postulate 8 tells you

Midpoint

A midpoint of a line segment is the halfway point, or the point equidistant from the endpoints
(Figure 6).

Figure 6 Midpoint of a line segment.

R is the midpoint of QS because QR = RS or because QR = ½ QS or RS = ½ QS

Example 3: In Figure 7, find the midpoint of KR .

Figure 7 Midpoint of a line segment.

The midpoint of KR would be ½(24), or 12 spaces from either K or R. Because the coordinate
of K is 5, and it is smaller than the coordinate of R (which is 29), to get the coordinate of the
midpoint you could either add 12 to 5 or subtract 12 from 29. In either case, you determine that the
coordinate of the midpoint is 17. That means that point O is the midpoint of KR because KO = OR.

Another way to get the coordinate of the midpoint would be to find the average of the endpoint
coordinates. To find the average of two numbers, you find their sum and divide by two. (5 + 29) ÷ 2
= 17. The coordinate of the midpoint is 17, so the midpoint is point O.

Theorem 4: A line segment has exactly one midpoint.

Ray

A ray is also a piece of a line, except that it has only one endpoint and continues forever in one
direction. It could be thought of as a half‐line with an endpoint. It is named by the letter of its
endpoint and any other point on the ray. The symbol → written on top of the two letters is used to
denote that ray. This is ray AB (Figure 8).

Figure 8 Ray AB.

It is written as 

This is ray CD (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Ray CD.

It is written as   or 

Note that the nonarrow part of the ray symbol is over the endpoint.

Consequences of the Parallel Postulate

Postulate 11 can be used to derive additional theorems regarding parallel lines cut by a
transversal. Because m ∠1 + m ∠2 = 180 ° and m ∠5 + m ∠6 = 180° (because adjacent angles
whose noncommon sides lie on a line are supplementary), and because m ∠1 = m ∠3, m∠2
= m ∠4, m ∠5 = m ∠7, and m ∠6 = m ∠8 (because vertical angles are equal), all of the following
theorems can be proven as a consequence of Postulate 11.

Theorem 13: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then alternate interior angles are equal.

Theorem 14: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then alternate exterior angles are equal.
Theorem 15: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then consecutive interior angles are
supplementary.

Theorem 16: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then consecutive exterior angles are
supplementary.

The above postulate and theorems can be condensed to the following theorems:

Theorem 17: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then every pair of angles formed are
either equal or supplementary.

Theorem 18: If a transversal is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, then it is also
perpendicular to the other line.

Based on Postulate 11 and the theorems that follow it, all of the following conditions would be true
if l // m (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Two parallel lines cut by a transversal.

In figures, single or double arrows on a pair of lines indicate that the lines are parallel.

Based on Postulate 11:

 m ∠1 = m ∠5
 m ∠4 = m ∠8
 m ∠2 = m ∠6
 m ∠3 = m ∠7

Based on Theorem 13:

 m ∠3 = m ∠5
 m ∠4 = m ∠6

Based on Theorem 14:

 m ∠1 = m ∠7
 m ∠2 = m ∠8

Based on Theorem 15:

 ∠3 and ∠6 are supplementary

 ∠4 and ∠5 are supplementary

Based on Theorem 16:

 ∠1 and ∠8 are supplementary

 ∠2 and ∠7 are supplementary
Based on Theorem 18:

If t ⊥ l, then t ⊥ m

Testing for Parallel Lines

Postulate 11 and Theorems 13 through 18 tell you that if two lines are parallel, then certain other
statements are also true. It is often useful to show that two lines are in fact parallel. For this
purpose, you need theorems in the following form: If (certain statements are true) then (two lines
are parallel). It is important to realize that the converse of a theorem (the statement obtained by
switching the if and then parts) is not always true. In this case, however, the converse of postulate
11 turns out to be true. We state the converse of Postulate 11 as Postulate 12 and use it to prove
that the converses of Theorems 13 through 18 are also theorems.

Postulate 12: If two lines and a transversal form equal corresponding angles, then the lines are
parallel.

In Figure 1, if m ∠l = m ∠2, then l // m. (Any pair of equal corresponding angles would
make l // m.)

Figure 1 A transversal cuts two lines to form equal corresponding angles.

This postulate allows you to prove that all the converses of the previous theorems are also true.

Theorem 19: If two lines and a transversal form equal alternate interior angles, then the lines are
parallel.

Theorem 20: If two lines and a transversal form equal alternate exterior angles, then the lines are
parallel.

Theorem 21: If two lines and a transversal form consecutive interior angles that are
supplementary, then the lines are parallel.

Theorem 22: If two lines and a transversal form consecutive exterior angles that are
supplementary, then the lines are parallel.

Theorem 23: In a plane, if two lines are parallel to a third line, the two lines are parallel to each
other.

Theorem 24: In a plane, if two lines are perpendicular to the same line, then the two lines are
parallel.

Based on Postulate 12 and the theorems that follow it, any of following conditions would allow you
to prove that a // b. (Figure 2).
Figure 2 What conditions on these numbered angles would guarantee that linesa and b are
parallel?

Postulate 12:

 m ∠ 1 = m ∠5
 m ∠2 = m ∠6
 m ∠3 = m ∠7
 m ∠4 = m ∠8

Use Theorem 19:

 m ∠4 = m ∠6
 m ∠3 = m ∠5

Use Theorem 20:

 m ∠1 = m ∠7
 m ∠2 = m ∠8

Use Theorem 21:

 ∠4 and ∠5 are supplementary

 ∠3 and ∠6 are supplementary

Use Theorem 22:

 ∠1 and ∠8 are supplementary

 ∠2 and ∠7 are supplementary

Use Theorem 23:

 a // c and b // c

Use Theorem 24:

 a ⊥ t and b ⊥ t

Example 1: Using Figure 3, identify the given angle pairs as alternate interior, alternate exterior,
consecutive interior, consecutive exterior, corresponding, or none of these: ∠1 and ∠7, ∠2 and
∠8, ∠3 and ∠4, ∠4 and ∠8, ∠3 and ∠8, ∠3, and ∠2, ∠5 and ∠7.
Figure 3 Find the angle pairs that are alternate interior, alternate exterior,

consecutive interior, consecutive exterior, and corresponding.

∠1 and ∠7 are alternate exterior angles.

∠2 and ∠8 are corresponding angles.

∠3 and ∠4 are consecutive interior angles.

∠4 and ∠8 are alternate interior angles.

∠3 and ∠2 are none of these.

∠5 and ∠7 are consecutive exterior angles.

Example 2: For each of the figures in Figure 4, determine which postulate or theorem you would
use to prove l // m.

Figure 4 Conditions guaranteeing that lines l and m are parallel.

Figure 4 (a): If two lines and a transversal form equal corresponding angles, then the lines are
parallel (Postulate 12).

Figure 4 (b): If two lines and a transversal form consecutive exterior angles that are
supplementary, then the lines are parallel (Theorem 22).

Figure 4 (c): In a plane, if two lines are perpendicular to the same line, the two lines are
parallel (Theorem 24).
Figure 4 (d): If two lines and a transversal form equal alternate interior angles, then the lines are
parallel (Theorem 19).

Example 3: In Figure 5, a // b and m ∠1 = 117°. Find the measure of each of the numbered
angles.

Figure 5 When lines a and b are parallel, knowing one angle makes it possible to determine

all the others pictured here.

m ∠2 = 63°

m ∠3 = 63°

m ∠4 = 117°

m ∠5 = 63°

m ∠6 = 117°

m ∠7 = 117°

m ∠8 = 63°

Angle Pairs Created with a Transversal

A transversal is any line that intersects two or more lines in the same plane but at different points.
In Figure , line t is a transversal.

Figure 1 A transversal intersecting two lines in the same plane.

A transversal that intersects two lines forms eight angles; certain pairs of these angles are given
special names. They are as follows:
  Corresponding angles are the angles that appear to be in the same relative position in each group of four
angles. In Figure , ∠l and ∠5 are corresponding angles. Other pairs of corresponding angles in Figure are:
∠4 and ∠8, ∠2 and ∠6, and ∠3 and ∠7.

Figure 2 A transversal intersecting two lines and forming various pairs of
corresponding angles

alternate interior angles, alternate exterior angles, consecutive interior angles, and consecutive

exterior angles.

 Alternate interior angles are angles within the lines being intersected, on opposite sides of the transversal,
and are not adjacent. In Figure 2, ∠4 and ∠6 are alternate interior angles. Also, ∠3 and ∠5 are alternate
interior angles.
 Alternate exterior angles are angles outside the lines being intersected, on opposite sides of the transversal,
and are not adjacent. In Figure 2, ∠l and ∠7 are alternate exterior angles. Also, ∠2 and ∠8 are alternate
exterior angles.
 Consecutive interior angles (same‐side interior angles) are interior angles on the same side of the
transversal. In Figure 2, ∠4 and ∠5 are consecutive interior angles. Also, ∠3 and ∠6 are consecutive interior
angles.
 Consecutive exterior angles (same‐side exterior angles) are exterior angles on the same side of the
transversal. In Figure 2, ∠l and ∠8 are consecutive exterior angles. Also, ∠2 and ∠7 are consecutive
exterior angles.
The Parallel Postulate
Postulate 11 (Parallel Postulate): If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the
corresponding angles are equal (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Corresponding angles are equal when two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal.

This postulate says that if l // m, then

 m ∠1 = m ∠5
 m ∠2 = m ∠6
 m ∠3 = m ∠7
 m ∠4 = m ∠8
Angle Sum of a Triangle
With the use of the Parallel Postulate, the following theorem can be proven.
Theorem 25: The sum of the interior angles of any triangle is 180°.

m ∠ A + m ∠ B + m ∠ C = 180°.

Example 1: If m ∠ A = 40° and m ∠ B = 60°, find m ∠ C.

Exterior Angle of a Triangle

An exterior angle of a triangle is formed when one side of a triangle is extended. The nonstraight
angle (the one that is not just the extension of the side) outside the triangle, but adjacent to an
interior angle, is an exterior angle of the triangle (Figure 1 ).

               

Figure 1 Exterior angle of a triangle.

In Figure 1, ∠ BCD is an exterior angle of Δ ABC.

Because m ∠1 + m ∠2 + m ∠3 = 180°, and m ∠3 + m ∠4 = 180°, you can prove that m ∠4
= m ∠1 + m ∠2. This is stated as a theorem.

Theorem 26: An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two remote (nonadjacent)
interior angles.

Example 1: In Figure 1, if m ∠1 = 30° and m ∠2 = 100°, find m ∠4.

Because ∠4 is an exterior angle of the triangle,

Classifying Triangles by Sides or Angles

Triangles can be classified either according to their sides or according to their angles. All of each
may be of different or the same sizes; any two sides or angles may be of the same size; there may
be one distinctive angle.

The types of triangles classified by their sides are the following:

 Equilateral triangle: A triangle with all three sides equal in measure. In Figure 1, the slash marks indicate
equal measure.
                      

Figure 1 Equilateral triangle

 Isosceles triangle: A triangle in which at least two sides have equal measure (Figure 2).

                      

Figure 2 Isosceles triangles

 Scalene triangle: A triangle with all three sides of different measures (Figure 3).

                   

Figure 3 Scalene triangle

The types of triangles classified by their angles include the following:

 Right triangle: A triangle that has a right angle in its interior (Figure 4).

                        

Figure 4 Right triangle

 Obtuse triangle: A triangle having an obtuse angle (greater than 90° but less than 180°) in its interior. Figure
5 shows an obtuse triangle.

                  

Figure 5 Obtuse triangle

 Acute triangle: A triangle having all acute angles (less than 90°) in its interior (Figure 6).
                        

Figure 6 Acute triangle.

 Equiangular triangle: A triangle having all angles of equal measure (Figure 7).

                            

Figure 7 Equiangular triangle

Because the sum of all the angles of a triangle is 180°, the following theorem is easily shown.

Theorem 27: Each angle of an equiangular triangle has a measure of 60°.

Special Names for Sides and Angles

Legs, base, vertex angle, and base angles. In an isosceles triangle, the two equal sides are
called legs, and the third side is called the base. The angle formed by the two equal sides is
called the vertex angle. The other two angles are called base angles (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Parts of an isosceles triangle.

In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse, and the other two
sides are called legs (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Parts of a right triangle.

Altitudes Medians and Angle Bisectors

Just as there are special names for special types of triangles, so there are special names for
special line segments within triangles. Now isn't that kind of special?

Base and altitude

Every triangle has three bases (any of its sides) and three altitudes (heights). Every altitude is the
perpendicular segment from a vertex to its opposite side (or the extension of the opposite side)
(Figure 1).

Figure 1 Three bases and three altitudes for the same triangle.

Altitudes can sometimes coincide with a side of the triangle or can sometimes meet an
extended base outside the triangle. In Figure 2, AC is an altitude to base BC ,
and BC is an altitude to base AC .

Figure 2 In a right triangle, each leg can serve as an altitude.

In Figure 3, AM is the altitude to base BC .

Figure 3 An altitude for an obtuse triangle.

It is interesting to note that in any triangle, the three lines containing the altitudes meet in one point
(Figure 4).

Figure 4 The three lines containing the altitudes intersect in a single point, 

which may or may not be inside the triangle.

Median

A median in a triangle is the line segment drawn from a vertex to the midpoint of its opposite side.
Every triangle has three medians. In Figure 5, E is the midpoint of BC . Therefore, BE = EC. AE is
a median of Δ ABC.

Figure 5 A median of a triangle.

In every triangle, the three medians meet in one point inside the triangle (Figure 6).

Figure 6 The three medians meet in a single point inside the triangle.
Angle bisector

An angle bisector in a triangle is a segment drawn from a vertex that bisects (cuts in half) that
vertex angle. Every triangle has three angle bisectors. In Figure , is an angle bisector in Δ ABC.

Figure 7 An angle bisector.

In every triangle, the three angle bisectors meet in one point inside the triangle (Figure 8).

Figure 8 The three angle bisectors meet in a single point inside the triangle.

In general, altitudes, medians, and angle bisectors are different segments. In certain triangles,
though, they can be the same segments. In Figure , the altitude drawn from the vertex angle of an
isosceles triangle can be proven to be a median as well as an angle bisector.

Figure 9 The altitude drawn from the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle.

Example 1: Based on the markings in Figure 10, name an altitude of Δ QRS, name a median of
Δ QRS, and name an angle bisector of Δ QRS.
  Figure 10 Finding an altitude, a median, and an angle bisector.

RT is an altitude to base QS because RT ⊥ QS .

SP is a median to base QR because P is the midpoint of QR .

QU is an angle bisector of Δ QRS because it bisects ∠ RQS.

Congruent Triangles
Triangles that have exactly the same size and shape are called congruent triangles. The symbol
for congruent is ≅. Two triangles are congruent when the three sides and the three angles of one
triangle have the same measurements as three sides and three angles of another triangle. The
triangles in Figure 1 are congruent triangles.

Figure 1 Congruent triangles.

Corresponding parts

The parts of the two triangles that have the same measurements (congruent) are referred to
as corresponding parts. This means that Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are
Congruent (CPCTC). Congruent triangles are named by listing their vertices in corresponding
orders. In Figure , Δ BAT ≅ Δ ICE.

Example 1: If Δ PQR ≅ Δ STU which parts must have equal measurements?

These parts are equal because corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.

Tests for congruence

To show that two triangles are congruent, it is not necessary to show that all six pairs of
corresponding parts are equal. The following postulates and theorems are the most common
methods for proving that triangles are congruent (or equal).

Postulate 13 (SSS Postulate): If each side of one triangle is congruent to the corresponding side of
another triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure 2).

                                              

Figure 2 The corresponding sides (SSS) of the two triangles are all congruent.

Postulate 14 (SAS Postulate): If two sides and the angle between them in one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts in another triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure
3).

Figure 3 Two sides and the included angle (SAS) of one triangle are congruent to the

corresponding parts of the other triangle.

Postulate 15 (ASA Postulate): If two angles and the side between them in one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts in another triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure
4).

Figure 4 Two angles and their common side (ASA) in one triangle are congruent to the

corresponding parts of the other triangle.

Theorem 28 (AAS Theorem): If two angles and a side not between them in one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts in another triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure
5).

Figure 5 Two angles and the side opposite one of these angles (AAS) in one triangle

are congruent to the corresponding parts of the other triangle.

Postulate 16 (HL Postulate): If the hypotenuse and leg of one right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure 6).

Figure 6 The hypotenuse and one leg (HL) of the first right triangle are congruent to the

corresponding parts of the second right triangle.

Theorem 29 (HA Theorem): If the hypotenuse and an acute angle of one right triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent
(Figure 7).

Figure 7 The hypotenuse and an acute angle (HA) of the first right triangle are congruent

to the corresponding parts of the second right triangle.

Theorem 30 (LL Theorem): If the legs of one right triangle are congruent to the corresponding
parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure 8).
Figure 8 The legs (LL) of the first right triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts

of the second right triangle.

Theorem 31 (LA Theorem): If one leg and an acute angle of one right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of another right triangle, then the triangles are congruent (Figure 9).

Figure 9 One leg and an acute angle (LA) of the first right triangle are congruent to the

corresponding parts of the second right triangle.

Example 2: Based on the markings in Figure 10, complete the congruence statement Δ ABC ≅Δ .

Figure 10 Congruent triangles.

Δ YXZ, because A corresponds to Y, B corresponds to X, and C corresponds, to Z.

Example 3: By what method would each of the triangles in Figures 11 (a) through 11 (i) be proven
congruent?
Figure 11  Methods of proving pairs of triangles congruent.

 (a) SAS.
 (b) None. There is no AAA method.
 (c) HL.
 (d) AAS.
 (e) SSS. The third pair of congruent sides is the side that is shared by the two triangles.
 (f) SAS or LL.
 (g) LL or SAS.
 (h) HA or AAS.
 (i) None. There is no SSA method.

Example 4: Name the additional equal corresponding part(s) needed to prove the triangles in
Figures 12 (a) through 12 (f) congruent by the indicated postulate or theorem.
Figure 12 Additional information needed to prove pairs of triangles congruent.

 (a) BC = EF or AB = DE ( but not AC = DF because these two sides lie between the equal angles).
 (b) GI = JL.
 (c) MO = PO and NO = RO.
 (d) TU = WX and SU = VX.
 (e) m ∠ T = m ∠ E and m ∠TOW = m ∠ EON.
 (f) IX = EN or SX = TN (but not IS = ET because they are hypotenuses).

The Triangle Defined

A triangle is a three‐sided figure with three angles in its interior. The symbol for triangle is Δ. A
triangle is named by the three letters at its vertices (the plural of vertex), a fancy name for corners.
This is Δ ABC (Figure 1).

Figure 1 A triangle.

As you can imagine, the measuring of triangles and more complex figures became important long
ago because of their role in surveying. Modern science has continued to find more and more
practical applications requiring knowledge of triangles.

Note that any closed figure in the plane with three or more sides can be subdivided into triangles
(see Figure ). Consequently, what you learn about triangles can also be useful in studying more
complex figures.
                 

Figure 2 Triangulation of a closed figure with 5 sides.

Special Features of Isosceles Triangles

Isosceles triangles are special and because of that there are unique relationships that
involve their internal line segments. Consider isosceles triangle ABC  in Figure 1.

Figure 1 An isosceles triangle with a median.

With a median drawn from the vertex to the base, BC , it can be proven that Δ BAX ≅ Δ CAX,
which leads to several important theorems.

Theorem 32: If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite those sides are also
equal.

Theorem 33: If a triangle is equilateral, then it is also equiangular.

Theorem 34: If two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite these angles are also
equal.

Theorem 35: If a triangle is equiangular, then it is also equilateral.

Example 1: Figure has Δ QRS with QR = QS. If m ∠ Q = 50°, find m ∠ R and m ∠ S.

Figure 2 An isosceles triangle with a specified vertex angle.

Because m ∠ Q + m ∠ R + m ∠ S = 180°, and because QR = QS implies that m ∠ R = m ∠ S,

Example 2: Figure 3 has Δ ABC with m ∠ A = m ∠ B = m ∠ C, and AB = 6. Find BC and AC.

Figure 3 An equiangular triangle with a specified side.

Because the triangle is equiangular, it is also equilateral. Therefore, BC = AC = 6.