4.0 CHEMICAL BONDING

MY CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE, KMPh SDS : SK015
CHEMISTRY UNIT
KOLEJ MATRIKULASI PAHANG
CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL
BONDING
Prepared by:
Noor Syarehim bin Che Mohd Yusof

Hezelin Elayana bt Shaian
Yuniza bt Mohamed
Faziah binti Ahmad
Norazyanti bt Aziz
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JK Bahan
Bahan PdPc
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Unit Kimia,
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MY CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE SDS : SK015
4.0 CHEMICAL BONDING

4.1 LEWIS STRUCTURE
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(c) Describe the formation of the following bonds using Lewis symbol.
i. Ionic or electrovalent bond
ii. Covalent bond
iii. Dative or coordinate bond
(d) Draw Lewis structure of covalent species with single, double and triple bonds.
(f) Determine the formal charge and the most plausible Lewis structure.
(g) Explain the exception to the octet rule: incomplete octet, expanded octet and
odd number electrons.
LEWIS DOT SYMBOL
A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol

N of an element and one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the element.
Elements in the same group have similar
The Lewis dot symbol of outer electron configurations and hence
atom Nitrogen similar Lewis dot symbols.
The Lewis dot symbol shows the valence electron in an atom.
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electron
Lewis
Li Be B C N O F Ne
dot
symbol
OCTET RULE
Atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electronic configuration. Maximum

stability results when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
125 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Atom can achieve noble gas configuration through:
transfer of electron (leads sharing electron (leads

formation of ionic bond) formation of covalent bond)
(a) Noble gas configuration
Group 1, 2 and 13 elements transfer valence electrons to form cation with noble gas
configuration.
Example: Na : 1s22s22p63s1
Na+ : 1s22s23p6 (isoelectronic with neon)
Group 15, 16 and 17 elements accept electrons to form anion with noble gas
configuration.
Example: O : 1s22s22p4
O2- : 1s22s22p6 (isoelectronic with neon)
(b) Pseudo noble gas configuration
For d block elements, electrons from 4s orbital will be transfered first before the 3d
eletrons.
d block elements donate electrons to achieve pseudonoble gas configuration.
Example:
Zn : 1s 2s22p63s23p64s23d10
2
Zn : 1s22s22p63s23p63d10
2+
(pseudonoble gas configuration )
(c) Stability of the half-filled orbital
d block element can also donate or receive electrons to achieve half-filled orbitals which
is stable.
Example:
Mn : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
Mn : 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
2+
(stability of the half-fill orbital)

FORMATION OF THE CHEMICAL BONDING
Ionic or electrovalence bond
▪ The electrostatic forces of attraction between cation and anion as ionic bond.
▪ Cation-metal lose one or more electron.
▪ Anion non-metal gain one or more electron.
Example :
2+ 2-
Mg + O [Mg] [ O ]
Covalent bond
▪ It formed when two non-metals atoms (bonded atoms) shared one or more
pairs of their valence electrons and achieved stable noble gas configuration.
Example :
Cl + Cl Cl Cl
Dative or coordinate bond
▪ It formed when two non-metals atoms (bonded atoms) shared one or more
pairs electrons, in which the shared electrons are contributed by one of the
bonded atoms, so that each bonded atoms achieve stable noble gas
configuration.
Example : +
H H
+
H N + H H N H
H H

PRACTICE QUESTION 1
By using Lewis symbol, show the formation of:

a) MgBr2
b) Al2O3
c) BaO
Answer

PRACTICE QUESTION 2
By using Lewis symbol, show the formation of:
a) HCl
b) O2
c) N2
Answer

PRACTICE QUESTION 3
Describe the formation of dative bond by using H3O+ and Al2Cl6 as examples.
Answer
B) Draw the Lewis

DRAWING THEstructure
LEWISfor covalent molecule
STRUCTURE FOR COVALENT MOLECULE
STEP 1 STEP 2
Count all the total number of valence Draw skeletal structure
electron. ❖ Center atom- least electronegative
❖ Add 1 for each negative charge element
❖ Subtract 1 for each positive charge ❖ Terminal atom is more
electronegative element.
STEP 3
Draw single bond first
❖ Complete the octet (or duplet of STEP 4
hydrogen atom) for all terminal Place any remaining electrons on the
atoms. central atom.
❖ Some central tom may have three
unusual features, expanded octet
(more than 8 electron), incomplete
octet (less than 8 electron) and odd
no electron.

EXAMPLE 1
Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules
a) NH3
Solution
1. Total number of valence electrons:

N 5 e-
H 3x1 3 e-
Total = 8 e-
– 6 e- (bonding)
2 e-
– 0 e- (terminal)
2 e-
2. Nitrogen atom-as center atom and Hydrogen atom-as terminal atom

H N H
3. Draw the single bond first, Complete the octet (or duplet of hydrogen atom) for all
terminal atoms.
H N H
H
4. Since there are one lone pairs remaining, put on the center atom
H N H

Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules
b) CO32-
Solution
1. Total number of valence electrons:

C 4 e-
O 3 x 6 = 18 e-
-ve charge -2 e-
Total = 24 e-
– 6 e- (bonding)
18 e-
– 18 e- (terminal)
0 e-
2. Carbon atom-as center atom and oxygen atom as terminal atoms
O C O
O
3. Draw the single bond first, Complete the octet (or duplet of hydrogen atom) for all
terminal atoms.
O C O
O
4. If the central atom don’t have octet, form a double bonds or triple bond
2-
O C O
O

PRACTICE QUESTION 4
Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules. Comment on any
Unusual features of the structure.
a) PCl5 f) ClF3
b) SF4 g) BCl3
c) ICl3 h) SeF4
d) CN- i) NO
e) XeF2 j) AlBr3
Answer



PRACTICE QUESTION 5
Formaldehyde (CH2O), a liquid with an unpleasant odour, has been traditionally used to
preserve laboratory species. Draw the Lewis structure for formaldehyde.
Answer
FORMAL CHARGE
Formal charge is used to determine the most plausible Lewis structure. Characteristic of
the stable Lewis structure:
i. Formal charges equal to zero or approaching zero.

ii. Negative formal charges are replaced on the most electronegative atoms.
Positive formal charge are replaced on the least electronegative atoms.
iii. Lewis structure with the same charge on adjacent atoms are not favoured.
FC = no. valence electrons - (no. lone pair e + ½ no. bond-pair e )
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the formal charge for each atom in NOCl.
Solution
Cl N O
Formal Charge Atom
FC = 6 – [ 4 + ½ (4 ) ]
O =6–6
=0
FC = 5 – [ 2 + ½ ( 6 ) ]
N =5–5
=0
FC = 7 – [ 6 + ½ ( 2 ) ]
Cl =7–7
=0

EXAMPLE 3
Determine the most plausible structure for CO2
Solution
Structure B is the most stable Lewis structure because no formal charges in each atom
for this structure.
Structure CO2 Formal charge
O FC = 6 – [ 6 + ½ (2)]
1 =6–7
= -1
O C O O FC = 6 – [ 2 + ½ ( 6 ) ]
A 1 2 2 =6–5
=1
C FC = 4 – [ 0 + ½ (8)]
=4–4
=0
O FC = 6 – [ 4 + ½ (4)]
O C O 1 =6–6
1 2 =0
B
O FC = 6 – [ 4 + ½ (4)]
2 =6–6
=0
C
FC = 4 – [ 0 + ½ (8)]
=4–4
=0
O FC = 6 – [ 2 + ½ ( 6 ) ]
1
=6–5
=1
O FC = 6 – [ 6 + ½ (2)]
C O C O
2 =6–7
1 2 = -1
C FC = 4 – [ 0 + ½ (8)]
=4–4
=0

PRACTICE QUESTION 6
Determine the formal charge for each atom in POCl3.
Answer

PRACTICE QUESTION 7
Two possible Lewis structures for NCO- are as follows:

Structure P Structure Q
N C O N C O
(a) Determine the formal charge of each atom in both structures P and Q.
(b) Determine the most plausible structure. Explain.
Answer

EXCEPTION OF THE OCTET RULE
The central atom (Be, B and Al) shares their valence electrons
with terminal atoms to form covalent bonds
Cl Al Cl
H Be H Cl
Beryllium (Be) Boron (B) Aluminium (Al)
The number of electrons surrounding the central atom in a

stable molecule is less than eight
Incomplete Octet
Exception to the octet rule
Expanded Octet Odd number electrons
The number of electrons surrounding The central atom contains odd

the central atom in a stable molecule is number of valence electrons
more than eight
Elements from period 3 and above can Nitrogen (N)

expend their valence shell due to the
existence of empty d orbitals O N O
Cl
Cl Cl
P
Cl Cl
Phosphrous (P)
Sulphur (S)

RESONANCE STRUCTURE
Resonance Structure
Definition Characteristics
Two or more Lewis structures Have same relative placement of

which can be written for single atoms but differ in the distribution
molecules, but no one structure of valence electrons (bonding and
can accurately represent the actual lone pair electron)
structure
All chemical bonds in the

resonance structures have same
length and same strength
The bond length of chemical bonds

in the resonance structures is an
intermediate between single and
double bond
The sign is used to show the

resonance structures
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the resonance structures for O3 and CO32-.
Solution
Resonance structure for O3
O O O O O O

Resonance structure for CO32-.

2- 2- 2-
O C O O C O O C O
O O O
PRACTICE QUESTION 8
Draw the resonance structures for NO3- and SO3.
Answer

4.0: CHEMICAL BONDING

4.2: MOLECULAR SHAPE AND POLARITY
c) Predict and explain the shapes of molecule and bond angles in a given species.
d) Explain bond polarity and dipole moment
e) Deduce the polarity of molecules based on the shapes and the resultant dipole
moment.
VALENCE-SHELL ELECTRON-PAIR REPULSION THEORY (VSEPR)

• The valence electron pairs surrounding a central atom occupy (arrange) a position
in space as far as possible in order to minimize electron pair-electron pair repulsion.
• Force of repulsion between electron pairs increase in order:
Bonding pair-bonding pair > lone pair-bonding pair > lone pair-lone pair
STEPS IN DRAWING MOLECULAR SHAPES
1. Determine the Lewis structure

2. Determine the number of electron pairs around the CENTRAL ATOM – multiple
bonds count as SINGLE BOND.
3. Find out the appropriate VSEPR geometry for the specified number of electron pairs,
both bonding and lone pairs.
4. Use the position of atoms to establish the resulting molecular shape.
Class Total No of No of Arrangement Molecular Bond

no of bonded lone of electron pair Shape angles
electron atom pair (Basic
pairs electr Molecular
ons Shape)
AB2 2 2 0 B A B B A B 180°
Linear Linear
AB3 3 3 0 B B
120°
A A
B B B B
Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar
••
AB2E 3 2 1 •• <120°
A A
B B B B
Trigonal Planar V- shaped

B B
AB4 4 4 0 109.5°
A A
B B B B
B B
Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
••
AB3E 4 3 1 •• 107.3°
A A
B B B B
B B
Tetrahedral Trigonal
Pyramidal
••
AB2E2 4 2 2 •• 104.5°
A •• A
B B
B B
Tetrahedral V- shaped
B B
AB5 5 5 0 120˚
B B 90°
A B A B
B B
B B
Trigonal Trigonal
bipyramidal bipyramidal
B B
B B <120˚
AB4E 5 4 1 A A ••
B B •• <90°
B B
Trigonal Distorted
bipyramidal tetrahedral
(see-saw)
AB3E2 B B
<90°
5 3 2 A B •• A B
•••
B •• B
Trigonal T-shaped
bipyramida
AB2E3
B B
5 2 3 180˚
•• ••
A ••• A ••
••
B B
Trigonal Linear
bipyramidal
AB6 6 6 0
B B
B B B B
A A 90˚
B B B B
B B
Octahedral Octahedral
AB5E
B B
6 5 1 <90˚
B B B B
A A
B B B •• B
••
Octahedral Square Pyramidal
AB4E2 ••
6 4 2 B B B •• B 90˚
A A
B B B •• B
••
Octahedral Square Planar
EXAMPLE 5
Using VSEPR model, predict the molecular shapes of O3 and SnCl3

Solution
O3 SnCl3-
Step 1: Draw Lewis structure Step 1 : Draw Lewis structure
-
O O O
Cl Sn Cl
Bonding pair = 2
(double bond count as single bond) Cl
Lone pair = 1
Bonding pair = 3
Step 2: Determine molecular shape
Lone pair = 1
shape
(AB2E) Step 2: Determine molecular shape
(AB3E)
Arrangement of Molecular shape Arrangement of Molecular shape
electron pairs electron pairs
•• ••
A Sn
A O B Cl
B B Cl Cl
B B O O Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal
Trigonal Planar V-shaped
PRACTICE QUESTION 9
Using VSEPR model, predict the molecular shapes of:

(a) I3-
(b) PBr5
(c) NO2+
(d) H2O
Answer

PRACTICE QUESTION 10
Antimony pentafluoride, SbF , reacts with XeF4 and XeF6 to form the ionic compounds
5
XeF3+, SbF6- and XeF5+. Describe the geometries of these ionic compounds.
Answer
POLARITY
Dipole moment
Polar bond Polar molecules A quantitative
Bonds between A dipole molecule in measure of the
the atoms that are which the positive and polarity of a bond
polarised because negative pole can be that can only be
of the difference distinguished measured
in (because of the experimentally.
electronegativitie separation of the
POLARITY A polar molecule has
s of the atoms. charge). µ≠0
Non-polar molecule has
µ=0
General steps to determine the polarity of molecules
Step 1: Use electronegativity values to predict bond dipoles.

Step 2: Use the VSEPR method to predict the molecular shape.
Step 3: From the molecular shape, determine whether bond dipoles cancel to give a nonpolar
molecule or combine to produce a (resultant dipole moment) for the molecule.

Lewis Structure
Molecular shape
symmetry unsymmetry
Identical Not identical Bond dipoles

not cancel
terminal atoms terminal atoms each other
Bond dipoles Bond dipoles
cancel each not cancel
other each other
µ=0 µ≠0 µ≠0
Non polar Polar Polar
Molecular Molecular
Class Symmetry Class Symmetry
Shape Shape
AB A B / AB4 B /
Linear A
B B
B
Tetrahedral
AB2 / AB5 B /
B A B
B
A B
Linear B
B
Trigonal
bipyramidal
B B
AB3 / AB6 B B /
A A
B B B
B
Trigonal planar B
Octahedral

Class Molecular Symmetry Class Molecular Symmetry

Shape Shape
B
AB2E •• X X
A AB3E2 •• A B
•••
B B •• B
V-shaped
T-shaped
AB3E B
•• X AB2E3 /
A •• •
••• A ••
B B •• •
B B
Trigonal pyramidal Linear
B
AB2E2 •• X AB5E X
•• A B B
A
B B •• B
B
Square
V-shaped pyramidal
B
AB4E X AB4E2 /
B B ••
A •• B
A
B •• B •• B
B
Sea – saw / distorted Square planar
tetrahedral
EXAMPLE 6
Cl
-
C
-
-
Cl - Cl
Cl
• The C‒Cl bond is polar bond • The C-H bond is polar (C is more
because chlorine is more electronegative than H). The C-Cl
electronegative than carbon. bond is polar (Cl is
• Each bond dipoles are equal in more electronegative than C).
magnitude and the shape is • Bond dipoles are unequal in
symmetrically arranged – magnitude and the shape is
Tetrahedral.
• The bond dipoles can cancel each symmetrically arranged –

other. Tetrahedral.
• Dipole moment, µ = 0. • The bond dipoles cannot cancel
• CCl4 is a non-polar molecule. each other.
• Dipole moment, µ≠ 0.
• CHCl3 is polar molecule.
EXAMPLE 7
Ammonia
••
N
H
H H
• The N-H bond is polar because electronegativity of N greater than H.

• The bond dipoles are equal in magnitude and the shape is unsymmetrically
arranged - Trigonal pyramidal.
• The bond dipoles cannot cancel each other.
• Dipole moment µ≠ 0.
• NH3 is a polar molecule.
Notes:
Electron density in covalent bonds shifts toward the more electronegative atom,
producing partial charges on each atom and hence a dipole. In a polyatomic molecule,
bond dipoles must be added as vectors to obtain a resultant which indicates molecular
polarity. In the case of symmetric molecules, the effects of individual bond dipoles cancel
and a nonpolar molecule results.
(a) How can a molecule be non-polar although it has polar bonds?

(b) Explain whether each of the following molecules is polar or non-polar.
i. SO2
ii. HBr
iii. BF3
iv. SF6
v. NH3
vi. H2Se

Answer

Answer

4.3 ORBITAL OVERLAP AND HYBRIDISATION

(a) Draw and describe the formation of sigma (σ) and pi (ℼ) bonds from
overlapping of orbitals
(b) Describe the formation of hybrid orbitals of a central atom: sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d,
sp3d2 using appropriate examples.
(c) Illustrate the hybridisation of the central atom and the overlapping of orbitals in
molecules.
Types of Bonds
i. Sigma Bond (σ)
• A sigma bond () is a covalent bond form from overlapping end to end of
atomic orbitals on neighbouring atoms.
i. Overlapping of two s orbitals
ii. Overlapping of s and p orbitals
iii. Overlapping of p and p orbitals

ii. Pi Bonds (ℼ)
• A pi () bond is a covalent bond formed from the side to side overlap of two p
orbitals.
Formation of sigma (σ) and pi (ℼ) bonds
1. Sigma Bond (σ)
i. Overlapping of two s orbitals
Example: H2

ii. Overlapping of s and p orbitals
Example: HF
iii. Overlapping of p and p orbitals
Example: Cl2

2. Pi Bond (ℼ)
Example: N2

Formation of Hybrid Orbitals
Hybridisation
Hybridisation is the process of mixing of two or more pure orbitals to form a set
of hybrid orbitals.
Hybrid Orbitals
Hybrid orbitals are the new orbitals that results from the ‘mixing’ of pure
orbitals.
Types of Formation of Hybrid Orbitals

Hybridisation
sp
(1 s orbital + 1
p orbital)
sp2
(1 s orbital + 2
p orbitals)

Types of Formation of Hybrid Orbitals

Hybridisation
sp3
(1 s orbitals +
3 p orbital)
sp3d
(1 s orbital + 3
p orbitals + 1 d
orbital)
sp3d2
(1 s orbital + 3
p orbitals + 2 d
orbital)

Types of Hybridisation
Types of Number Shape of Hybrid Molecular Bond Examples

Hybridisation of Orbital Shape Angle
Hybrid
Orbitals
sp 2 Linear 1800 BeCl2,

C2H2
(1 s orbital + 1
p orbital)
sp2 3 Trigonal 1200 BF3, C2H4

planar
(1 s orbital + 2
p orbitals)
sp3 4 Tetrahedral 109.50 CH4, NH3,

H2O
(1 s orbitals +
3 p orbital)
sp3d 5 Trigonal 900, PCl5

bipyramidal 1200
(1 s orbital + 3
p orbitals + 1
d orbital)
sp3d2
6 Octahedral 900 SF6
(1 s orbital + 3
p orbitals + 2
d orbital)

Predict the hybridisation of the central atom
No of lone pairs Hybridisation Examples

+ of Central Atom
No of sigma bond
of central atom
2 sp BeCl2, C2H2
3 sp2 BF3, C2H4
4 sp3 CH4, NH3, H2O
5 sp3d PCl5
6 sp3d2 SF6

Hybridisation of the central atom and the overlapping of orbitals in molecules

molecules.
sp3 hybrid orbital
Mixing of one s orbital and three p orbitals to produce four sp3 hybrid orbitals.
Lewis Structure Hybridisation Process
CH4
Molecular shape:
Tetrahedral
Bond angle:
109.50
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of C atom is sp3

• sp3 hybrid orbital of C atom overlap with 1s orbital of H to form 4 σ bonds

sp3 hybrid orbital

NH3
Molecular shape:
Trigonal pyramidal
Bond angle:
107.30
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of N atom is sp3

• sp3 hybrid orbital of N atom overlap with 1s orbital of H to form 3 σ bonds
• There is one lone pair electron on N atom.

sp3 hybrid orbital


H2 O
Molecular shape:
V-shaped / bent
Bond angle:
104.50
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of O atom is sp3

• sp3 hybrid orbital of O atom overlap with 1s orbital of H to form 2 σ bonds
• There are two lone pair electrons on O atom.

sp2 hybrid orbital

Mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to produce three sp2 hybrid orbitals.

BF3
Molecular shape:
Trigonal planar
Bond angle:
1200
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of B atom is sp2

• sp2 hybrid orbital of B atom overlap with 2p orbital of F to form 3 σ bonds

sp2 hybrid orbital

Mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to produce three sp2 hybrid
orbitals.

C2H4
Molecular shape:
Trigonal planar
Bond angle:
1200
Orbital Overlapping

• sp2 hybrid orbital of C overlap with sp2 hybrid orbital to form 1 σ bond.
• 2p orbital overlap sideways with another 2p orbital to form 1  bond

sp2 hybrid orbital

Mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to produce three sp2 hybrid
orbitals.

C6H6
Molecular shape:
Trigonal planar
Bond angle:
1200
Orbital Overlapping

• sp2 hybrid orbital of C overlap with sp2 hybrid orbital to form 1 σ bond.
• 2p orbital overlap sideways with another 2p orbital to form 3  bonds

sp hybrid orbital
Mixing of one s orbital and one p orbitals to produce two sp hybrid orbitals.

BeCl2
Molecular shape:
Linear
Bond angle:
1800
Orbital Overlapping
Cl Cl
• Hybridisation of Be atom is sp
• sp hybrid orbital of Be atom overlap with 3p orbital of Cl to form 2 σ bonds

sp hybrid orbital
Mixing of one s orbital and one p orbitals to produce two sp hybrid orbitals.

C2H2
Molecular shape:
Linear
Bond angle:
1800
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of C atom is sp
• sp hybrid orbital of C overlap with sp hybrid orbital to form 1 σ bond.
• 2p orbital overlap sideways with another 2p orbital to form 2  bond

sp3d hybrid orbital

Mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals and one d orbital to produce five sp3d
hybrid orbitals.

PCl5
Molecular shape:
Trigonal bipyramidal
Bond angle:
900 & 1200
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of P atom is sp3d

• sp3d hybrid orbital of P atom overlap with 3p orbital of Cl atoms to form 5 σ
bonds

sp3d2 hybrid orbital

Mixing of one s orbital, three p orbitals and two d orbital to produce six sp3d2
hybrid orbitals.

SF6
Molecular shape:
Octahedral
Bond angle:
900
Orbital Overlapping
• Hybridisation of S atom is sp3d2

• sp3d hybrid orbital of S atom overlap with 2p orbital of F atoms to form 6 σ
bonds

EXAMPLE 10
Determine the hybridisation of the underlined atoms in the following compounds.

(a) BeF2
(b) AlCl3
Answer
(a) BeF2
Lewis structure
Orbital overlapping
• Be atom overlap with 2p orbital of F atoms to form 2 σ bonds

• Hybrid orbital of Be atom is sp
(b) AlCl3
Lewis structure Orbital overlapping
• Al atom overlap with 3p orbital of Cl atoms to form 3 σ bonds

• Hybrid orbital of Al atom is sp2

Determine the hybridisation of the underlined atoms in the following compounds.

(a) BF3
(b) CCl4
Answer

EXAMPLE 11
Illustrate the hybridisation of the carbon atoms in the following molecules.

(a) CH3CH2CH3
(b) CH3CH2CH=CH2
Answer
(a) CH3CH2CH3
Lewis structure
Orbital overlapping
• Hybrid orbital of all carbon atoms are sp3.

(b) CH3CH2CH=CH2
Lewis structure
Orbital overlapping
• Hybrid orbital of C1 and C2 atoms are sp3.

• Hybrid orbital of C3 and C4 atoms are sp2.

Illustrate the hybridisation of the carbon atoms in the following molecules.

(a) CH3CH3
(b) CH3CH=CH2
Answer

Describe the hybridisation process and determine the molecular shape of the
following species:
(a) BeH2
(b) BH3
(c) PF5
(d) SeF4
(e) SCl6
(f) ICl2-
(g) NH4+
Answer

Answer

Answer

Answer

4.0 : CHEMICAL BONDING

4.4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
(b) Explain factors that influence van der Waals forces & Hydrogen bond
(c) Relate the effects of hydrogen bonding on the following physical properties:
i. boiling point
ii. solubility
iii. density of water compared to ice.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
▪ Intermolecular forces: The attractive forces that exist between molecules that
are very much weaker than covalent or ionic bonds
▪ The strength of intermolecular forces are responsible for the physical properties
of simple molecular substances such as melting and boiling point.
▪ 2 types of van der Waals forces :
i) dipole-dipole forces
ii) London forces / dispersion forces
▪ The intermolecular forces increase in strength according to the following:
London forces < dipole-dipole forces < Hydrogen bond
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
Dipole-dipole Forces London Forces / dispersion forces
▪ exist between neutral polar ▪ Exist in all atoms and molecules.

molecules. ▪ On average, the negative charge of the
▪ The forces arise from the electrons in the atom or molecule is
attraction between partial spread evenly around the nucleus.
positive charge (δ+) on one ▪ At any instant, one side of the atom or
molecule and partial negative molecule has higher electron density than
charge (δ-) on the other the other side.
molecule. Example: HF ▪ At this instant, the atom or molecule
become a small instantaneous dipole.
F Then, induce a dipole on the neighboring
atom and molecule.
▪ Due to electron repulsion, a
Dipole-dipole Dipole-dipole instantaneous dipole on one atom can
forces forces induce a similar dipole on a neighboring
▪ The strength of dipole-dipole atom which can cause the neighboring
interactions depend on the atoms to be attracted to one another.
dipole moment of the molecule. ▪ This interaction is called the London
▪ Molecule with higher polarity forces (or dispersion forces) and only
has stronger dipole-dipole significant when atoms are very close to
interactions. one another.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH OF

VAN DER WAALS FORCES
Molecular size Molecular shape Polarity of molecule
Calculate Mr
▪ Larger molecular size ▪ Shape of some organic ▪ Molecules with
results in the more number molecules are linear comparable relative
of electrons which can while others are molecular mass,
move in larger distance branched. dipole-dipole
from nucleus. ▪ Straight chain or linear interactions stand
▪ Polarisability (ease of shaped molecules have out more in
distorting the electron larger surface area influencing the
density of a molecule or than branched or strength of van der
atom by the neighbouring spherically shaped Waals forces.
molecule or atom) of molecules. ▪ Thus, the higher
molecule increases which ▪ The greater the contact polarity of molecule
result in the larger area of the molecules, possesses stronger
temporary dipole. the stronger the van van der Waals
▪ Hence, the strength of van der Waals forces. forces.
der Waals forces
increases.
SUMMARY
Molecules with large difference Molecules with comparable

in their relative molecular mass relative molecular mass size
size
▪ The larger the molecular mass, ▪ The more polar the molecule,
the stronger the intermolecular the stronger the intermolecular
forces. forces.
EXAMPLE 10
Compare the boiling point between Cl2 and Br2.
Solution
Br2 has larger molecular size than Cl2. Br2 has higher polarisability than Cl2.
Hence, Br2 has stronger dispersion forces than Cl2.Thus, Br2 has higher boiling
point than Cl2.
EXAMPLE 11
Compare the boiling point between butane and 2-methylpropane.
Molecular Structure Boiling Point (oC)
CH3− CH2 − CH2 − CH3
0.5
Butane
CH3− CH − CH3
CH3 -11.7
2-methylpropane
Solution
Butane is a linear molecule while 2-methylpropane is a branched molecule. Butane

has larger surface area of contact compared to 2-methylpropane. Therefore, butane
has stronger dispersion forces than 2-methylpropane. Thus, butane has higher boiling
point than 2-methylpropane.
EXAMPLE 12
(b.p = 61.2C,  0) (b.p = 76.8C,  = 0)

trichloromethane, CHCl3 tetrachloromethane, CCl4
Solution
• CCl4 is a non-polar molecule while CHCl3 is a polar molecule but CCl4
(Mr = 154g/mol) has larger molecular size than CHCl3 (Mr = 119.5g/mol) .
• CCl4 has stronger dispersion forces than dipole-dipole forces between CHCl3
molecules.
• CCl4 require higher energy to overcome attractive forces.
• Therefore, CCl4 has higher boiling point than CHCl3.
EXAMPLE 13
ClNO has higher boiling point compare to Cl2. Explain.
Solution
Cl2 (Mr = 71g/mol) and ClNO (Mr = 65.5g/mol) have comparable or similar relative
molecular mass but ClNO is a polar molecule. So, ClNO molecule has stronger
intermolecular attraction and hence higher boiling boint than Cl2.

(a) Describe the factors that influence the strength of van der Waals forces.
(b) Which molecule has higher boiling point? Explain.

i. Br2 or ICl
ii. I2 or Br2
AnswerWhat is the relative atomic mass of X?
Arrange the following molecules in ascending order of their boiling points.

CH3CH2Cl , CH3CH2CH2Cl, CH3CH(Cl)CH3
Answer

HYDROGEN BONDING
▪ A strong attraction between the positively charged H atom of a molecule and

the negatively charged electronegative atom ( such as F, O and N atom ) of
another molecule.
▪ Example: HF molecule Example: In organic compound
EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN BONDING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Boiling point Solubility Density
i) Boiling point
▪ The boiling points of

NH3, H2O and HF are
abnormally HIGH.
▪ It is because of the
presence of hydrogen
bonds between
molecules are stronger
than van der Waals
forces.
▪ Expected relative boiling

points :
HF > H2O > NH3
▪ The actual boiling

Figure : The trend of boiling point of the hydrides points :
of element in group 14 to 17 H2O > HF > NH3

Boiling point : H2O > HF > NH3
Indicate that boiling point

H2O able to form more H2O increasing
hydrogen bonding
compare to HF O is more electronegative
compare with N.
F is more HF Therefore, hydrogen
electronegative compare bonding for H2O is
to N . Therefore, stronger compare to HF
hydrogen bonding for
HF is stronger than NH3 NH3
ii) Solubility
▪ Soluble in water ▪ Insoluble in water

- Compounds that can form - Compounds that cannot form
intermolecular hydrogen bond intermolecular hydrogen bond
with water molecule. with water molecule.
- Organic compounds that contain - Most of the organic compounds
hydroxyl group (-OH), amino example: hydrocarbon.
group (-NH2) and carboxyl group
(-COOH).
Solubility of selected organic compounds
Carboxylic acids Lower alcohols
Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophobic region
Hydrogen bond
Carboxylic acid can form more Solubility increase with increasing

hydrogen bonds with water number of –OH group in the molecule
molecules. ( Formation of more hydrogen bonds ).

Amines Lower aldehydes and ketones
Has no H atom that can form hydrogen

Form weaker hydrogen bond than bond with O atom of water. Thus, they
alcohol because N atom is less are less soluble in water than others.
electronegative than O atom.
iii) Density
In most substance, the molecules in the solid are more closely packed than in the
liquid. Thus, the solid phase is denser than the liquid phase but in contrast
ice is less dense than water (ice floats on liquid water).
In ice, each water molecule in ice is The arrangement of water molecules in

tetrahedrally bonded to 4 other ice maximizes the hydrogen bonding
water molecules with strong between them and lead to an “open”
hydrogen bonds. structure.This arrangement of molecules
has greater volume than liquid water,
thus water expands when frozen.This
“open” structure of the ice makes ice less
▪ Solubility of substances decreases withdense than
increase inwater 0omolecules.
size ofatthe C.
This is due to increase in hydrophobic area of the substances.
▪ Therefore, the bigger the molecular size (weight), the solubility in water
decrease.
▪ When ice melts, some of the hydrogen bonds are broken. This allows the water
molecules to be more compactly arranged, resulting in a decrease in volume.
▪ As it starts to lose its tetrahedrally structure, water molecules will be more
compactly arranged. So, it occupies smaller volume compared to in the ice.
▪ Smaller volume will result a higher density. Thus, water has a higher density
than ice.

EXAMPLE 14
Compound Melting point (oC) Boiling point (oC) Solubility in water

A 2852 3600 High
B -218 -183 Low
The melting point, boiling point and solubility in water for compound A and B are
given in the above table.
(a) Predict the type of compound A and B.
(b) Explain the reason for the higher boiling point in compound A compared to
compound B.
(c) Compound A is more soluble in water than compound B. Explain.
Solution
(a) A : Ionic compound B: Simple covalent molecule

(b) A is an ionic compound that consists of ionic bond, the type of strong chemical
bonding.
B is a simple covalent molecule that held by weak van der Waals forces.
Thus, A has higher boiling point than B.
(c) A has high solubility in water because it is an ionic compound while water is
polar solvent. So, A will dissociate to form cation and anion in water.
(a) Describe hydrogen bond.

(b) Ethanol, C2H5OH, and methyl ether, CH3OCH3, have the same molar mass.
Which has a higher boiling point?
(c) Ethanol, C2H5OH, with a molar mass of 46 g mol-1 boils at 78oC, whereas water,
H2O, with a molar mass of 18 g mol-1 boils at 100oC. Explain.
Answer

Explain why ammonia, NH3 has a higher boiling point than methane, CH4.
Answer
(c)
Explain why water is denser than ice.
Answer

4.0 : CHEMICAL BONDING

4.5 : METALLIC BONDING
(b) Relate metallic bond to the properties of metal:
i. malleability
ii. ductility
iii. electrical conductivity
iv. thermal conductivity
(d) Relate boiling point/melting point to the molecular structure, types of
intermolecular forces for elements in:
i. period 3
ii. group 1
iii. group 17
FORMATION OF METALLIC BOND BY USING ELECTRON SEA MODEL
▪ Metallic bond: the electrostatic force between the positively charged metal
ions and the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.
▪ Electron sea model: In a metallic structure, metals atoms can be imagined as an
array of positive ions immersed in a sea of delocalized valence electrons.
▪ Example: Electron sea model of Aluminium
Positively charged
metal ions
Sea of delocalised
valence electrons
EFFECTS OF METALLIC BOND TO THE PROPERTIES OF METAL
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a metal to Therefore, metal can be hammered
be deformed or pressed into into sheets.
different shapes under compression.
If sufficient force is applied to the

metal, one layer of atoms can slide
over one another without disrupting
the metallic bonding.

Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a metal to be Therefore, metal can be drawn into

stretched or pulled into wire. wire.
Metal ions can easily slide over each

other to new lattice positions without
breaking the metallic bonds, when a
sufficient force is applied.
Electrical conductivity
The delocalised electrons in metals are mobile and free to move away from a
negative electrode to a positive electrode when a metal is subjected to an electrical
potential.
Metals are good conductors of electricity.
Thermal conductivity
The delocalised electrons can also conduct heat by carrying kinetic energy from
a hotter part of the metal lattice to a cooler part.
Metals are a good conductors of heat.
Magnesium is a good electrical conductor. Draw a diagram of an electron sea model to
explain the bonding formed in the metal. How would the model explain the electrical
conductivity of the metal?
Answer

FACTORS AFFECT STRENGTH OF METALLIC BOND
▪ The strength of metallic bonds depends on the number of valence electrons

and the size of positively charged metal ions.
strength of number of valence electron
metallic bond
α
size of positively charged
metal ions
EXAMPLE 15
Magnesium and aluminium are two metallic elements in Period 3 of the Periodic
Table. The boiling point of magnesium and aluminium is 1103 oC and 2450 oC
respectively. Explain the difference in the boiling points of the two metals.
Solution
The strength of metallic bond is directly proportional to the number of valence

electron and inversely proportional to the size of positively charged metal ions.
The strength of metallic bond in magnesium is weaker than in aluminium because
Mg2+ ion is larger than Al3+ ion but Mg atom has only two valence electrons while
Al atom has three valence electrons.
VARIATION IN MELTING AND BOILING POINT
Across Period 3
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting point (oC) 97.8 651 660 1410 44 119 -101 -189
Boiling point (oC) 892 1107 2467 2680 280 445 -34.5 -186
Giant
Molecular
Metallic structure covalent Simple covalent molecule
Structure
structure
Type of bonding
Covalent
or intermolecular Metallic bond van der Waals forces
bond
forces
Metallic structure (Na to Al)
▪ The strength of metallic bonding is directly proportional to the number of valence

electron or inversely proportional to size of atom.
▪ As number of valence electron increase from sodium, Na (1e), to magnesium,
Mg (2e) to aluminium, Al (3e) the metallic bonding become stronger from Na to
Al.
▪ Higher energy required to break stronger metallic bond.
▪ Thus, the melting point increases from Na to Al.

Giant covalent structure (Si)
▪ Silicon is made up of atoms that are covalently bonded to other atoms at

neighboring lattice sites.
▪ Each silicon atom is tetrahedrally bonded to other four silicon atoms infinitely
with strong attractions between covalently bonded atoms.
▪ High energy is needed to break the strong covalent bonding in melting or boiling.
Simple covalent molecule (P to Ar)
▪ The covalent bond between the atoms is very strong but the intermolecular
force, that is, dispersion force (van der Waals), is very weak.
▪ The strength of van der Waals force is directly proportional to molecular size
(relative molecular weight).
▪ When an element with simple covalent molecule is melted or boiled, the
molecules only overcome the intermolecular forces.
▪ Molecular size : Ar < Cl2< P4< S8
▪ Strength of Van der Waals forces : Ar < Cl2< P4< S8
▪ Therefore melting / boiling point : Ar < Cl2< P4< S8
CONCLUSION:
Across period 3, melting point and boiling point decreases as follows;
Si > Al > Mg > Na > S8> P4> Cl2>Ar

Down Group 1
Melting Boiling
1
point ( C) point (oC)
o
Decrease
Li 180 1340 Group 1 elements are reactive

Na 98 881 metal except hydrogen
K 64 765
Rb 39 688
Cs 28 705
▪ The melting point or boiling points of metal elements in group 1 decreases

down the group.
▪ This is due to the facts that the distance between the valence electrons are
further from the nucleus.
▪ Going down the group, as the principle quantum number, n increase, the
size of atom become increase too.
▪ Thus, the strength of metallic bond between positively charge ion and the
electron sea become weaker.
▪ Therefore, less energy needed to break the metallic bond.
▪ Hence, the melting and boiling point decreases.
Down Group 17
Melting Boiling Group 17 elements are halogens

17 and exist as a simple covalent
point (oC) point (oC)
Increase
F -217 -88 molecule consist diatomic

Cl -101 -34 molecule, X2 with strong covalent
bond holding the atoms together in
Br -76 0
the molecule.
I 114 185
▪ The melting point and boiling point of group 17 elements depends on the
strength of intermolecular forces between molecules.
▪ The larger the size of molecules, the stronger the van der Waals forces
between molecules.
▪ Going down Group 17, the size of molecule as well as the total number of
electrons in the molecule increases.
▪ As a result, the van der Waals forces become stronger causing the melting
point and boiling point to increase down the group.

The table shows the melting point of the elements in period 3.
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting point 890 1120 2450 2680 280 445 -34 -186
(oC)
Explain the variation in melting points of the elements in terms of the structure and the
intermolecular forces.
Answer

End
of
Chapter 4

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MY CHEMISTRY 1 MODULE, KMPh SDS : SK015

Noor Syarehim bin Che Mohd Yusof

LEWIS DOT SYMBOL

A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol

The Lewis dot symbol shows the valence electron in an atom.

Atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electronic configuration. Maximum

125 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Atom can achieve noble gas configuration through:

transfer of electron (leads sharing electron (leads

(a) Noble gas configuration

(b) Pseudo noble gas configuration

(c) Stability of the half-filled orbital

126 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

FORMATION OF THE CHEMICAL BONDING

Ionic or electrovalence bond

Dative or coordinate bond

127 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

By using Lewis symbol, show the formation of:

128 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

129 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

B) Draw the Lewis

130 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules

1. Total number of valence electrons:

2. Nitrogen atom-as center atom and Hydrogen atom-as terminal atom

131 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules

1. Total number of valence electrons:

2. Carbon atom-as center atom and oxygen atom as terminal atoms

132 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

133 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

134 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

135 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

i. Formal charges equal to zero or approaching zero.

FC = no. valence electrons - (no. lone pair e + ½ no. bond-pair e )

136 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Determine the most plausible structure for CO2

Structure CO2 Formal charge

137 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Determine the formal charge for each atom in POCl3.

138 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Two possible Lewis structures for NCO- are as follows:

139 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

EXCEPTION OF THE OCTET RULE

Beryllium (Be) Boron (B) Aluminium (Al)

The number of electrons surrounding the central atom in a

Exception to the octet rule

Expanded Octet Odd number electrons

The number of electrons surrounding The central atom contains odd

Elements from period 3 and above can Nitrogen (N)

140 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh

Two or more Lewis structures Have same relative placement of

All chemical bonds in the

The bond length of chemical bonds

The sign is used to show the

Draw the resonance structures for O3 and CO32-.

Resonance structure for O3

141 | P a g e Chemistry Unit, KMPh