Aurora State College of technology

Engineering Department
Brgy. Zabali baler Aurora

Part 1 Mechanics
(Introduction)
Prepared by: Engr. Richard G. Pascua
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

STANDARD OF LENGTH, MASS, AND TIME

 To communicate the result of a measurement of a certain physical

quantity, a unit for the quantity must be defined.

 Length – m
 Mass – kg
 Time - s

 In 1960 an international committee agreed on a standard system of

units for the fundamental quantities of science, called SI (Système
International). Its units of length, mass, and time are the meter,
kilogram, and second, respectively.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

LENGTH

• In 1799 the legal standard of length in France became

the meter, defined as one ten-millionth of the
distance from the equator to the North Pole.

• Until 1960, the official length of the meter was the

distance between two lines on a specific bar of
platinum-iridium alloy stored under controlled
conditions.

• This standard was abandoned for several reasons, the

principal one being that measurements of the
separation between the lines are not precise enough.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

LENGTH

• In 1960 the meter was defined as 1 650 763.73

wavelengths of orange-red light emitted from a
krypton- 86 lamp.

• In October 1983 this definition was abandoned also,

and the meter was redefined as the distance traveled
by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792
458 second. This latest definition establishes the speed
of light at 299 792 458 meters per second.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

MASS

• The SI unit of mass, the kilogram, is defined as the mass of a

specific platinumiridium alloy cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres,
France (similar to that shown in Fig. 1.1a).

• As we’ll see in Chapter 4,mass is a quantity used to measure

the resistance to a change in the motion of an object.

• It’s more difficult to cause a change in the motion of an

The National Standard Kilogram No. 20, an
object with a large mass than an object with a small mass. accurate copy of the International Standard
Kilogram kept at Sèvres, France, is housed
under a double bell jar in a vault at the
National Institute of Standards and
Technology.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TIME
 Before 1960, the time standard was defined in terms of
the average length of a solar day in the year 1900. (A
solar day is the time between successive appearances
of the Sun at the highest point it reaches in the sky
each day.)
 The basic unit of time, the second, was defined to be
(1/60)(1/60)(1/24)= 1/86 400 of the average solar day.
 In 1967 the second was redefined to take advantage of
the high precision attainable with an atomic clock,
which uses the characteristic frequency of the light The nation’s primary time standard is a
emitted from the cesium-133 atom as its “reference cesium fountain atomic clock developed at
the National Institute of Standards and
clock.” Technology laboratories in Boulder,
 The second is now defined as 9 192 631 700 times Colorado. This clock will neither gain nor
lose a second in 20 million years.
the period of oscillation of radiation from the
cesium atom.
 The newest type of cesium atomic clock is shown in
Figure 1.1b.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

APPROXIMATE VALUUES FOR LENGTH, MASS, AND

TIME INTERVALS
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

APPROXIMATE VALUUES FOR LENGTH, MASS, AND

TIME INTERVALS
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

APPROXIMATE VALUUES FOR LENGTH, MASS, AND

TIME INTERVALS
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

APPROXIMATE VALUUES FOR LENGTH, MASS, AND

TIME INTERVALS
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

• A 1-kg ( 2-lb) cube of solid gold has a length of about 3.73 cm ( 1.5
in.) on a side.

• If the cube is cut in half, the two resulting pieces retain their chemical
identity as solid gold.

• But what happens if the pieces of the cube are cut again and again,
indefinitely?
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

• The Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus

couldn’t accept the idea that such cutting could go on
forever.

• They speculated that the process ultimately would end

when it produced a particle that could no longer be cut.
In Greek, atomos means “not sliceable.”

• From this term comes our English word atom, once

believed to be the smallest particle of matter but since
found to be a composite of more elementary particles.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

• The atom can be naively visualized as a miniature

Solar System, with a dense, positively charged nucleus
occupying the position of the Sun and negatively
charged electrons orbiting like planets.

• This model of the atom, first developed by the great

Danish physicist Niels Bohr nearly a century ago, led to
the understanding of certain properties of the simpler
atoms such as hydrogen but failed to explain many fine
details of atomic structure.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS

 In physics it’s often necessary either to derive a

mathematical expression or equation or to check its
correctness.

 A useful procedure for doing this is called dimensional

analysis, which makes use of the fact that dimensions
can be treated as algebraic quantities. Such quantities
can be added or subtracted only if they have the same
dimensions.

 It follows that the terms on the opposite sides of an

equation must have the same dimensions. If they don’t,
the equation is wrong. If they do, the equation is probably
correct, except for a possible constant factor.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS

 To illustrate this procedure, suppose we wish to derive a formula for the distance x
traveled by a car in a time t if the car starts from rest and moves with constant
acceleration a. The quantity x has the dimension length: [x] L. Time t, of course, has
dimension [t] T. Acceleration is the change in velocity v with time.

 Because v has dimensions of length per unit time, or [v] L/T, acceleration must
have dimensions [a] L/T2. We organize this information in the form of an equation
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

EXAMPLE NO.1: ANALYSIS OF AN EQUATION

 Show that the expression v = v0 at is dimensionally correct, where v and v0 represent

velocities, a is acceleration, and t is a time interval.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

EXAMPLE NO.2 ; ANALYSIS OF AN EQUATION

 Find a relationship between a constant acceleration a, speed v, and distance r from

the origin for a particle traveling in a circle.

ANS:
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

UNCERTAINLY IN MEASUREMENT AND SIGNIFICANT

FIGURES

 Physics is a science in which mathematical laws are tested by experiment. No

physical quantity can be determined with complete accuracy because our senses are
physically limited, even when extended with microscopes, cyclotrons, and other
gadgets.

 In general, a significant figure is a reliably known digit (other than a zero used
to locate a decimal point).

 Example: A carpet is to be installed in a room of length 12.71 m and width 3.46 m.

Find the area of the room, retaining the proper number of significant figures.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

UNCERTAINLY IN MEASUREMENT AND SIGNIFICANT

FIGURES

 Zeros may or may not be significant figures. Zeros used to position the decimal
point in such numbers as 0.03 and 0.007 5 are not significant (but are useful in
avoiding errors). Hence, 0.03 has one significant figure, and 0.007 5 has two.

 When zeros are placed after other digits in a whole number, there is a possibility of
misinterpretation. For example, suppose the mass of an object is given as 1 500 g.
This value is ambiguous, because we don’t know whether the last two zeros are being
used to locate the decimal point or whether they represent significant figures in the
measurement.

 Using scientific notation to indicate the number of significant figures removes this
ambiguity. In this case, we express the mass as 1.5 103 g if there are two significant
figures in the measured value, 1.50 x 10^3 g if there are three significant figures, and
1.500 x 10^3 g if there are four.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

CONVERSION OF UNITS
 Sometimes it’s necessary to convert units from one system to another.
Conversion factors between the SI and U.S. customary systems for units
of length are as follows:

 EXAMPLE: If a car is traveling at a speed of 28.0 m/s, is the

driver exceeding the speed limit of 55.0 mi/h?
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Many aspects of physics deal with locations in space, which require the
definition of a coordinate system. A point on a line can be located with one
coordinate, a point in a plane with two coordinates, and a point in space with
three.
 A coordinate system used to specify locations in space consists of the
following:

 A fixed reference point O, called the origin

 A set of specified axes, or directions, with an appropriate scale and labels on
the axes
 Instructions on labeling a point in space relative to the origin and axes
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

COORDINATE SYSTEM

 One convenient and commonly used coordinate system

is the Cartesian coordinate system, sometimes called
the rectangular coordinate system. Such a system in
two dimensions is illustrated in Figure 1.4.

 An arbitrary point in this system

is labeled with the coordinates (x, y).
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Sometimes it’s more convenient to locate a point in space by

its plane polar coordinates (r, θ), as in Figure 1.5.
 In this coordinate system, an origin O and a reference line are
selected as shown.
 A point is then specified by the distance r from the origin to the
point and by the angle u between the reference line and a line
drawn from the origin to the point.
 The standard reference line is usually selected to be the
positive x-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system. The angle θ
is considered positive when measured counterclockwise from
the reference line and negative when measured clockwise.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TRIGONOMETRY

 Consider the right triangle shown in Active Figure 1.6,

where side y is opposite the angle θ, side x is adjacent to
the angle θ, and side r is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TRIGONOMETRY

 Another important relationship, called the Pythagorean theorem,

exists between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle:

EXAMPLE:(a) The Cartesian coordinates of a point in the

(xy)-plane are (x, y) (-3.50 m, -2.50 m), as shown in Active
Figure 1.7. Find the polar coordinates of this point. (b) Convert
(r, θ) (5.00 m, 37.0°) to rectangular coordinates.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

PROBLEM STRATEGY
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

PROBLEM STRATEGY
Read the problem carefully at least twice. Be sure you understand the nature ofthe problem
before proceeding further.

Draw a diagram while rereading the problem

Label all physical quantities in the diagram, using letters that remind you what the quantity
is (e.g., m for mass). Choose a coordinate system and label it.

Identify physical principles, the knowns and unknowns, and list them. Put circles around
the unknowns.

Equations, the relationships between the labeled physical quantities, should be written
down next. Naturally, the selected equations should be consistent with the physical
principles identified in the previous step.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

PROBLEM STRATEGY

Solve the set of equations for the unknown quantities in terms of the known. Do this
algebraically, without substituting values until the next step, except where terms are zero.

Substitute the known values, together with their units. Obtain a numerical value with
units for each unknown.

Check your answer. Do the units match? Is the answer reasonable? Does the plus or
minus sign make sense? Is your answer consistent with an order of magnitude
estimate?
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

PROBLEM STRATEGY

A person measures the height of a building by walking out a distance of 46.0 m from its
base and shining a flashlight beam toward the top. When the beam is elevated at an angle
of 39.0° with respect to the horizontal, the beam just strikes the top of the building. Find the
height of the building and the distance the flashlight beam has to travel before it strikes the
top of the building.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

Example

An airplane travels 4.50 X 102 km due east and then travels an unknown distance
due north. Finally, it returns to its starting point by traveling a distance of 525 km.
How far did the airplane travel in the northerly direction?

A surveyor measures the distance across a straight river by the following method:
Starting directly across from a tree on the opposite bank, he walks 100 m along
the riverbank to establish a baseline. Then he sights across to the tree. The angle
from his baseline to the tree is 35.0°. How wide is the river?

A point is located in a polar coordinate system by the coordinates r = 2.5 m and θ= 35°.
Find the x- and y coordinates of this point, assuming that the two coordinate systems have
the same origin.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

Example no.1 N

An airplane travels 4.50 X 102 km due east and then travels an unknown distance W E
due north. Finally, it returns to its starting point by traveling a distance of 525 km.
How far did the airplane travel in the northerly direction?
s

x=?
Solution:
525 m
Using Phytagorean theorem:

c2 = a2 + b2 450 m
x2 = 4502 m + 5252m
x =691.47 m
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

Example no.2 N

A surveyor measures the distance across a straight river by the following method:
Starting directly across from a tree on the opposite bank, he walks 100 m along W E
the riverbank to establish a baseline. Then he sights across to the tree. The angle
from his baseline to the tree is 35.0°. How wide is the river?
s
Solution:

Using SohCahToa Method X=? river

35.0º
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑥
Tanθ = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 ; Tan(35) = 100 𝑚 100 m

X = Tan (35) (100m)

X= 70.02 m
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

Example no.3 N

A point is located in a polar coordinate system by the coordinates r = W E

2.5 m and θ= 35°. Find the x- and y coordinates of this point, assuming
that the two coordinate systems have the same origin.
Solution: Using SohCahToa s
Method

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦 r=2.5m
Sinθ =ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠; Sin(35) =2.5 𝑚 y=? 35º

Y = sin(35)(2.5m)= 1.434 m X=? origin

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥
Cosθ =ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠; Cos(35) =2.5 𝑚

x = cos(35)(2.5m)= 2.048 m
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TRY TO SOLVE

An airplane travels 4.50 X 102 km due east and then travels an unknown distance
due north. Finally, it returns to its starting point by traveling a distance of 615 km.
How far did the airplane travel in the northerly direction in miles?

A surveyor measures the distance across a straight river by the following method:
Starting directly across from a tree on the opposite bank, he walks 150 m along
the riverbank to establish a baseline. Then he sights across to the tree. The angle
from his baseline to the tree is 45.0°. How wide is the river in ft?

A point is located in a polar coordinate system by the coordinates r = 2.5 m and

θ= 35°. Find the x- and y coordinates of this point, assuming that the two
coordinate systems have the same origin.
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TRY TO SOLVE
Engineering Department Aurora State College of technology

PHYSICS

TRY TO SOLVE