Nora Nabil

Unit 4 Q&A

 What is an antigen?
Antigen is any substance, particle or infectious agent recognized as foreign to the body. The
contact of the antigen with the body promotes a defense reaction against the antigen
(unspecific, specific or both).

 What are the cells responsible for the production of antibodies?

The cells that produce antibodies, i.e., the cells of the humoral immune system, are the B
lymphocytes (B cells).

 What are immunoglobulins?

Immunoglobulin is the alternate name given to antibody. Immunoglobulins are complex
proteins containing an invariable portion and a variable portion and made of four polypeptide
chains. The variable portion of each immunoglobulin is responsible for the high specificity of
the antigen-antibody bond.

What are passive and active immunizations? According to the duration of the protection
how do these types of immunization differ?
Active immunization is that in which an antigen penetrates the body triggering the primary
immune response and the production of memory lymphocytes and antibodies that provide
faster and more effective immune defense in future infections by the same antigen. Passive
immunization is that in which immunoglobulins against an antigen are inoculated in the body
to provide protection in case the body becomes infected by the antigen.
Active immunization tends to be longer lasting than passive immunization since in the active
type as well as antibodies, specific memory lymphocytes remain in the circulation. In the
passive immunization the duration of the protection is that of the duration of the antibodies in
the circulation.

Why is maternal milk important for the immune protection of the baby?
Besides being nutritionally important, maternal milk participates in the defense of the baby
against infectious agents. Soon after delivery the mother produces a more fluid milk called
colostrum that is rich in immunoglobulins (antibodies). These antibodies are not absorbed by
the baby’s circulation but they cover the internal surface of the baby’s bowels thus attacking
possible antigens and making more difficult the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria within the
organ.
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What are natural active immunization and artificial active immunization?

Natural active immunization is that in which a previous natural infection induces the primary
immune response, specific memory cells are produced and the individual becomes immune to
new infections with the antigen. This is what happens in diseases that affect people only once
in life, like mumps and chickenpox.Artificial active immunization is that in which the primary
immune response is caused by the inoculation into an individual of specially prepared
antigens. This is the case with vaccines.

Why doesn't a long lasting vaccine against common cold exist yet?
Viruses that present a high mutation rate like the virus that causes the common cold escape
easily from the action of vaccines against them. After a primary immune response (natural or
artificially induced) against the virus in the next season of infection new mutant resistant
strains appear and the protection obtained with the immune response of the last season is
lost. (One could say that the high mutation rate is a form of “immunization” found by these
viruses.)

What is the DNA vaccine?

The DNA vaccine, or DNA vaccination, is a vaccination technology based on genetic
engineering. In DNA vaccination a recombinant plasmid (vector) containing the gene of a
specific antigen that is part of a given pathogenic agent is inserted into cells of the individual
to be immunized. These cells then begin to produce the antigen that triggers the primary
immune response and theoretically the individual becomes immunized against that antigen.

What is the name given to conditions in which the own immune system of the individual is
the agent of diseases? What are some examples of these conditions?
Diseases caused by the action of the own immune system of the individual are called
autoimmune diseases.
The autoimmune diseases appear when the immune system makes antibodies or defense cells
that attack cells, tissues and organs of its own body. The attacked cells or tissues are wrongly
recognized as antigens by the immune system. Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, scleroderma,
vitiligo, pemphigus, type I diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease (chronic inflammation of the gut),
myasthenia gravis, Graves’ disease, Hashimoto's disease, etc., are all examples of autoimmune
diseases.
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Biofuels are considered to be carbon neutral , suggest why the continued draining and
clearance of peatlands may contribute towards global warming even though they may be
used to produce biofuels

1. Combustion of biofuels releases carbon dioxide therefore there is no net increase in

carbon dioxide
2. carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that absorbs IR radiation and prevents it from
escaping into space
3. therefore temperature of the earth’s surface increases , carbon in peat was trapped a
long time ago
4. peatland clearance releases carbon dioxide,so there is a net gain of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere
5. removal of plants reduces photosynthesis and carbon dioxide is released from clearance
machinery .

Describe how the organisms that cause TB are taken by macrophages

1. Bacterium is recognized as non-self

2. B lymphocytes label the bacteria and phagocytes perform phagocytosis by engulfing and
digesting bacteria

Why the type of plant community growing on a bing changes over time

1. Due to succession, lichens and mosses are pioneer species

2. They are the first to colonize, they’re able to grow in no soil
3. They can break up rock fragments and form a thin shallow soil
4. Changes in the soil structure allow tress to grow
5. As plants die and decayed organic matter in the soil increases so the soil is thicker and is
able to retain water and minerals

Suggest how DNA analysis could give further evidence

Similarity of DNA indicates closeness of a relationship because genes are sections of DNA they
code of proteins
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Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to analyze DNA

1. A sample of DNA from blood or saliva is taken and small samples can be amplified by
PCR
2. Different restriction endonuclease enzymes are used to break DNA into sections of
different sizes
3. Then an electric current is passed through the sample
4. Then we do southern blotting and the DNA shows up as bands
5. The numbers of bands that match indicate similarity of DNA

What is a genetic mutation?

It is a change in the bases of DNA which leads to a change in the sequence of amino acids in
the primary structure of a protein

Suggest why effective treatment of HIV in human populations will require the continual
development of a mixture of many new drugs

1. HIV has a variety of strains in the infected person some strains become resistant to a
particular drug, these strains would survive
2. if only one drug is used, so a mixture of drugs has more chance of getting rid of all
strains as these strains have a high mutation rate and can replicate rapidly and pass on
resistance to offspring

Suggest how scientists could use data to predict future climate change

1. By extrapolating the data

2. Using investigators on correlation
3. Providing evidence for global warming and using this data along with data from other
sources

Suggest why some scientists may not be convinced that these data can be used to predict
future climate

1. There isn’t enough data

2. No proof to confirm data
3. The fluctuations are too great meaning there is poor presentation of raw data
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What is net primary productivity?

Rate of production of new organic material after subtracting respiration losses in the
producers

NPP= GPP-R

Why an increase in temperature may cause an increase in NPP

1. The rate of photosynthesis reactions increases

2. an increase in movement and action of enzymes leads to an increase in the rate of
reaction because of more enzyme substrate interaction

Suggest 2 biotic factors that may influence NPP

Competition with other plants, trampling, shading by plants

Explain how HIV is able to enter these cells

1. HIV binds to CD4 receptors on the cell surface gp 120 fuses with CD4 on cells
2. So the virus envelope fuses with the cell surface membrane
3. Then phagocytosis happens in the macrophage

Why bacteria need to have special adaptations to live in the stomach of a cow

1. They have to adapt to the high acidity of the stomach that destroys bacteria
2. There is no oxygen , so they should respire anaerobically
3. They have to be resistant to stomach enzymes

Describe what might happen to the clear areas in forests over a long period of time, if the
numbers of rabbits and deer decreased

Taller growing plants could develop in the clear areas different animals appear , secondary
succession occurs , climax community of the taller plants can be reached
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Suggest why a suspension of cells of a unicellular alga , in a solution , is more suitable for this
investigation the using leaves

1. Samples of cells can be taken easily

2. No damage to plant during sampling
3. Carbon dioxide level in the water can be adjusted
4. RuBP can’t pass into other cells and to only one kind of cells
5. Controlling the number of cells
6. Genetically identical cells are used

Suggest why it would be advisable to illuminate the cells at a high t light intensity during this
investigation

1. Light is needed for the light dependent reaction

2. Light intensity won’t be a limiting factor
3. The effect of carbon dioxide concentration can be seen,So carbon dioxide is limiting
factor

Suggest the effect of body temperature on the time of death

1. A drop in body temperature is linked to the time after death

2. There are factors that affect the temperature drop such as the environmental
temperature and body size and clothing
3. It is useful because time after death can be calculated if temperature is known, but is
only useful for a short period of time

Suggest what is meant by state of decomposition and how it helps to find out the time of
death

1. The body decomposes in a specific sequence with time

2. there are factors that affect decomposition such as wounds and environmental
temperature

Suggest why the student took temperature measurements by using a long thermometer at
several points

1. As heat is lost from the outer surface the long thermometer measure core temperature,
And this improves validity of the method;
2. repeated reading to obtain the mean and this improves reliability of the results
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Explain why a DNA molecule can be described as a double stranded polynucleotide

It is double stranded because It is made of 2 strands joined by hydrogen bonds between bases
polynucleotide means it has many nucleotide slinked by phosphodiester bonds

Ssuggest 2 characteristic features of antibodies

They are glycoproteins produced by plasma cells they have a constant region

Describe the process of PCR

1. A DNA sample is obtained from saliva or blood

2. Then a reaction mixture is set up containing the DNA sample , free nucleotides primers
and DNA polymerase
3. Then the DNA mixture is heated to 95°C break the hydrogen bonds between 2 strands of
DNA
4. The mixture is then cooled to between 50°C and 65°C so that the primers can bind to
the strands
5. The reaction mixture is heated to 72°C so the DNA polymerase can work
6. The DNA polymerase lines up free DNA nucleotides alongside each template strand
7. Complementary base pairing means new complementary strands are formed
8. 2 new copies of the fragment of DNA are formed and one cycle of PCR is complete
9. The cycle starts again with the mixture being heated to 95°C and this time 4 strands ( 2
original and 2 new) are used as templates
10.Each PCR cycle doubles the amount of DNA

Explain how body temperature affects the rate of development of animals

1. Metabolic rate and enzyme activity increases as temperature increases due to an

increase in kinetic energy so molecules are energetic which increases energy of
collisions so more enzyme substrate complexes formed
2. at higher temperatures enzymes denature and temperature affects differentiation ,
growth and division

Explain why the light independent stage can’t take place without the light dependent stage

1. Products of the light dependent stage are needed for the light independent stage
2. Products of the light dependent stage are ATP and reduced NADP
3. Reduced NADP is used for reduction of carbon dioxide and ATP is used as a source of
energy
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What is Succession?

It is the process by which an ecosystem changes over time

What is climax community?

It is a stable community where the final seral stage occurred , the ecosystem is supporting the
largest and most complex community of plants and animals it can, it won’t change much
more , it is in a steady state

Suggest why it is important to conserve rare and endangered plants

To increase their number and widen their gen pool, so they won’t be extinct, these plants are
maybe useful in medicines and other animals depend on them as a food source

Suggest why the protein structure of lysozyme is important to the way in which it acts
against pathogens

Lysozyme is an enzyme that has an active site with a specific shape, lysozyme acts on bacterial
cell walls

Explain how a colony of genetically identical cells could develop from a single original cell

By asexual reproduction, only one parent is needed, so no genetic variation, this one parent
divides by mitosis to produce clones by a large number of clones

Suggest how this 10cm x 10 cm could be used to obtain percentage cover

By counting the full squared and counting complementary squares to be as 1 full square, each
square represents 1%

Discuss why the production of biofuels may not be carbon neutral

1. Biofuel production may result in more carbon dioxide production in the atmosphere
2. Carbon neutral means that the carbon dioxide produced equals the carbon dioxide used
3. Forests are carbon sinks , clearing land may result in a net increase of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere as less plants means less carbon dioxide removed by photosynthesis
and burning tress produces carbon dioxide
4. Increased decomposition produces carbon dioxide
5. The use of fossil fuels by machinery produces carbon dioxide and burning of biofuels
produces carbon dioxide
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Explain how the combustion products from burning fuels may lead to global warming

1. Greenhouse gases are produced such as carbon dioxide and methane

2. These gases build up in the upper atmosphere. Which trap IR radiation reflected from
the earth’s surface
3. An increased level of these gases causes an increase in the greenhouse effect
4. Meaning that the earth’s mean temperature is increasing

Suggest why NPP values would be of use to a farmer who wanted to use this land for cattle

Cattle are herbivores, therefore they gain energy available as NPP and this affects the yield of
meat and milk , the farmer is ensuring that there is enough NPP for this cattle

The units Kjm-2year-1 show the rate of energy production, suggest why this is more useful
than measurements of biomass in the grassland on a particular day

1. There is a variation over short periods of time as NPP is more on a sunny day
2. The whole year gives an average value
3. Biomass includes all organic material
4. The rate of productivity may influence how much grazing is possible

Describe the role of T helper cells in the immune response

1. They produce cytokines that activate B cells

2. B cells divide and give rise to plasma cells that produce antibodies
3. They’re also involved in activating T killer cells
4. T killer cells destroy infected host cells

Describe how the pollen is involved in the production of the embryo plant

1. Pollen transfers genetic material,

2. Pollen tube is formed from pollen,
3. Pollen tube grows to reach the ovary,
4. Then fertilization occurs between the male and female gametes producing a diploid
zygote by meiosis and an embryo plant is formed
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Explain why starch is a suitable molecule to be stored

1. Because starch is compact so it can store large amounts in a cell

2. Starch is insoluble, so it has no osmotic effect
3. It is a large molecule so can’t move out of cells
4. It is inert so not affected other reactions in the cell
5. It can be quickly and easily hydrolyzed as starch contains alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds in
amylopectin which breakdown quickly to give soluble sugars by enzyme action so
releasing large amounts of energy

Explain the importance of the sequence of bases in a gene

1. Each 3 nucleotides code for 1 amino acid

2. The sequence of amino acids determines the primary structure of the protein and the
secondary and tertiary structure rely on the primary structure
3. Each gene has a start and stop codon

Describe how GALP is formed in the light independent reaction

1. Carbon dioxide reacts with RuBP to from 2 GP this process is catalyzed by the enzyme
RUBISCO and energy is provided from ATP
2. reduced NADP reduces GP to GALP during the Calvin cycle

Describe the structure of DNA

1. It is formed of double stranded nucleotide sequence twisted into a double helix

2. The 2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds anti parallel to each other
3. DNA consists of 2 sugar phosphate back bones with deoxyribose as pentose sugar
4. Purine bases of either adenine or guanine and pyrimidine bases of either cytosine or
thymine
5. Adenine binds with thymine with a double hydrogen bond while cytosine binds with
guanine with a triple hydrogen bond
6. Mononucleotides in a strand are joined by phosphodiester bonds

Suggest how GALP contributes to the synthesis of DNA

1. GALP is converted t glucose

2. Glucose is converted to deoxyribose
3. Glucose is used in respiration
4. ATP from respiration is used for active transport
5. GALP is used in the synthesis of DNA bases with nitrates
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Explain how global warming may affect tree ring growth

1. An increase in temperature increases tree ring growth as enzymes work faster with
higher temperature,
2. Photosynthesis is faster with high temperature so more organic compounds are laid
down in the tree trunks
3. Above a certain temperature, rate of enzyme activity decreases
4. At an even higher temperature enzymes denature and the tree dies

Describe how microorganisms decompose organic matter

1. Bacteria and fungi secrete enzymes onto the organic matter that is involved in
decomposition such as protease or hydrolase to break down protein and lipid
2. Decomposition produces monomers as bonds are broken down , such as peptide bonds ,
3. Monomers are soluble and can be taken up by microorganisms

Suggest why pH affects bacterial growth

1. pH affects enzymes
2. The shape of the active site is altered due to ionization of the R groups
3. Respiration and metabolism are affected
4. PH can affect cell wall and cell membrane structure

Describe how a petri dish should be sealed and why

1. it is held with a tape but not completely sealed

2. it must be sealed to prevent lid from falling off and to prevent contamination and
growth of anaerobic bacteria

Explain the role of lysozyme in the human body

1. it is involved in the non-specific response

2. lysozyme destroys bacterial cell wall this helps prevent infection

Describe the properties of globular proteins

They are soluble and hydrophilic

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Explain how the body responds generally and specifically to pathogens that enter the blood

1. The nonspecific response involves inflammation,

2. Histamine is produced by mast cells ( basophils) causing vasodilation of arterioles
3. So capillaries become more leaky leading to oedema
4. The body’s temperature increases
5. Phagocytes ( as neutrophils and macrophages) come out of capillaries to engulf and
digest pathogens
6. Interferons are released to prevent viral replication within the host cell and prevent
them from invading new cells by hiding the cell markers
7. The specific immune response, phagocytes become APC presenting parts of the antigen
on their MHC
8. The humoral response where the specific B cells and specific T cells combine with the
complementary antigen on the APC (clonal selection)
9. The selected T helper divides by mitosis to give clones of T helper memory and active T
helper will produce cytokines to activate the specific clone of B cells to multiply by
mitosis to give clones of B memory cells and B effector cells ,
10.B effector cells become plasma cells producing antibodies which immobilize bacteria by
holding their flagellum , agglutinate bacteria by sticking them together to be engulfed all
at once they can cause lysis, they can mark pathogens and neutralize toxins
11.The cell mediated response (infection inside the cell)
12.APC will attract the correct specific complementary, T cell with complementary CD4
receptors of T helper and CD8 receptors for T killer
13.T helper will divide by mitosis and become T helper memory cells and active T helper
cells producing cytokines which activate the selected clone of T killer cells to divide by
mitosis to give T killer memory and active T killer which will produce enzymes and toxins
released by exocytosis to punch holes in the cell membranes of the infected cells by
digesting its proteins, so lysis or death of the infected cell happens.
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Describe how each of the following prevents infection by microorganisms

Skin

1. It is a barrier to organisms
2. Has layers of dead cells
3. It is impregnated with keratin
4. Contains fatty acids in sebum that inhibit the growth of microorganisms
5. Has commensal bacteria that compete with other microorganisms

Tears

1. Contains lysozyme that is capable of digesting bacterial cell wall

2. Physically washes bacteria and pathogens away

Cilia

1. Transports mucus which contains trapped bacteria and microorganisms , they’re moved
up the respiratory tract and swallowed, they’re killed by acid in the stomach

Phagocytic cells

2. They engulf microorganisms

3. They are released from lysosome
4. They do the role of macrophages in the immune response

What happens in the gut to prevent infection?

1. Polypeptides from salivary glands might destroy bacteria ( bactericidal ) or slow down
bacterial growth (bacteriostatic)
2. Acid of stomach with pH 2 destroys the majority of ingested microorganisms
3. Natural flora to compete for nutrients and space with any microorganisms or produce
antibacterial compounds such as lactic acid
4. Vomiting removes many of the microorganisms physically from the system.
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Suggest how GALP may be used to synthesize cellulose

1. GALP is a 3 carbon molecule, so we need 2 molecules of GALP for the formation of

1 glucose molecule which is a 6 carbon sugar (hexose)
2. Using enzymes for the synthesis of glucose
3. Cellulose consists of beta glucose monomers joined by beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds
in condensation reaction between glucose monomers
4. Cellulose is a long chain which is unbranched

Describe the sequence of events following infection of cells by HIV that may lead to the
death of the patient

1. HIV is a retrovirus so the viral RNA is used in the production of viral DNA by means
of reverse transcriptase enzyme
2. using viral RNA as a complimentary copy, the viral DNA is incorporated into the
host cell’s DNA forming a provirus using integrase enzyme
3. Production of viruses , viral RNA and proteins from the infected host cell for
further infection of the T helper cells , destruction of T helper cells by T killer cells
4. this lowers immunity to other diseases as the T helper cells produce cytokines to
activate B cells , T killer cells and macrophages with destruction of T helper cells ,
no activation of B cells , so no antibody production, no activation of T killer and no
activation of macrophages
5. Opportunistic diseases will take place as pneumonia, TB , Kaposi’s sarcoma ,
dementia toxoplasmosis and extreme weight loss and cancer.

Describe how the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule would be used to form the primary
structure of a protein

1. Sequence of bases forming the genetic code, determines the amino acid sequence
2. one triplet codes for one amino acid so the DNA antisense strand is acting as a
template for transcription as the DNA unzips and mRNA is synthesized
3. modification of the pre-mRNA in the post transcriptional changes with removal of
the introns by the splicosomes in splicing will form the final mRNA
4. mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation
5. mRNA attaches to the small subunit on the ribosome and then 2 tRNA carrying an
amino acid each will bind to the large subunit of the ribosome
6. codons of mRNA combine with anticodons of tRNA then peptide bonds are
formed between amino acids by the enzyme peptidyl transferase
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7. the primary structure of the protein is formed which shows the sequence of
amino acids in the polypeptide chain

The antibody 2G12 is produced in response to part of a glycoprotein found on the surface of
HIV, synthetic molecules have been made that resemble this part of the glycoprotein the
antibody 2G12 binds to these synthetic molecules , suggest how this may enable scientists to
develop a means of producing active immunity to HIV infection

1. This is an artificial active immunity given in a vaccine containing the synthetic

antigen which is the glycoprotein so it stimulates the specific humoral immune
response to the synthetic antigen
2. There is a clonal selection of the specific complementary T helper cells and B cells
3. the selected clone of T helper divides by mitosis and differentiates into T memory
and active T helper producing cytokines which stimulates the selected clone of B
cells to expand dividing by mitosis to form B memory and B effector, which
become plasma cells producing antibodies to the 2G12 antigen
4. so the antibodies are produced faster and in greater concentration on reinfection
or the secondary immune response

Suggest why treatment with antibiotics may not be effective against the dormant bacteria in
tubercles

The bacteria needs to be accessible to antibiotics and bacteria are inside the
macrophages in a waxy coat

Explain why evidence from DNA profiles may not be absolutely conclusive

1. DNA profiling has several stages, artifacts or contamination can arise at any stage
2. only a few strands of DNA are analyzed
3. there is a possibility of 2 identical profiles from unrelated individuals
4. identical twins may show the same profile

Suggest how DNA profiling could be useful to scientists who examine fossils of animals and
plants

1. Comparisons can be made between DNA from fossils and other organisms
2. to find genetic relationships used in taxonomic groups to understand evolutionary
lines
3. to determine common ancestor
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State how the genetic material in HIV differs from the genetic material in the bacterium
mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes TB

1. HIV has RNA, mycobacterium tuberculosis has DNA

2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has circular DNA, while HIV has linear RNA
3. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has plasmids, HIV doesn’t

Explain the change in number of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6 weeks after infection
with HIV

1. Gp 120 on the virus binds to CD4 receptor on the surface membrane of

lymphocytes
2. Viral RNA enters the lymphocyte
3. Viral RNA will produce viral DNA in lymphocyte by the action of reverse
transcriptase
4. New viruses are formed, and the lymphocyte is destroyed when new viruses
bud out of the cell

The first stage in the decomposition of a cow pat is known as putrefaction, explain how
carbon dioxide and ammonia are formed during this stage of decomposition

Microorganism respire aerobically , they convert organic material to carbon dioxide and
nitrogen compounds and proteins to ammonia

Explain what happens to the electrons released by photolysis

1. They enter photosystem 2

2. replace the electrons lost by chlorophyll after absorption of light
3. which were used in the production of reduced NADP

Describe a technique that you have used to study the distribution of a named organism
within its habitat

1. Primroses distribution in forests

2. systematic sampling along the area to be investigated using line transect along
which quadrats along 0.5 m x 0.5m are laid , divided into 100 small squares
3. the percentage cover can be measured by the number of primroses covering
squares
4. light intensity is measured using a light meter and soil moisture is measured by a
hygrometer
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5. taking care of falling branches and insect bites.

Describe how dendrochronology can be used to provide evidence for climate change

Dendrochronology uses evidence from tree rings, thickness of rings changes with
climatic conditions, thicker indicates warmer year.

What is reproductive isolation?

The separation of 1 species into 2 populations that do not interbreed

What is speciation?

The formation of 2 species from one species

What is allele frequency?

The relative proportion of different forms of a particular gene within a gene pool

Explain how new alleles might appear in the gene pool of a species

Mutation by a change in the sequence of DNA can occur during DNA replication by
chemicals or radiation

Describe and explain the changes that occur in the concentration of antibodies in the blood
plasma following vaccination

1. No antibody production in the blood plasma in the first 5 days, because

lymphocytes need to come In contact with antigens as time is needed for
lymphocyte activation

2. Rise in antibody concentration between 5 to 15 days as plasma cells release

antibodies
3. there is decrease in antibody concentration after 15 days, infection has been
cleared up, antibodies are removed from the blood stream by kidneys
4. Residual levels of antibodies in the blood are at day 30.

Suggest why the vaccine contains a cocktail of antigens

1. Mutation causes change in gene product

2. the structure of antigen may change as result of mutation
3. the individual will not be protected if flu virus does not have the same antigen
present in the vaccine
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4. and a cocktail of antigens will increase the chance of matching antigens

Temperature has an effect on the length of the blowfly lifecycle; suggest an explanation for
the effect of temperature on the length of the blowfly lifecycle

1. The length of the life cycle is dependent on metabolic rate of the blowfly
2. The metabolic rate is determined by enzyme activity, as temperature increases up
to the optimum, enzyme activity increases, the increase in temperature to a
maximum leads to decreasing the length of the life cycle

Suggest 2 factors, other than temperature that may affect the timing of the blowfly lifecycle
and lead to an incorrect estimate of the time of death

Oxygen, drugs, humidity

Time of death can also be estimated by studying the degree of rigor mortis in muscles ,
describe how rigor mortis in muscles occurs

1. Rigor mortis begins when muscle cells become deprived from oxygen
2. Anaerobic respiration takes place causing a buildup of lactic acid
3. Which decreases the pH in the cells
4. Inhibiting the enzymes that produce ATP
5. So the muscles harden and stiffen

Compare the 2 forms of succession

1. In both, there is a change to conditions that suit other species

2. In both , there is a change in the species or distribution of species with time
3. In plant succession we see all stages at the same time In the body we see 2-3
stages
4. Plant succession takes much longer time than succession on a dead body.

Why is TB increasing nowadays?

1. Deteriorating social conditions in some areas

2. Immigration
3. Movements of refugees between countries
4. More foreign travel
5. Increase in intravenous drug use
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Suggest why mammalian cells are unharmed by antibiotics

1. Mammalian cells are eukaryotic

2. they have different enzymes
3. don’t have cell walls
4. have 80s ribosomes

Suggest ways by which doctors and patients can help prevent the further spread of antibiotic
resistance in bacteria

1. Do not prescribe antibiotics for minor infections

2. Do not prescribe antibiotics to prevent infection
3. Use narrow spectrum antibiotics
4. Rotation in the use of different antibiotics
5. Take the full course of antibiotics
6. There should be screening of patients and isolation of infected patients by
isolation wards
7. Hand washing between patients
8. Maintain personal hygiene
9. Wear sterile scrubs

Describe how free nucleotides are bonded together in the correct sequence in pre-mRNA

Sequence of bases on DNA determines the sequence on pre-mRNA , complementary

base pairing occurs forming phosphodiester bonds by condensation reaction

Explain the function of the codons at each end of a strand of mRNA , during the process of
translation

There is a start codon and a stop codon, the start codon is needed to begin the
polypeptide synthesis and the stop codon is needed to end the polypeptide synthesis

Suggest why a variety of different protein structures could be formed from the polypeptide
synthesized using the mRNA molecules from a single gene

1. Different variations of exons lead to different sequence of amino acids

2. And different primary structure , since the secondary and tertiary structure
depend on the primary structure
3. So they’re different as well due to change in bonds such as hydrogen , ionic and
disulphide bridges leading to a different 3D structure.
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MRSA is a bacterium when it enters the blood it can stimulate the production of several
different clones of plasma cells. These produce a variety of antibodies, suggest an
explanation for this

1. Bacterium is made of many different chemicals which can act as antigens

2. B cells recognize specific antigens and make specific antibodies after their
activation by specific T cells
3. clonal expansion of B cells takes place by mitosis to form genetically identical
plasma cells

It has been suggested that a reduction in the use of fossil fuels is necessary if further global
warming is to be prevented, some scientists disagree with this suggestion, suggest why
these scientists do not agree that a reduction in the use of fossil fuels will prevent further
global warming

1. Carbon dioxide is produced by using or by combustion of fossil fuel

2. There is no direct evidence that an increase in carbon dioxide leads to global
warming
3. The removal of carbon sinks lead to an increase in carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
4. Other greenhouse gases like CFC from aerosols or from AC or refrigerators , and
methane gas from rice pad fields , melting of ice, landfill sites and ruminants
5. Evidence from the past is being used but it is not an indicator of future events
6. Scientists maybe biased as they can be employed by companies with interests
7. There are alternative energy supplies such as biofuels that have disadvantages
such as they are more expensive than fossil fuels, and can lead to food shortages.

Describe how the vaccine gives active immunity against PWMS

1. Using the modified virus as vaccine

2. This vaccine contains the antigen which activates the specific immune response
and helping the clonal selection and expansion of B and T cells to give B memory
and T memory
3. And B effector is activated by cytokines produced by active T helper cells, which
becomes plasma cells producing antibodies
4. Now the body is able to produce specific antibodies faster and at a higher
concentration on another exposure of PWMS

Describe the role of Golgi in T helper cells Proteins are modified and packaged in the Golgi
apparatus, such as cytokines and CD4 receptors, proteins leave by exocytosis
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Describe the structure of chloroplast and how it relates to its function in photosynthesis

Compartmentalization from cytoplasm

Thylakoid membranes are the site of light dependent reactions , as it contains chlorophyll and
photosystems and electron transport chains

Thylakoid membranes provide space for H+ accumulation

Stroma is the site of light independent reaction

The chroloplast envelope keeps the reactants for photosynthesis close to their reaction sites

Thylakoids have a large surface area to allow as much light energy to be absorbed as possible

Lots of ATP synthase molecules are present in the thylakoid membrane to produce ATO in the
light dependent reaction

Describe the roole of RUBUSCO in the production of GALP in the light independent reaction

RUBISCO is an enzyme in the calvin cycle involved in carbon fixation to form GP

GP is converted to GALP using ATP and reduced NADP

Describe how the membranes inside the chloroplast are involved in photosynthesis

They ensure comparmentlisation from stroma

They are the site of light dependent reaction

Chlorophyll is present within the membranes

ATPase is present iin thylakoid membranes

Thylakoid membranes provide space for H+ accumulation

They’re the site of photophosphorylation

Suggest how antiviral drugs can treat HIV

Drugs prevent viral replication

T helper cells will not be killed

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Reverse transcriptase is inhibited

Viral DNA wont be made from viral RNA

Integrase is inhibited

So viral DNA cant integrate into host’s genome

DNA profiling

Multiple copies of DNA are made by PCR

Reactants in the PCR machine include , free nucleotides , primers , the DNA sample to be
amplified and DNA polymerase

The mixture is heated to 95°c then cooled to 55°c then heated to 75°c the process is repeated many times to
get many samples of DNA

Then gel electrophoresis is performed where different restriction endonucleases enzymes are used to produce
different DNA fragments loaded onto the wells of agarose gel

A dye is added to the solution and electric current is applied

The dye moves faster than the DNA

Southern blotting is performed then radioactively labeled gene probes are added xray is used or autoradiography

DNA fragments appear as bands

Explain how phagocytosis and lysozyme action lead to antigen presentation by macrophages

Bacteria have to be taken into macrophage

Then phagosome fuses with lysosome

The bacteria are digested by lysozyme and proteases

Part of the bacteria has to be on the membrane of the macrophage forming an antigen presenting cell.

Explain how macrophages present antigens to T helper cells

Macrophages after engulfing and digestion the antigen , present it on the MHC so it becomes an APC

CD4 receptors on T helper bind to the antigen on the MHC on the macrophage , this is clonal selection

Evolutionary race between some bacteria such as TB and their host, suggest how this could affect antigen
presentation to T helper cells

Mutation has occurred in he DNA of the bacteria

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So there is a change in the antigen on the outer surface of the bacteria

So T memory cells will not recognize the new antigen

So another primary response is needed as the new antigens need to be presented on the T helper to activate
another population of T helper

Macrophages are unable to recognize and engulf and digest TB as it has a waxy coat , so antigen presentation is
impossible

Suggest how antiviral drugs could prevent HIV from entering the host cells

Drugs bind to gp120

drugs