Bio Ni Meinard

Lesson 1.
Mendelian Laws of
Inheritance
General Biology 2
1/2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
What traits run in your
family? What did you
inherit from your
parents? What makes
your family distinct from
other families?
2
How well do you resemble your siblings? Do you share
the same facial features and complexion?
3
Some of you may have
inherited a widow’s peak
and the ability to roll
your tongue from your
either or both of your
parents, while some of
you may lack these
genetic traits.
4
Inheritance may also
involve more complex
traits such as the
intelligence quotient
level or IQ level. From
whom do you think you
inherited your natural
intelligence?
5
How did the experiments of
Gregor Mendel lay the
foundation for the study of
transmission genetics?
6
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:
Predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents

and offspring using the laws of inheritance
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-1).
7
Learning Objectives
● Explain the foundations and development of

Mendelian genetics.
● Describe and apply the Mendelian laws of

inheritance.
8
Introduction to Inheritance
Looking at
yourself in the
mirror...
9
...have you ever

wondered how
you have
inherited your
biological traits
from your
parents?
10
...have you ever

wondered how
you have
inherited your
biological traits
from your
parents?
11
Genetics answers
most of our inquiries
about how traits are
transmitted from
parents to their
children.
12
Genetics
Heredity Variation
13
Genetics
Heredity Variation
14
Genetics
Heredity Variation
15
Genetics
Heredity Variation
16
Molecular genetics Cytogenetics
Branches
of Genetics
Transmission genetics Population genetics

17

deals with DNA and
gene expression and
regulation.
Branches
of Genetics

18
Molecular genetics Cytogenetics deals with

chromosome structure and
behavior during cell
division.
Branches
of Genetics

19
Branches
of Genetics
Transmission genetics
deals with different
patterns of inheritance. Population genetics
20
Branches
of Genetics Population genetics
deals with how
forces of evolution
influence genes in
Transmission genetics populations.
21
Transmission genetics, also called classical genetics, is the oldest

subdiscipline of genetics. It attempts to predict outcomes of reproduction.
22
Brief Background of Gregor Mendel
Farm Father of
Tender Genetics
Augustinian
Beekeeper
Academician Monk
23
Mendel took the path to

priesthood when he
entered Augustinian
monastery of St.
Thomas and became
monk. This is also
where he performed his
pea plant studies.
24
Pea Plant Hybridization
Mendel chose
the legumes
garden peas or
Pisum sativum
for his
hybridization
experiments.
25
26
What makes
peas ideal
for genetic
studies?
27
They
What makes exhibit
peas ideal
for genetic vigorous
studies? growth.
28
They can
self-
fertilize.
They
What makes exhibit
peas ideal
for genetic vigorous
studies? growth.
29
They can
self-
fertilize.
They
What makes exhibit They can
peas ideal
for genetic vigorous cross-
studies? growth. fertilize.
30
Challenges faced by Mendel
Pangenesis
Previous Notions Homunculus

of Inheritance theory
Blending
theory
31
Previous Notions
of Inheritance
Pangenesis
Homunculus
theory
Blending
theory
32
Previous Notions
of Inheritance
Pangenesis
Homunculus
theory
Blending
theory Pangenesis was the belief that seeds are
produced in different organs and will later
on gather to form the offspring. 33
Previous Notions
of Inheritance
Pangenesis
Homunculus
theory
Blending
theory The invention of the microscope made
people believe that sperm cells bear a
homunculus or little man. 34
Previous Notions
of Inheritance
Pangenesis
Homunculus
theory
Blending
theory The blending theory of inheritance states
that traits of parents blend every
generation of offspring. 35
Rediscovery of Mendel’s Work
Hugo de Vries Carl Correns Erich von Tschermak

(1848–1935) (1864–1933) (1871–1962)
Mendel’s paper, The Experiments on Plant Hybridization, was rediscovered

independently by de Vries, Correns, and von Tschermak in 1900s. 36
What makes Pisum sativum an
ideal model organism for
genetic studies?
37
Review of Genetic Terminologies
A chromosome consists of a
DNA molecule, which serve as
the repository of genetic
information in cells.
Our chromosomes occur in pairs

called homologous chromosomes.

Paternal (from the father or male parent)


Paternal (from the father or male parent)
Maternal (from the mother or female parent)

A gene is the basic unit of heredity.

It controls the expression of a
biological characteristic.
A gene is the basic unit of heredity.

It controls the expression of a
biological characteristic.
A characteristic is a heritable
feature of an organism.
In our given example, the gene

controls height of peas.
Also, note that genes occur in pairs.

Thus, a pair of genes control a
particular characteristic.
How about this gene pair?

What does it control?
How about this gene pair?

What does it control?
The highlighted gene

controls seed shape in peas.
Alleles are
the alternative
forms of a
gene.
Genotype refers to the set of alleles

possessed by an organism.
The genotype is
homozygous if
the alleles are
identical.
The genotype is
heterozygous if
the alleles are
different.
Let’s say that the given chromosomes give

rise to the following observable traits:
Tall Round-seeded
Let’s say that the given chromosomes give

rise to the following observable traits:
Tall Round-seeded
Phenotypes refer to the actual manifestation
of genotypes into observable traits.
If the phenotype for seed shape is round, then

we can conclude that:
If the phenotype for seed shape is round, then

we can conclude that:
The allele for round pea is

the dominant allele.
The allele for wrinkled pea is

the recessive allele.
Pea Plant Characters
Gregor Mendel utilized seven characteristics of peas in his

hybridization experiments. Each exists in two variants. 56
How are the alleles of a gene
transmitted from parents to
offspring?
57
Monohybrid Cross
A monohybrid cross is a mating between two individuals

involving one characteristic or one pair of contrasting traits. 58
Monohybrid Cross
In this example, the height of

pea is involved.
59
Monohybrid Cross

pea is involved.
The parents have contrasting

traits (i.e., tall and dwarf).
60
Monohybrid Cross

pea is involved.
The parents have contrasting

traits (i.e., tall and dwarf).
Both parents must also be

true-breeding or homozygous.
61
Monohybrid Cross
P generation
F1 generation
F2 generation
62
Monohybrid Cross
The parental generation

P generation consists of the true-
breeding initial parents.
F1 generation
F2 generation
63
Monohybrid Cross
P generation
The first filial generation

F1 generation consists of the offspring
of the P generation.
F2 generation
64
Monohybrid Cross
P generation
F1 generation
The second filial

F2 generation generation consists of
the offspring of F1 gen.
65
Monohybrid Cross
Result 1:
The dwarf trait
disappeared in the F1
generation.
66
Monohybrid Cross
P generation
Result 1:
The dwarf trait
generation.
F1 generation
67
Monohybrid Cross
P generation
Result 1:
The dwarf trait
generation.
F1 generation
Explanation:
Tall trait must be
dominant over the
dwarf trait.
68
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
In a heterozygous individual, one allele

(dominant) completely masks the
expression of the other allele (recessive).
69
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
If we assign letters to each allele :
70
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
71
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
t - dwarf
72
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
t - dwarf
Thus, we will have the corresponding genotypes and phenotypes :
73
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
t - dwarf
TT - tall
74
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
t - dwarf
TT - tall Tt - tall
75
Monohybrid Cross
Principle of
Dominance
T - tall
t - dwarf
TT - tall Tt - tall tt - dwarf

76
Monohybrid Cross
Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:
77
Monohybrid Cross
Phenotypes Genotypes
P generation
F1 generation
F2 generation
78
Monohybrid Cross
P generation Tall × Dwarf
F1 generation
F2 generation
79
Monohybrid Cross
P generation Tall × Dwarf TT × tt
F1 generation
F2 generation
80
Monohybrid Cross

Phenotypic Ratio (PR): Genotypic Ratio (GR):
F1 generation
F2 generation
81
Monohybrid Cross

F1 generation 100% or All Tall
F2 generation
82
Monohybrid Cross

F1 generation 100% or All Tall 100% or All Tt
F2 generation
83
Monohybrid Cross

F2 generation 3/4 Tall: 1/4 Dwarf

84
Monohybrid Cross

F2 generation 3/4 Tall: 1/4 Dwarf 1/4 TT: 2/4 Tt: 1/4 tt
85
Monohybrid Cross
Result 2:
The phenotypes in the
F2 generation occur in
a ratio of 3:1.
86
Monohybrid Cross
F1 generation
Result 2:
a ratio of 3:1.
F2 generation
87
Monohybrid Cross
F1 generation
Result 2:
a ratio of 3:1.
F2 generation
88
Monohybrid Cross
F1 generation
Result 2:
a ratio of 3:1.
F2 generation
Explanation:
The alleles are
segregating during
gamete formation.
89
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
The two alleles of a gene in an individual

segregate or separate from each other
during gamete formation.
90
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
P generation cross F1 generation cross
91
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
92
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles
93
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t
94
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t
progeny
95
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t
progeny Tt Tt
96
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t
progeny Tt Tt Tt Tt
97
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t
progeny Tt Tt Tt Tt
98
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
alleles T T t t T t T t
progeny Tt Tt Tt Tt
99
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
progeny Tt Tt Tt Tt TT Tt
100
Monohybrid Cross
Law of Segregation
TT × tt Tt × Tt
progeny Tt Tt Tt Tt TT Tt Tt tt
101
Punnett Square
1. Write the given. Let’s apply Punnett

square to our P gen
2. Write the genotypes. cross.
3. Identify the alleles.
4. Draw the square.
5. Distribute alleles.
6. Combine alleles.
7. Determine phenotypes.
8. Determine ratios. 102

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
3. Identify the alleles. T T t t
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
3. Identify the gametes. T T t t
4. Draw the square.

T T
5. Distribute gametes.
6. Combine gametes. t
t
Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
4. Draw the square.

T T
6. Combine alleles. t Tt Tt
t Tt Tt
Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
4. Draw the square.

T T
(Tall) (Tall)
t Tt Tt
8. Determine ratios. (Tall) (Tall) 109
Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Tall × Dwarf
TT × tt
4. Draw the square.

T T
GR: 100% Tt
(Tall) (Tall)
7. Determine phenotypes. PR: 100% Tall
t Tt Tt
8. Determine ratios. (Tall) (Tall) 110
Punnett Square

square to our F1 gen
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
3. Identify the alleles. T t T t
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.

T t
6. Combine alleles. T
t
Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.

T t
6. Combine alleles. T TT Tt
t Tt tt
Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.

T t
6. Combine alleles. T TT Tt
(Tall) (Tall)
t Tt tt
8. Determine ratios. (Tall) (Dwarf) 118
Punnett Square

Tall × Tall
Tt × Tt
4. Draw the square.

T t
GR:
6. Combine alleles. T TT Tt 1/4 TT: 2/4 Tt: 1/4 tt
(Tall) (Tall)
7. Determine phenotypes. PR:
t Tt tt 3/4 Tall: 1/4 Dwarf
8. Determine ratios. (Tall) (Dwarf) 119
Dihybrid Cross
A dihybrid cross is a mating between two individuals involving

two characteristics or two pairs of contrasting traits. 120
Dihybrid Cross
121
Dihybrid Cross
In this example, the seed shape and

seed color are involved.
122
Dihybrid Cross

Two pairs of contrasting traits are

involved: round/wrinkled and
yellow/green.
123
Dihybrid Cross


yellow/green.

124
Dihybrid Cross


yellow/green.

All of the offspring in F1 have round

and yellow seeds due to dominance.
125
Punnett Square

square to our P gen
2. Assign alleles. cross.
3. Write genotypes.
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
3. Write genotypes.
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
3. Write genotypes.
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
3. Write genotypes. Seed shape:
4. Identify the alleles. Round seed is dominant over wrinkled seed.
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
5. Draw the square. R - round r - wrinkled
6. Combine alleles.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
6. Combine alleles. Seed color:
7. Determine phenotypes. Yellow seed is dominant over green seed.

Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
8. Determine ratios. Y - yellow y - green

132
Punnett Square

square to our P gen
Round,
yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
8. Determine ratios. Y - yellow y - green

133
Punnett Square
1. Write the given. Let’s apply Punnett Round,

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
8. Determine ratios.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
RY ry
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
RY ry
4. Identify the gametes.
RY RY
5. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles. ry
ry
Punnett Square

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
RY ry
RY RY
5. Draw the square.
RrYy RrYy
6. Combine alleles. ry
RrYy RrYy
ry
Punnett Square

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
RY ry
RY RY
5. Draw the square.
RrYy RrYy
6. Combine alleles. ry (round, yellow) (round, yellow)
RrYy RrYy
ry (round, yellow) (round, yellow)
Punnett Square

yellow
× Wrinkled,
green
square to our P gen
RRYY × rryy
3. Write genotypes.
RY ry
RY RY
5. Draw the square.
RrYy RrYy GR:
6. Combine alleles. ry (round, yellow) (round, yellow) 100% RrYy
RrYy RrYy PR:
ry (round, yellow) (round, yellow)
100% round,
8. Determine ratios. yellow
Punnett Square

2. Write genotypes. cross.
4. Draw the square.
5. Distribute the alleles.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
TIP: Use the branching technique.
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
4. Draw the square. Rr Yy
R
6. Combine alleles.
r
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
5. Distribute the alleles. Y
R
6. Combine alleles. y
7. Determine phenotypes. Y
r
8. Determine ratios. y
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
5. Distribute the alleles. Y
R
6. Combine alleles. y
7. Determine phenotypes. Y
r
8. Determine ratios. y
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
5. Distribute the alleles. Y RY
R
6. Combine alleles. y Ry
7. Determine phenotypes. Y rY
r
8. Determine ratios. y ry
Punnett Square

yellow
× Round,
yellow
RrYy × RrYy
5. Distribute the alleles. Y RY
Thus, the
R genotype
6. Combine alleles. y Ry
RrYy has four
possible
7. Determine phenotypes. Y rY
gametes.
r
8. Determine ratios. y ry
Punnett Square
1. Write the given. RrYy × RrYy

2. Write genotypes.
4. Draw the square.
6. Combine alleles.
Punnett Square

RY Ry rY ry
2. Write genotypes.
3. Identify the alleles. RY
4. Draw the square.

Ry
6. Combine alleles. rY
ry
Punnett Square

RY Ry rY ry
2. Write genotypes.
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
3. Identify the alleles. RY
4. Draw the square. RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

Ry
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
6. Combine alleles. rY
7. Determine phenotypes. RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

ry
Punnett Square

RY Ry rY ry
2. Write genotypes.
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
3. Identify the alleles. RY round, round, round, round,
yellow yellow yellow yellow
Ry round, round, round, round,
5. Distribute the alleles. yellow green yellow green
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
6. Combine alleles. rY round, round, wrinkled wrinkled
ry round, round, wrinkled wrinkled,
yellow green yellow green
Punnett Square

RY Ry rY ry
2. Write genotypes.
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
3. Identify the alleles. RY round, round, round, round,
Ry round, round, round, round,
5. Distribute the alleles. yellow green yellow green
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
6. Combine alleles. rY round, round, wrinkled wrinkled
yellow green yellow green
Punnett Square

2. Write genotypes. Genotypic Ratio:
3. Identify the alleles. 1/16 RRYY 2/16 RrYY 1/16 rrYY
4. Draw the square. 2/16 RRYy 4/16 RrYy 2/16 rrYy

1/16 RRyy 2/16 Rryy 1/16 rryy
Phenotypic Ratio:
6. Combine alleles.
9/16 round, yellow 3/16 wrinkled, yellow
3/16 round, green 1/16 wrinkled, green
Dihybrid Cross
Result 2:
The phenotypes in the F2
generation occur in a ratio
of 9:3:3:1
155
Dihybrid Cross
Result 2:
of 9:3:3:1
156
Dihybrid Cross
Result 2:
of 9:3:3:1
Explanation:
The genes for seed shape
and color are independently
assorting.
157
Dihybrid Cross
Law of Independent Assortment
The alleles from different genes are sorted

into the gametes independently of each
other. Thus, the inheritance of these two
genes become independent.
158
Is the law of segregation still
applicable when two genes are
already involved? Why do you
think so?
159
Laws of Inheritance and Gametogenesis
Both laws of
inheritance operate
during the
Anaphase I of
meiosis during
gamete formation.
160
How is the separation of
homologous chromosomes
relevant to the laws of
inheritance?
161
Let’s Practice!
Brylle is fond of growing crops in his garden. One of the

crops that he cultivates is the garden pea (Pisum sativum).
One strain of his pea plants is heterozygous for flower
colors, with genotype Mm. Another strain of his peas has
smooth pods and axial flowers with genotype AaBB. What
are the alleles produced by each of these two plants with
respect to the indicated characteristics?
162
Let’s Practice!
Brylle is fond of growing crops in his garden. One of the

crops that he cultivates is the garden pea (Pisum sativum).
One strain of his pea plants is heterozygous for flower
colors, with genotype Mm. Another strain of his peas has
smooth pods and axial flowers with genotype AaBB. What
are the alleles produced by each of these two plants with
respect to the indicated characteristics?
Plant 1 (Mm) produces gametes with alleles M and m, while

Plant 2 (AaBB) produces gametes with allele combinations
AB and aB.
163
Try It!
Nickson cultivated two different plants.

The first plant is recessive for trait A,
while the second plant is homozygous
dominant for trait B and heterozygous
for trait C. What are the allele
combinations that can be produced by
his first and second plants?
164
Let’s Practice!
In pea plants, axial inflorescence is dominant over

terminal inflorescence. If Laiza crossed a parent plant
that is heterozygous for inflorescence to another plant
with terminal inflorescence, what are the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the offspring?
165
Let’s Practice!
In pea plants, axial inflorescence is dominant over

terminal inflorescence. If Laiza crossed a parent plant
that is heterozygous for inflorescence to another plant
with terminal inflorescence, what are the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the offspring?
The genotypic ratio of the cross is 1/2 AA: 1/2 aa. The
phenotypic ratio is 1/2 axial: 1/2 terminal.
166
Try It!
If a parent pea plant that is hybrid for

flower color is crossed with a plant that
is true-breeding for violet flowers, what
are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios
of the F1 generation? Note that having
violet flowers is dominant over having
white flowers.
167
Let’s Practice!
In pea plants, round seeds are dominant over wrinkled

seeds, while the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
If you cross two plants that are both heterozygous for
seed shape but homozygous dominant for height, what
are the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the
offspring?
168
Let’s Practice!
In pea plants, round seeds are dominant over wrinkled

seeds, while the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
If you cross two plants that are both heterozygous for
seed shape but homozygous dominant for height, what
are the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the
offspring?
The genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross is 1/4 AABB:

2/4 AaBB: 1/4 aaBB. The phenotypic ratio is 3/4 round tall:
1/4 wrinkled tall.
169
Try It!
Gene A codes for seed color, where

having yellow seed is dominant over
having a green seed. Gene B codes for
pod shape, where the smooth pod is
dominant over the constricted pod.
Given the cross AaBB × AABb, what is
the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of
the offspring?
170
Check Your Understanding
Determine the accuracy of each of the following

statements. Write true if the statement is correct and
false if otherwise.
1. If the genes for seed shape and height of peas are
independently assorting, then they highly influence the
inheritance of each other.
2. The F2 generation is the offspring of the P generation.
3. Both the laws of inheritance operate during the first
anaphase of meiosis.
171
Provide what is asked in each of the following items.
1. What are the alleles produced by an individual with

genotype NN?
genotype Bb?
genotype Mmnn?
172
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Genetics is the study of inheritance and variation

in organisms. It has various subdisciplines.
Transmission genetics is the one that is
particularly concerned about the mechanisms or
patterns of inheritance.
173
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Gregor Mendel is the father of genetics. He

performed experiments on garden pea or Pisum
sativum. This led him to formulate the laws of
inheritance in his publication, Experiments on Plant
Hybrids.
174
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Different genes control the expression of the

characteristics of organisms. Each gene exists in
alternative forms called alleles.
● In terms of expression, genes can either be

dominant or recessive. According to the principle
of dominance of Mendel, in a heterozygous
individual, the dominant allele tends to mask the
expression of the recessive allele. 175
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Mendel’s monohybrid cross reveals the law of

segregation. According to this law, the alleles
segregate during gametogenesis. This explains
the characteristic 3:1 phenotypic ratio of F2 in
monohybrid crosses.
176
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Mendel’s dihybrid cross reveals the law of

independent assortment. According to this law,
allele pairs from different genes separate
independently during gamete formation. This
explains the characteristics ratio of 9:3:3:1 of F2 of
dihybrid crosses.
177
Let’s Sum It Up!
Transmission genetics serves as the pioneer field in genetics.
178
Challenge Yourself
You crossed two true-breeding lines

of violet-flowered and
white-flowered peas. Is it possible to
establish a true-breeding line of the
genotype found in the offspring of
your cross? Why or why not?
179
Photo Credits
● Slide 4: Woman with widow's peak, cropped by Kdhondt is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.
● Slide 4: Rolled tongue flikr, cropped, by Gideon Tsang from Austin, USA is licensed under CC BY-SA
2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
● Slides 17 to 21: India - Chennai - busy T. Nagar market 1 (3059480968) by McKay Savage from
London, UK, cropped, adjusted is licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
● Slide 24: StThomasAbbeyBrno by No machine-readable author provided, Parmesan~commonswiki

assumed (based on copyright claims) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
● Slides 25 to 30: Starr 081009-0043 Pisum sativum var. Macrocarpum by Forest & Kim Starr is
licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
● Slide 25: Pisum sativum flowers J1 by Jamain is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.
180
Bibliography
Brooker, J. Concepts of Genetics (1st ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2012.
Klug, W.S, and Cummings, M.R. Concepts of genetics (6th ed). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
2003.
Pierce, B. Genetics: a conceptual approach (8th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 2012.
Reece J., Taylor M., Simon E., and Dickey J. Campbell Biology: Concepts and Connections (7th ed.). Boston:
Benjamin Cummings/Pearson. 2011.
Snustad, D.P., and Simmons, M.J. Principles of Genetics (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 2012.
181
Lesson 1.4
Sex Linkage and Recombination
General Biology 2
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Is the red or
green color that
you see similar
to that of what
other people
see?
2
If you can
determine the
numbers in this
Ishihara chart,
you do not
belong to the
small population
of people who
are color-blind.
3
How do people acquire this
trait? Why is it more common in
males than in females?
4
Learning Competency
Explain sex linkage and recombination

(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-2).
5
Learning Objectives
● Describe how sex-linked traits are inherited.
● Calculate the probability of the occurrence of a

sex-linked trait.
● Give examples of other sex-related traits.
6
Unlike you, your biological
brother has a widow’s peak and
a cleft chin. If your genes are
inherited from the same
parents, why do you look
different?
7
Recombination
Replication produces another copy of chromosomes.

8
Recombination
Homologous Recombination in Meiosis
9
Recombination
10
Recombination
11
Recombination
12
Recombination
Recombination increases genetic diversity. This is the

reason why you and your sibling look different even if
your genes are inherited from the same parents.
13
How are sex-linked traits
inherited?
14
Sex Linkage
Human Chromosomes
● The 1st to 22nd pairs
are called the
autosomes, and the
23rd pair is termed as
the sex chromosome.
A human karyotype
15
Sex Linkage
Human Chromosomes
● Genes that go along
with either sex
chromosome are said
to be sex-linked.
A human karyotype
16
Sex Linkage
Human Chromosomes
● When the trait is linked
to the X chromosome,
it is called an X-linked
trait.
● If the trait is linked to

the Y chromosome, it is
called a Y-linked trait. Human sex chromosomes
17
Your female friend does not
exhibit a sex-linked trait but her
brother does. What can possibly
account for this?
18
Sex Linkage
X-linked Trait
● The X-linked trait is
more common in
males than in females.
Pedigree chart of the inheritance of an

X-linked disorder
19
Sex Linkage
X-linked Trait
● Even if the mother is
just a carrier of the
trait and the father is
normal, there is still a
possibility that they
will have an offspring
with an X-linked trait.
X-linked disorder
20
Sex Linkage
X-linked Trait
● Generally, males
have a 1/2 or 50%
chance (50% chance
of being normal or
50% chance of
possessing the
X-linked trait) to
express the trait. X-linked disorder
21
Sex Linkage
X-linked Trait
● Females only have 1/3 or
33.3% chance (33.3%
chance of being normal,
33.3% chance of being a
carrier, and 33.3%
chance of manifesting
the X-linked trait) of
acquiring the trait. X-linked disorder
22
Abby is wearing a blue shirt, but
she insists that it is red. How is
this possible?
23
Sex Linkage
Color Blindness Is an
X-linked Trait
● Colorblindness is the
inability to distinguish
certain colors.
● The Ishihara chart is Eight Ishihara charts are available for

used as a test for color testing color blindness.
blindness.
24
What are the numbers shown here?
25
How can color-blind people
cross a pedestrian lane safely if
they cannot distinguish which is
red, green, or yellow on the
stoplight?
26
Sex Linkage
Hemophilia is an X-linked
Trait
● Hemophilia is a rare
inherited bleeding
disorder.
● People with this condition
bleed longer after an
injury as compared to a
A healthy and hemophilic
normal person. person’s response to hemorrhage
27
Sex Linkage
Y-linked Trait
● The Y-linked trait is only common in males since only
males have the Y chromosome.
● An example is the hypertrichosis pinnae auris trait,

which is characterized by having a hairy ear.
28
Why is sex-related inheritance
not following Mendel’s laws?
29
Sex Linkage
Possible color blindness genotypes and phenotypes of males and females
Female
Male
Genotypes Phenotypes
Genotypes Phenotypes
XX Normal female
XY Normal male
X CX Carrier female
X CY Color-blind male
C C
X X Color-blind female
30
Sex Linkage
Sex-Related Inheritance
● As opposed to Mendelian inheritance wherein the
heterozygous genotype expresses the dominant trait,
the heterozygous genotype of an X-linked trait in
females will result in a carrier female.
31
Let’s Practice!
Anna, who is a carrier for hemophilia, marries Juan, a

man without hemophilia. Identify the phenotype of
their possible offspring.
32
Let’s Practice!
Anna, who is a carrier for hemophilia, marries Juan, a

man without hemophilia. Identify the phenotype of
their possible offspring.
The possible trait of the female offspring is 50%

normal, 50% carrier. If the offspring is male, the
chances are 50% hemophiliac and 50% normal.
33
Try It!
Identify the phenotype of the possible

offspring of a color-blind woman
married to a man with normal vision.
34
Let’s Practice!
Marie, a single mom, claimed that John was the

father of her child. John denied it, claiming that
Marie’s current boyfriend was the father. Marie is
color-blind, while John has normal vision, and the
daughter is color-blind. Is it possible that he is the
father?
35
Let’s Practice!

father?
If Marie is color-blind and John has normal vision,

they cannot have a daughter who is color-blind.
36
Let’s Practice!

father?
Based on the Punnett square, the phenotype of the

possible offspring if John is the father is carrier
females and color-blind males.
37
Try It!
Someone removed the ID bracelets of four

babies in a maternity ward. The parents
want to be sure that they have the right
ones back. A particular dad is hemophilic,
while his wife is normal. The first baby is a
hemophilic female; the second is a normal
female; the third is a hemophilic male, and
the fourth is a normal male. Which baby
must be theirs? Explain.
38
Let’s Practice!
There was a man who was acting strangely at a

restaurant, so the police were called in. When the
police arrived, they noticed that the man was with a
young girl. The man claims that he is the girl’s father,
but the girl is too young or too afraid to answer
questions. The young girl is color-blind, and the man
has a normal vision. Is he telling the truth that he is
the father?
39
Let’s Practice!
There was a man who was acting strangely at a restaurant, so

the police were called in. When the police arrived, they noticed
that the man was with a young girl. The man claims that he is
the girl’s father, but the girl is too young or too afraid to answer
questions. The young girl is color-blind, and the man has a
normal vision. Is he telling the truth that he is the father?
It is not possible that the man is the father of the young

girl, since whatever the genotype of the mother, it is
impossible to have a color-blind daughter if the father
has normal vision.
40
Try It!
The mother of a baby girl died shortly
after giving birth. The girl grew up
without knowing her biological father.
This led her to hire a detective to locate
her father. If the mother is a carrier of
hemophilia, and the girl is hemophilic,
what characteristics of the father
should the girl expect from the
detective’s report?
41
Sex Linkage
Sex-influenced Trait
● Sex-influenced traits
are controlled by
autosomal genes.
● The genes are found on
both sexes, but one
expresses it more than
the other. Human pattern baldness is a
sex-influenced characteristic.
42
Sex Linkage
Possible baldness genotypes and phenotypes of males and females.
Female Male
Genotypes Phenotypes Genotypes Phenotypes
BB Bald BB Bald
Bb Non-bald Bb Bald
bb Non-bald bb Non-bald
43
Sex Linkage
Sex-limited Trait
● Sex-limited traits are also
controlled by autosomal
genes.
● The genes are also found on
both sexes, but only one sex
expresses it.
Lactation is a
female-limited trait. 44
Sex Linkage
Possible lactation trait genotypes and phenotypes of males and

females.
Female Male
RR Lactating RR Not lactating
Rr Lactating Rr Not lactating
rr Not lactating rr Not lactating
45
Identify if the following statements describe X-linked,

Y-linked, sex-limited, or sex-influenced inheritance. Put a
checkmark on the appropriate column.
Statement X-linked Y-linked Sex-limited Sex-influenced
1. Genes are found on the X chromosome.
2. An example of this is the lactation trait.

3. Traits are expressed more frequently in
one sex than in the other.
4. Traits are expressed exclusively in one
sex.
5. An example of this is the hypertrichosis
pinnae auris trait.
46
Compute for the probability of the indicated offspring

given the parental genotypes or phenotypes.
1. a color-blind daughter from a normal father and a carrier

mother
2. a color-blind son from a normal father and a carrier
mother
3. a normal son from a normal father and a genetically
normal mother
47
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Recombination is a mechanism where the

homologous pairs of chromosomes exchange genes.
● Sex linkage is termed as such because their

phenotypic manifestation and inheritance patterns
vary between males and females. Therefore, genes
that go along with either sex chromosome are said to
be sex-linked.
48
Let’s Sum It Up!
● When the trait is linked to the X chromosome, it is

called an X-linked trait while if the trait is linked to
the Y chromosome, it is called a Y-linked trait.
● As opposed to Mendelian inheritance wherein the

heterozygous genotype expresses the dominant trait,
the heterozygous genotype of an X-linked trait in
females will result in a carrier female.
49
Let’s Sum It Up!
● Other sex-related traits are the sex-influenced and

sex-limited traits.
○ Sex-influenced traits can be found in both sexes
but expressed more in one sex than in the other.
○ Sex-limited traits have genes that can be found in
both sexes but only one sex expresses it on their
phenotype.
50
Challenge Yourself
Why are X-linked traits more

common in males than in females?
51
Photo Credit Bibliography
Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles &
Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts

● Slide 2: Color Blind Envelope, by Gwynhaden is of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.
licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill
Education.
● Slide 20–21: Eight Ishihara charts for testing colour
blindness, by Wellcome Images is licensed under CC Reece, J.B. and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston:
BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons. Benjamin Cummings/Pearson.
Starr, Cecie, Ralph Taggart, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr.

Biology: the Unity and Diversity of Life. Boston, MA:
Cengage, 2019.
52

Unit 1: Laws of Inheritance

Lesson 1.1
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance

Contents
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
Warm Up 2
Learn about It! 4

An Overview of Genetics 4
Gregor Mendel and His Pea Plant Hybridization Experiments 6
Brief Background of Gregor Mendel 6
Pea Plant as Mendel’s Model Organism 7
Mendel’s Challenges and the Rediscovery of His Work 8
Review of Genetic Terminologies 9
Law of Segregation 12
Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross 12
Interpretations of the Monohybrid Cross 14
Using Punnett Squares 15
Law of Independent Assortment 17
Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross 17
Interpretations of the Dihybrid Cross 18
Laws of Inheritance and Gametogenesis 19
Key Points 25
Check Your Understanding 26
Challenge Yourself 27
Photo Credits 28
Bibliography 28
Key to Try It! 29


Lesson 1.1
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance

Introduction
What traits run in your family? What makes your family very distinct from that of your
friends and acquaintances? Have you also wondered why some features of your parents
are only present in some of your siblings? You may have inherited the complexion of your
mother, but have inherited the stature of your father. The hair type of your siblings might
also be different from both of your parents. You and your friends might even claim that
you have inherited the intelligence of your mother or father. Inheritance may also go
beyond our physical features. Some of you may probably be aware that a severe genetic
disorder runs in your family. It may be an increased risk for hypertension, obesity, or
diabetes, or a less lethal form, such as color blindness.

1.1. Mendelian Laws of Inheritance 1


The diversity in the combinations of traits we have can be attributed to our sexual means
of reproduction. Because individuals from different sexes contribute half of their genetic
material, the resulting offspring is not genetically identical to either parent. Alongside the
increased variation, chance also comes into play. Different combinations of traits of the
mother and father will manifest in each of their children. In some cases, sets of characters
from both parents will not appear in their offspring. This chapter will discuss the very
foundation of the study and the underlying mechanisms of inheritance, tracing its roots
from the experiments of Gregor Mendel, the father of modern genetics.

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the Predict genotypes and phenotypes of
parents and offspring using the laws of
following:
inheritance (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-1).
● Explain the foundations and
development of Mendelian genetics.
● Describe and apply the Mendelian

laws of inheritance.
Warm Up
The Genetic Boat Is Sinking:
15 minutes
Survival By Chance

Look at your classmates. How do you think your class varies genetically? Which features do
you think your classmates inherited from their parents? How about you? What traits did you
get from your mother and your father? In this activity, the entire class will play The Boat is
Sinking but with a genetic twist.

Materials
● paper lots with the genetic traits (accessible in the web link below)



Procedure
1. You will be doing this activity as an entire class. Distribute yourselves around the
classroom. Note that you will play a game that is based on The Boat is Sinking.
2. The teacher shall access the link below before the class.

The Genetic Boat is Sinking: Human Genetic Traits Guide

Quipper Limited, “The Genetic Boat is Sinking: Human
Genetic Traits Guide,” (April 19, 2020),
https://drive.google.com/open?id=16tK8BezjmV66TvId1fCoFd
IpcKYLCsmb, last accessed on April 19, 2020.

3. Read the mechanics of the game carefully as follows.
a. The game shall consist of 10 rounds (or it may depend on class size).
b. At the beginning of each round, your teacher will describe a genetic trait
and its variations. For example, if the first trait is the widow’s peak, a
description will be provided first.
c. Make sure that you identify which of these traits that you have.
d. After giving the description, the teacher will specify the number of
“passengers” in a boat.
e. A signal will be given by the teacher. (Example: The boat is sinking. Group
yourselves into three and according to the presence of widow’s peak.)
f. After the signal is given, you must group yourselves according to the number
and trait given. The groups that you choose must have similar traits based on
what was given by the teacher.
i. For the earlier example, all of the three passengers in the boat shall
have a widow’s peak. Those without a widow’s peak should form a
group of three of their own.
g. All students who are not able to form full groups will be eliminated.
h. The game shall last for seven more rounds (with each round having a
different trait) or until there are three to four students remaining.
i. Winners of the game may be given merit.
4. Look for a partner to discuss the answers to the guide questions below.



Guide Questions
1. Which of the traits mentioned in the activity is/are genetic? What makes them
genetic?
2. Why do you think some of your classmates possess these traits while others do not?
3. Why do you think it is important for you to understand the genetic basis of biological
traits?

Learn about It!

An Overview of Genetics
Genetics is the subdiscipline of biology that focuses on heredity and genetic variation. In
biology, heredity, which is also called inheritance or biological inheritance, refers to the
transmission or passing down of traits from the generation of parents to their offspring.
Genetic variation, on the other hand, refers to the degree of difference in the
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA among individuals of a population. As you can observe,
genetics is centralized on the study of genes or segments of DNA, how they are inherited,
and how different they are among the members of a species. Ultimately, the biological
diversity (as shown in Fig. 1.1.1) that we observe in nature is attributed to how genes have
been passed on and modified through time. The molecular aspect of genes and their
expression will be discussed in greater detail in the next unit.

Fig. 1.1.1. The different varieties of corn show genetic diversity.



Genetics, just like any other discipline, has different subfields. Table 1.1.1. briefly describes
some of these subfields.

Table 1.1.1. Examples of fields under genetics
Field Descriptions
Molecular genetics deals with the study of DNA and gene

Molecular genetics
expression and regulation.
Cytogenetics deals with the study of chromosomes and their

Cytogenetics
behavior during meiosis.
Population genetics focuses on how the forces of evolution

Population genetics
influence the frequencies of genes at the population level.
Transmission genetics deals with the different patterns of

Transmission genetics
inheritance.

Fig. 1.1.2. Transmission genetics is concerned with the possible outcomes of mating among
different plant and animal species. To determine these outcomes, one must understand
how genes behave to establish patterns or mechanisms of inheritance.

Transmission genetics will be the focus of this chapter. This field, being the oldest, is also
closely associated with classical genetics or Mendelian genetics. Transmission genetics
aims to make predictions about the outcomes of genetic crosses and matings (as in Fig.
1.1.2), as well as the possibilities of parents having children with traits that run in their
families.



How did the experiments of Gregor Mendel lay the

foundation for the study of transmission genetics?

Gregor Mendel and His Pea Plant Hybridization Experiments
Today, we recognize Gregor Johann Mendel (shown in Fig. 1.1.3) as the father of modern
genetics. Born in 1822 in Moravia located in the Czech Republic today (but was part of
Austria when Mendel was born), he grew up on a farm. He worked with his father to
improve the plants in their orchard by grafting trees, a technique wherein two vegetative
structures from two plants are joined together. Later on, he took the path to the priesthood
as he entered the Augustinian monastery of Saint Thomas and became a monk. He was
finally ordained in 1847. Thereafter, he decided to work as an educator. However, due to the
poor quality of his answers, he failed his exams in physics and natural history. Thus, he
enrolled at the University of Vienna to expand his knowledge in these areas. Finally, in
1856, he began his hybridization studies involving pea plants. His eight-year work on
experimental crosses was later recognized as a path-breaking achievement in the field of
biology.

Fig. 1.1.3. Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), the father of genetics, made vital contributions to
the science of heredity through his pea plant experiments at the Augustinian monastery.



Pea Plant as Mendel’s Model Organism
Mendel’s experiments were actually borne out of his interest for ornamental flowers. He
even performed separate experiments involving honeybees. His study on garden peas or
Pisum sativum (shown in Fig. 1.1.4) brought him the greatest success in the field of
genetics.

B

A C
Fig. 1.1.4. Garden pea or Pisum sativum is a type of legume. Its flowers may either be violet
(A) or white (B). Being a legume, its fruits (C) are elongated or pod-shaped, with seeds
attached to only one side of the fruit or pod wall.

Mendel chose Pisum sativum for various reasons, which are the following:
● First, it exhibits more vigorous growth (approximately 70 to 80 days harvest period)
compared to other plants.
● Second, these plants are easy to cross-fertilize. The flowers of peas contain both
male and female organs, particularly, the stamens and pistil. Obtaining pollen grains
from the anthers from one plant and delivering them to the stigma of another plant
will allow fertilization. If this is done between plants with different traits, then
hybridization is performed. The offspring of the mating, consequently, are referred
to as hybrids.



● Lastly, pea plants are also capable of self-fertilization through self-pollination. A
modified petal of the pea flower is capable of covering the reproductive structures.
This allows peas to naturally self-pollinate.

The mechanism of self-pollination was particularly important for Mendel because all of his
crosses begin with true-breeding plants or strains. If plants breed true for a particular trait,
then many generations of mating will never produce new traits. For example, if a pea
plant breeds true for violet flowers, repeated mating among these true-breeding
violet-flowered plants will never produce offspring with other flower colors.

Mendel’s Challenges and the Rediscovery of His Work
Gregor Mendel made an outstanding achievement when he was able to determine the basic
patterns of inheritance. One primary reason for this is that, during his time, people had no
idea that genes are found in the DNA. He had no clue that the genetic material contains
the instructions for the expression of biological traits. Predating today’s knowledge on
heredity were different theories to explain inheritance, but have all since been debunked:
● One theory was pangenesis. This attempted explanation was proposed by
Hippocrates in 400 B.C.E. According to him, “seeds” are produced in different organs
of the body. When it is time for an individual to reproduce, all of the seeds will gather
to form the offspring.
● Later on, the invention of the microscope allowed people to observe sperm cells.
This made them propose that sperm cells may bear a homunculus or “little man,”
which will eventually develop in the womb of the mother.
● Lastly, another long-held explanation was the blending theory of inheritance,
which states that both parents will equally contribute to the genetic traits of their
offspring. Also, traits were considered to always blend every generation.

Mendel’s statistical and mathematical prowess, alongside his patience and perseverance,
made him refute all prior notions about inheritance. In 1866, Mendel was able to publish
the fruits of his work through the paper entitled The Experiments on Plant Hybridization.
However, his work was ignored even until he died in 1884. It was only in 1900 that his paper
was separately rediscovered by Hugo de Vries of Holland, Carl Correns of Germany, and
Erich von Tschermak of Austria (as shown in Fig. 1.1.5).



A B C
Fig. 1.1.5. Three individuals, namely, Hugo de Vries (A, 1848–1935), Carl Correns (B,
1864–1933), and Erich von Tschermak (C, 1871–1962) rediscovered Mendel’s work.

What makes Pisum sativum an ideal model for

genetic studies?

In the discussion of transmission genetics, several terminologies will be repeatedly used.
You should also understand them well to improve your skills in solving genetic problems.
Genes (as in Fig. 1.1.6) refer to the basic unit of heredity. Mendel termed these genes as
“unit factors” that control the expression of biological characteristics. A characteristic is
any heritable feature of an organism, which is under the control of a particular gene.
Different genes control flower color, hair color, and skin color, which are examples of
characteristics. The definite position that a gene occupies in a chromosome is called a locus
(plural, loci). A gene for a particular characteristic usually has different alternative forms,
which are called alleles. In the figure given below, two gene loci are given: one for the
height of a pea plant and another for the texture of its pods. If you look at the gene for pod
texture, two versions exist—one for wrinkled pods and another for smooth pods.



Fig. 1.1.6. Genes and alleles in Pisum sativum can be accurately represented by a
homologous pair of chromosomes.

Two chromosomes are used to represent genes and alleles above. This is to emphasize that
our chromosomes, similar to most organisms, occur in pairs called homologous
chromosomes. The members of each pair originate from each of our parents. Thus, for
animals and most plants, two genes control the expression of a particular
characteristic. For us, humans, we inherit each of these genes from our mother and father.
Also, in Fig. 1.1.6, the individual has identical alleles for height (both alleles for tall). Thus,
this individual is said to be homozygous for height. If this individual happens to have
inherited an allele for “dwarf” trait from its parent 2, then its alleles will become different
from each other, making it heterozygous (or hybrid) for height. This is the case for pod
texture because of the non-identical alleles. These combinations of alleles that an individual
possesses at a certain locus, which can be homozygous or heterozygous, refer to its
genotype. The actual manifestation of a genotype into observable traits is called the
phenotype. You usually describe your classmates by enumerating their phenotypes. In the
given figure above, if the actual phenotype of the plant is a round seed, then the allele
for round seed is said to be the dominant allele. The other allele in which the expression is
masked (i.e., wrinkled allele) is called the recessive allele. Table 1.1.2 summarizes this
discussion of genetic terminologies.



Table 1.1.2. Discussion summary for review of genetic terminologies
Elements Descriptions
Gene locus 1 Pea plant height
Gene locus 2 Pea plant seed shape
Allele from parent 1 at locus 1 Tall allele
Allele from parent 1 at locus 2 Wrinkled allele
Allele from parent 2 at locus 1 Tall allele
Allele from parent 2 at locus 2 Round allele
Genotype at locus 1 Homozygous (tall, tall alleles)
Genotype at locus 2 Heterozygous (wrinkled, round alleles)
Phenotype Tall, round seeded
The dominant allele for locus 1 Cannot be identified yet if homozygous
The dominant allele for locus 2 Round allele

How are the alleles of a gene transmitted from

parents to offspring?

In the pea plant hybridization of Gregor Mendel, seven characteristics were used, and
each of these characteristics exists in two alternative forms. These heritable traits include
plant height, flower color, the position of flower or inflorescence, the color of seeds, the
shape or texture of seeds, the color of pods, and the shape of pods. The alternative forms
for each are shown in Fig. 1.1.7.



Fig. 1.1.7. Seven characteristics were used by Mendel to establish his laws of inheritance.

Law of Segregation
Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross
The core of the study of Mendel is the determination of the pattern in which the
characteristics mentioned above are inherited. The basic cross he performed was the
monohybrid cross. In this cross, only one characteristic is involved. However, the
parents should have different or contrasting phenotypes. For example, in Fig. 1.1.8, a
cross between tall and dwarf pea plants was made.

Note that in the monohybrid cross in Fig. 1.1.8., the initial individuals that are mated
comprise the P generation or the parental generation. Particularly, the P generation
consists of tall and dwarf parents. Note that P generations in all of Mendel’s crosses consist
of true-breeding or homozygous individuals. These parents, when cross-pollinated, will
give rise to the F1 generation or first filial generation, the offspring of P generation. In the
cross in Fig. 1.1.8., the F1 generation consists of only tall peas. Further, if F1 generation is
mated among each other, the F2 generation or second filial generation is obtained. In
other words, the offspring of the F1 generation is the F2 generation. In the above cross, 3/4
or 75% of the F2 are tall, while 1/4 or 25% are dwarf. Note that Mendel observed the same
ratio for the other six characteristics.



Fig. 1.1.8. A monohybrid cross involving the height of pea plants will produce all tall
offspring in the F1 generation and 3/4 tall and 1/4 dwarf in the F2 generation.



Interpretations of the Monohybrid Cross
Two major observations can be made from the monohybrid cross of Mendel. First, the F1
consists of only one phenotype, which is tall. Second, the dwarf phenotype reappeared
in the F2 generation. This implies that the tall trait is dominant over the recessive
dwarf trait. This is best explained by the Principle of Dominance. This states that when an
individual is heterozygous, the dominant allele tends to mask the expression of the recessive
allele. For you to understand better, let us establish notations to our monohybrid cross. Let
gene T code for height in the pea plant. This gene exists in two forms: the dominant T allele
for tall trait and recessive t allele for the dwarf trait. In the P generation, a TT (tall) parent is
crossed with a tt (dwarf) parent. In Table 1.1.3. below, note that the recessive allele is
masked in the heterozygous individuals in both F1 and F2 generations. Also, this explains
that the recessive phenotype is always true-breeding, whereas an individual with the
dominant phenotype may either be homozygous or heterozygous.
Table 1.1.3. The conceptual approach to Mendel’s monohybrid cross
P Tall × Dwarf P TT × tt
Phenotypic Ratio: Genotypic Ratio:

F1 F1
100% or All Tall 100% or All Tt
Phenotypic Ratio: Genotypic Ratio:

F2 F2
3/4 Tall : 1/4 Dwarf 1/4 TT: 2/4 Tt: 1/4 tt

Another major implication of the 3:1 ratio of the monohybrid cross is that the genes
segregate. According to the Law of Segregation, the two alleles of an individual segregate (or
separate) from each other during gamete formation. This process occurs at random. This
means that only one copy of the gene is present in each gamete or sex cell.
Consequently, the genetic makeup of the offspring will be determined by the alleles present
in the gametes that participate or fuse during fertilization. In Fig. 1.1.9 below, the tall parent
TT, will only produce gametes with the allele T, whereas the dwarf parent tt will only produce
gametes with the allele t. Thus, only one genotype is present in F1, which is Tt (tall hybrid).
The individuals of F1, by contrast, produce two types of gametes: one with allele T and the
other with allele t. Crossing among F1 yields all possible genotypes in F2 at a ratio of 1:2:1.



Likewise, both phenotypes are also seen in F2 at a ratio of 3:1.

Fig. 1.1.9. The law of segregation explains why the monohybrid cross will have a
characteristic phenotypic ratio of 3:1 in the F2 generation.

Using Punnett Squares
To apply your knowledge of the principle of dominance and law of segregation in analyzing
other crosses, we can use the Punnett Square. This method, which was devised by
Reginald Punnett, is a basic technique that can be used to represent the segregation of
gametes in the parents and the fertilization to produce the possible offspring. By



using the example earlier, Table 1.1.4. shows separate Punnett squares for P (tall × dwarf)
and F1 generations (tall × tall). Note that the first rows and columns below the parent
genotypes represent the segregated gametes (sperm and eggs). Combining them will
give rise to the possible genotypes of the offspring. The steps are summarized as follows.
1. Write down the genotypes of both parents for each cross.
a. P generation: TT, tt
b. F1 generation: both Tt
2. Write down the possible gametes for each genotype. Then, draw an empty version of
the boxes below where you can write the gametes and offspring.
a. TT: only T
b. tt: only t
c. Tt: T or t

Table 1.1.4. Punnett squares for P and F1 generations in a monohybrid cross
P generation Cross F1 generation Cross
Tall (TT) × Dwarf (tt) Tall (Tt) × Tall (Tt)

( ) ♂
( ) ♂

♀
( )

Tt Tt
(tall)
♀
( )

TT Tt
(tall) (tall) (tall)
Tt Tt Tt tt

(tall) (tall) (tall) (dwarf)
Genotypic Ratio: 100% or all Tt Genotypic Ratio: 1/4 TT: 2/4 Tt: 1/4 tt
Phenotypic Ratio: 100% or all tall Phenotypic Ratio: 3/4 tall: 1/4 dwarf



Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross

Fig. 1.1.10. The dihybrid cross of Mendel, similar to the monohybrid cross, will yield one
phenotype in the F1 generation. However, the F2 generation consists of four phenotypes,
which occur in 9:3:3:1 ratio. Particularly, these phenotypes are 9/16 round, yellow: 3/16
round, green: 3/16 wrinkled, yellow: 1/16 wrinkled, green.



In Mendel’s dihybrid cross, the same pattern applies as in the monohybrid cross. However,
this time, two characteristics or two pairs of contrasting traits are involved. For
example, a dihybrid cross may involve seed shape and seed color (as in Fig. 1.1.10). His
monohybrid crosses already revealed that round is dominant over wrinkled, while yellow
seeds are dominant over green ones. We can let gene R represent seed shape and gene Y
for seed color. To start the dihybrid cross (as shown in Fig. 1.1.10), the P generation must
have round and yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled and green seeds (rryy). This cross will
yield that characteristic F2 phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.

Interpretations of the Dihybrid Cross
The F2 generation of the dihybrid cross of Mendel has a characteristic phenotypic ratio of
9:3:3:1. This result is best explained by Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment.
According to this law, the alleles from different genes are sorted into the gametes independently
of each other. This also implies that genes are inherited independently of each other. For
example, in the given cross above, the result of the dihybrid cross means that seed color
and seed shape are inherited independently. The inheritance of one gene does not
influence that of the other. To better understand this, see Table 1.1.5.

Table 1.1.5. Application of Punnett square to P and F1 generations of a dihybrid cross
P generation Cross F1 generation Cross

round, yellow (RRYY) × round, yellow (RrYy) ×
wrinkled, green (rryy) round, yellow (RrYy)

RY RY RY Ry rY ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RrYy RrYy RY round, round, round, round,
ry round, round, yellow yellow yellow yellow
yellow yellow
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
RrYy RrYy Ry round, round, round, round,
ry round, round, yellow green yellow green
yellow yellow
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
rY round, round, wrinkled wrinkled
F1 generation results yellow yellow yellow yellow
Genotypic Ratio: RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
100% or all RrYy yellow green yellow green



Phenotypic Ratio: F2 generation results
100% or all round, yellow Genotypic Ratio:
1/16 RRYY 2/16 RrYY 1/16 rrYY

What are the allele combinations of 2/16 RRYy 4/16 RrYy 2/16 rrYy
F1?
1/16 RRyy 2/16 Rryy 1/16 rryy

Phenotypic Ratio:

9/16 round, yellow 3/16 wrinkled, yellow

3/16 round, green 1/16 wrinkled, green

Is the law of segregation still applicable when two

genes are already involved? Why do you think so?

Laws of Inheritance and Gametogenesis
Both the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment provide the basic
mechanisms of the inheritance of traits. Note that both of these laws operate during the
anaphase I of gametogenesis (as shown in Fig. 1.1.11).

During segregation, the members of an allele pair separate as the members of
homologous chromosomes separate. Ultimately, each of these two alleles is distributed
randomly to each gamete. During independent assortment, at least two pairs of alleles
must be involved. In the figure below, if genes R and Y are said to be independently
assorting, they must be found on different chromosomes. This also implies that the
segregation of allele pair R and r is independent of the segregation of the allele pair Y and y.



Fig. 1.1.11. Both of Mendel’s laws of inheritance operate during the first anaphase of
meiotic division during gamete or sex cell formation.

How is the separation of homologous

chromosomes relevant to the laws of inheritance?

Did You Know?

The deposition of melanin in your skin, eye, and hair pigment is
controlled by the pair of alleles that follow the principle of
dominance.



For us to produce melanin, we need the enzyme tyrosinase, which

converts the amino acid tyrosine into melanin. Melanin is the
pigment that gives a dark color to our skin, and it is produced by
the cells called melanocytes. In fact, melanocyte overgrowth results
in the formation of moles in our skin. Tyrosinase gene is
dominant; thus, we only need one copy of it for us to have normal
skin pigmentation. If the tyrosinase gene becomes mutated, it
becomes a recessive gene, which impairs melanin
production—having two copies of the recessive gene for tyrosinase
results in the condition called albinism, the total lack of
pigmentation.

Albinism is characterized by the total lack of pigmentation of eyes, skin,
and hair. Eyes appear red because the light is reflected from the blood
vessels in the eyeball.

Let’s Practice!
Example 1
Brylle is fond of growing crops in his garden. One of the crops that he cultivates is the
garden pea (Pisum sativum). One strain of his pea plants is heterozygous for flower colors,
with genotype Mm. Another strain of his peas has smooth pods and axial flowers with
genotype AaBB. What are the gametes produced by each of these two plants with respect to
the indicated characteristics?



Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the types of gametes produced by the plants.

Step 2: Write the given in the problem.
Plant 1 has a genotype of Mm.
Plant 2 has a genotype of AaBB

Step 3: Identify the alleles produced by plants 1 and 2.
Plant 1: Mm Gametes M and m.
Plant 2: AaBB Gametes AB and aB.

Plant 1 (Mm) produces gametes with alleles M and m, while Plant 2 (AaBB) produces
gametes with allele combinations AB and aB.

1 Try It!
Nickson cultivated two different plants. The first plant is recessive for trait A, while
the second plant is homozygous dominant for trait B and heterozygous for trait C.
What are the allele combinations that can be produced by his first and second
plants?

Example 2
In pea plants, axial inflorescence is dominant over terminal inflorescence. If Laiza crossed a
parent plant that is heterozygous for inflorescence to another plant with terminal
inflorescence, what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring?

Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the cross.

Step 2: The traits and the phenotypes of the parents are given.
The axial inflorescence is dominant over the terminal one in peas.
Then, we can assign alleles.
A : axial inflorescence



a : terminal inflorescence
Parent 1 is heterozygous, while parent 2 has terminal flowers.
Then, we can assign genotypes.
Aa : Parent 1
aa : Parent 2

Step 3: Draw a Punnett square and place the gametes of the parents.

A a
a
a

Step 4: Combine the gametes to form the genotypes of offspring.
You may also directly write the phenotypes.

A a
Aa aa
a
(axial) (terminal)
Aa aa
a
(axial) (terminal)

The genotypic ratio of the cross is 1/2 AA: 1/2 aa. The phenotypic ratio is 1/2 axial: 1/2
terminal.

2 Try It!
If a parent pea plant that is hybrid for flower color is crossed with a plant that is
true-breeding for violet flowers, what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the
F1 generation? Note that having violet flowers is dominant over having white flowers.



Example 3
In pea plants, round seeds are dominant over wrinkled seeds, while the tall trait is dominant
over the dwarf trait. If you cross two plants that are both heterozygous for seed shape but
homozygous dominant for height, what are the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of
the offspring?

Solution
Step 1: You are asked to provide the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the cross.

Step 2: The dominance of the traits, as well as the traits of the parents, is given.
Having round seeds is dominant over having wrinkled seeds. Also,
being tall is dominant over being a dwarf. We can assign the following.
A : round B : tall
a : wrinkled b : dwarf

Then, both parents are AaBB. The cross is AaBB × AaBB.

Step 3: Determine the allele combinations of the parents.
Both parents have the same genotypes. They produce two gametes.
Gamete 1: AB Gamete 2: aB

Step 4: Draw a Punnett square and place the gametes of the parents.
AB aB
AB
aB

Step 5: Combine the allele combinations to form the genotypes of offspring.
You may also directly write the phenotypes.
AB aB
AABB AaBB
AB
(round, tall) (round, tall)
AaBB aaBB
aB
(round, tall) (wrinkled, tall)



The genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross is 1/4 AABB: 2/4 AaBB: 1/4 aaBB. The
phenotypic ratio is 3/4 round tall: 1/4 wrinkled tall.

3 Try It!
Gene A codes for seed color, where having yellow seed is dominant over having a
green seed. Gene B codes for pod shape, where the smooth pod is dominant over
the constricted pod. Given the cross AaBB × AABb, what is the genotypic and
phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
Key Points
________________________________________________________________________________________________
● Genetics is the study of inheritance and variation in organisms. It has various
subdisciplines. Transmission genetics is the one that is particularly concerned
about the mechanisms or patterns of inheritance.
● Gregor Mendel is the father of genetics. He performed experiments on garden pea
or Pisum sativum. This led him to formulate the laws of inheritance in his
publication, Experiments on Plant Hybrids.
● Different genes control the expression of the characteristics of organisms. Each
gene exists in alternative forms called alleles.
● In terms of expression, genes can either be dominant or recessive. According to the
principle of dominance of Mendel, in a heterozygous individual, the dominant
allele tends to mask the expression of the recessive allele.
● Mendel’s monohybrid cross reveals the law of segregation. According to this law,
the alleles segregate during gametogenesis. This explains the characteristic 3:1
phenotypic ratio of F2 in monohybrid crosses.
● Mendel’s dihybrid cross reveals the law of independent assortment. According
to this law, allele pairs from different genes separate independently during gamete
formation. This explains the characteristics ratio of 9:3:3:1 of F2 of dihybrid crosses.



Transmission genetics serves as the pioneer field in genetics.
________________________________________________________________________________________________


A. Determine the accuracy of each of the following statements.

Write true if the statement is correct and false if otherwise.
1. Transmission genetics deals with different patterns of inheritance.

2. The results of the hybridization experiments of Mendel received instant
recognition and acceptance two years after the publication of his paper.
3. Garden pea is an ideal model to study inheritance because it reproduces solely
through self-pollination.
4. Locus refers to the position of a gene in a chromosome.
5. The two alleles of the same gene are both acquired by one gamete.
6. Receiving different alleles for the same gene from each parent makes one
heterozygous for that gene locus.
7. An individual that is homozygous for a trait also breeds true for that trait.
8. A recessive allele can mask the expression of a dominant allele.
9. A cross between a tall, violet-flowered plant and a dwarf, white-flowered plant is
an example of a monohybrid cross.
10. The characteristic F2 phenotypic ratio of Mendel’s monohybrid cross is 3:1.
11. If the genes for seed shape and height of peas are independently assorting, then
they highly influence the inheritance of each other.



12. The F2 generation is the offspring of the P generation.
13. Both the laws of inheritance operate during the first anaphase of meiosis.
14. The alleles for seed shape (round allele and wrinkled allele) should be found on
the same locus.
15. The characteristic F2 generation phenotypic ratio of Mendel’s dihybrid cross is
9:3:3:1.
B. Provide what is asked in each of the following items.
1. What are the alleles produced by an individual with genotype NN?

2. What are the alleles produced by an individual with genotype Bb?
3. What are the alleles produced by an individual with genotype Mmnn?
4. What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross AA × Aa?
5. What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross Bb × bb?

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.
1. You crossed two true-breeding lines of violet-flowered and white-flowered peas. Is it

possible to establish a true-breeding line of the genotype found in the offspring of
your cross? Why or why not?
2. Would you automatically know the genotype of a recessive and a dominant
individual? Why or why not?
3. A nondisjunction is a rare event during meiotic division wherein the homologous
chromosomes fail to separate. If nondisjunction occurs in a chromosome pair, what
will be its effect on the gametes and the offspring in relation to the alleles present in
the chromosomes?
4. A pea plant with a dominant trait is crossed with a recessive individual. Their
offspring have only one phenotype. What do you think explains this outcome?
5. A plant with genotype MmNN is self-fertilized. What is the genotypic ratio of the
offspring?



Photo Credits
The Coral Reef at the Andaman Islands by Ritiks is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

StThomasAbbeyBrno by No machine-readable author provided, Parmesan~commonswiki
assumed (based on copyright claims) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.

Starr 081009-0043 Pisum sativum var. Macrocarpum by Forest & Kim Starr is licensed under
CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Pisum sativum flowers J1 by Jamain is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

João Pedro - Albino Baby by Felipe Fernandes is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr.

Bibliography
Brooker, J. Concepts of Genetics (1st ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2012.

Klug, W.S, and Cummings, M.R. Concepts of genetics (6th ed). Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Prentice-Hall. 2003.

Pierce, B. Genetics: a conceptual approach (8th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 2012.

Reece J., Taylor M., Simon E., and Dickey J. Campbell Biology: Concepts and Connections (7th
ed.). Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson. 2011.

Snustad, D.P., and Simmons, M.J. Principles of Genetics (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 2012.



Key to Try It!

1. Plant 1, with genotype aa, can only produce gametes with allele a. Plant 2, with
genotype BBCc, can produce the gametes BC and Bc.
2. If we assign letter B for flower color, the genotypic ratio is 1/2 BB: 1/2 Bb, while the
phenotypic ratio is 100% or all violet.

BB × Bb
B B
BB BB
B
(violet) (violet)
Bb Bb
b
(violet) (violet)

3. Given the allelic assignments, the genotypic ratio is 1/4 AABB: 1/4 AABb: 1/4 AaBB:
1/4 AaBb. The phenotypic ratio is 100% or all yellow seeded with smooth pods.

AaBB × AABb
AB aB
AABB AaBB
AB (yellow, (yellow,
smooth) smooth)
AABb AaBb
Ab (yellow, (yellow,
smooth) smooth)



Lesson 1.4

Contents
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
Warm Up 2
Learn about It! 4

Recombination 4
Sex Linkage 6
Sex-Linked Traits 7
X-Linked Traits 8
Color Blindness and Hemophilia Are X-Linked Traits 9
Y-Linked Traits 12
Inheritance of Sex-Linked Traits 12
Other Sex-Linked Traits 18
Key Points 20
Check Your Understanding 21
Challenge Yourself 22
Photo Credit 24
Bibliography 24
Key to Try It! 25


Lesson 1.4

Introduction
Is the red or green color that you see similar to that of what other people see? Color is one
of the properties of objects that our minds interpret. It intensifies our appreciation of
things—from a colorful rainbow to an aesthetic painting. Colors help us understand more
the world around us and even give us increased capacity for survival. However, some
people are partially color-blind. Have you ever wondered how they can still distinguish
between different colors? How can they win a basketball game if the opponent team’s color
is light green and theirs is dark green? How can a color-blind biology student pass a moving
exam that involves the identification of differently-colored pins? How could color-blind
people cross a pedestrian lane safely if they cannot distinguish which is red, green, or
yellow on the stoplight? If you can determine the numbers in the Ishihara chart above, you
do not belong to the small population of people who are color-blind. How do people
acquire this trait? Why is it more common in males than in females?

1.4. Sex Linkage and Recombination 1


Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the
Explain sex linkage and recombination.
following: (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-2)

● Describe how sex-linked traits are inherited.
● Calculate the probability of the

occurrence of a sex-linked trait.

● Give examples of other sex-related traits.
Warm Up
What Is It Like to Be Color-Blind? 15 minutes

Color blindness is a sex-linked trait wherein a person cannot properly distinguish between
colors. The gene for this trait is found on the X chromosome, but not on the Y chromosome.
Take the test below to determine if you belong to the small population of people with color
blindness. In addition, this activity will let you consider the possible challenges faced by
people who are color-blind.

Material
● a device with an Internet connection

Procedure
1. By using your Internet-connected device, access the link below to take a color
blindness test.



EnChroma. “Color Blindness Test.”

“Color Blindness Test,” Enchroma,
https://enchroma.com/pages/test, last accessed on
September 17, 2019.

2. Check each image in the test and identify what number is shown. If you think that
there is no number shown, click “nothing.” If you are not sure if there is a number,
click “unsure.”
3. After taking the test, form a group with at least five members. Identify who among
the members are color-blind.
4. Ask the members who are color-blind, if there are any, about the challenges they
face based on the situations below. If there is no color-blind person in the group,
brainstorm on the possible challenges that color-blind person might face based on
the provided circumstances.
a. cooking or food preparation
b. doing a job that requires color vision
c. using various shades of paints in an art class
5. After brainstorming, let your group share your ideas with the class.

Guide Questions
1. What is color blindness?
2. What are the challenges faced by a color-blind person?
3. What can you do to help a person who is color-blind?
4. How does a color-blind person’s view of the world differ with a person with normal
vision?



Learn about It!

Unlike you, your biological brother has a widow’s

peak and a cleft chin. If your genes are inherited

from the same parents, why do you look different?

Recombination
All cells in humans, except sex cells, are composed of 46 individual chromosomes, which is
equivalent to 23 pairs (as shown in Fig. 1.4.1). Each pair of chromosomes consists of genes
for the same physical features such as hair color or skin color. Each copy of a certain pair of
chromosomes may contain similar or different alleles. For example, one copy may code for
straight hair, while the other copy may code for curly hair. These pairs of chromosomes are
known as homologous chromosomes, or ones that have the same genes even if they have
different alleles.

Fig. 1.4.1 Gametes have 23 chromosomes, whereas body cells have 46 chromosomes. The
number of chromosomes is reduced during meiosis and restored during fertilization.



Egg cells and sperm cells, unlike the other cells of the body, have only one copy of each
chromosome instead of two. Consequently, there are only 23 chromosomes in gametes
instead of 46. During gamete formation, cells undergo a process called meiosis. As shown
in Fig. 1.4.2, similar to mitosis, meiosis involves the duplication of the genetic material prior
to the actual division. However, the resulting daughter cells after meiotic division obtain one
copy of each chromosome instead of two. Furthermore, it is during this division that
homologous recombination occurs.

Fig. 1.4.2 Replication of the genetic material produces another copy of each member of the
homologous chromosomes.

The first part of meiosis involves the replication of chromosomes. This is shown in step 1 in
Fig. 1.4.3. The single copy of chromosomes will become two copies after replication.
Therefore, there will be two pairs of homologous chromosomes before meiosis progresses.
Steps 2 and 3 are the events when homologous chromosomes align and exchange genes
respectively. These steps involve the alignment of the pairs of homologs in an area known
as the metaphase plate and the exchange of genes between each of the members of the
homologous pairs.



Fig. 1.4.3 Homologous recombination occurs during the meiotic division. This is one of the
mechanisms in sexually reproducing organisms that enhance genetic variation.

Steps 4 and 5 show the result of recombination, which refers to new allele combinations
that can be inherited by the offspring. The recombinant chromosomes may or may not
resemble the original chromosomes. If the recombination of homologous chromosomes
does not occur, each copy that will be received by the daughter cells will be an exact copy of
the original chromosomes. Therefore, homologous recombination may increase genetic
diversity. This is the reason why you and your sibling looks different even if your genes are
inherited from the same parents.

Sex Linkage
Recall that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 1st to 22nd pairs are called the
autosomes, and the 23rd pair consists of the sex chromosomes. Two X chromosomes (XX)
are found in females, whereas one X and one Y chromosomes (XY) are found in males. Fig.
1.4.4 shows a human male karyotype consisting of autosomes and sex chromosomes.



Fig. 1.4.4 An example of a human karyotype showing the autosomal and sex chromosomal
pairs. Sex chromosomal combination varies between males and females.

Some of the genes that code for a certain trait can be located on the autosomes, while
others are located on the sex chromosomes. Genes located on the sex chromosomes are
called sex-linked genes, so their phenotypic manifestation and inheritance patterns may
vary between males and females.

How are sex-linked traits inherited?

Sex-Linked Traits
Genes that are located in either sex chromosomes are known as sex-linked genes. When
a trait is controlled by a gene in the X chromosome, it is called an X-linked trait. If the
trait is controlled by a gene in Y chromosome, it is called a Y-linked trait.



X-Linked Traits
X-linked traits are more common in males than in females. This is because males have
only one X chromosome. Therefore, if a trait is linked to their single X chromosome, they
will already exhibit it in their phenotype. In females, X-linked traits are less common,
since females have two X chromosomes. It means that before a female expresses the
X-linked trait, the allele for the trait should be found in both X chromosomes. If only one of
the chromosomes is affected, the female is said to be a carrier of the trait but does not
express it in her phenotype.

Your female friend does not exhibit a sex-linked

trait but her brother does. What can possibly

account for this?

Generally, X-linked traits are more common in males, because they have a 1/2 or 50%
chance (50% chance of being normal or 50% chance of possessing the X-linked trait) to
express the trait. Females only have 1/3 or 33.3% chance (33.3% chance of being normal,
33.3% chance of being a carrier, and 33.3% chance of manifesting the X-linked trait) of
acquiring the trait.

Fig. 1.4.5 shows a pedigree chart of a sex-linked disorder. This pedigree chart shows the
inheritance of an X-linked disorder where the first-generation father is normal while the
mother is a carrier. These are shown by a fully shaded blue box and a half-shaded circle,
respectively. Refer to the legend on the upper-left side as a guide to interpret the chart.



Fig. 1.4.5 Pedigree charts show a detailed history of the transmission of genetic disorders.
In the above pedigree, the X-linked gene for the disorder tends to be passed from the
mother to both sons and daughters. By contrast, fathers only pass the gene to their
daughters.

The pedigree chart shows that even if the mother is just a carrier of the trait and the
father is normal, there is still a possibility that they will have an offspring with an X-linked
trait. The number of fully-shaded red boxes represents a higher chance of possessing the
X-linked trait in males.

Abby is wearing a blue shirt, but she insists that it

is red. How is this possible?

Color Blindness and Hemophilia Are X-Linked Traits
Color blindness is the inability to distinguish certain colors. Depending on the type of
color blindness, some people with this condition can see objects only in shades of gray
(monochromatism), some cannot distinguish one of the primary colors of light: red, blue,



green (dichromatism), while others still see colors but find it difficult to distinguish
shades of a certain color (anomalous trichromatism). This condition is inherited and
affects males more than females. The Ishihara chart below (Fig. 1.4.6) is used as a test
for color blindness. It is named after its inventor, a Japanese ophthalmologist named
Shinobu Ishihara. Each chart is composed of colored dots and a number or object. The
patient must be able to identify the number, or image, that is supposed to be visible in the
chart.

Fig. 1.4.6 There are eight Ishihara charts available for testing color blindness in humans.

How can color-blind people cross a pedestrian

lane safely if they cannot distinguish which is red,

green, or yellow on the stoplight?

Another X-linked trait is hemophilia. Hemophilia is a rare inherited bleeding disorder.
People with this condition bleed longer after an injury compared with a normal person. As
shown in the illustration below (Fig. 1.4.7), a healthy person will clot properly after a
hemorrhage occurs, but a hemophilic person will continue to bleed since he/she does not
have sufficient blood-clotting proteins.



Fig. 1.4.7 Genetically normal individuals are phenotypically healthy people because of
normal blood clotting during injury. By contrast, hemophilic individuals may suffer blood
loss.

Hemophilia is sometimes termed as the “royal disease” because the royal families of
England, Germany, Russia, and Spain in the 19th and 20th centuries were affected by this
condition. Queen Victoria of England, who ruled from 1837 to 1901, was a carrier of
hemophilia. Her husband, Prince Albert, was not hemophilic. As shown in the pedigree
chart of the royal family below (Fig. 1.4.8), three out of nine children of Queen Victoria
inherited the trait. Her son Leopold died because of a hemorrhage when he was 30. Her
other two daughters who inherited the trait, Alice and Beatrice, passed the trait onto their
offspring. The pedigree chart of the royal family shows that hemophilia, an X-linked trait, is
really more common in males than in females.



Fig. 1.4.8 A truncated pedigree chart of Queen Victoria's descendants gives emphasis on
the paths of the hemophilia gene in succeeding generations.

Y-Linked Traits
Y-linked traits are only seen in males since only males have a Y chromosome. Therefore, if
the father possesses the Y-linked trait, all the male offspring will acquire the trait. The
female offspring will never acquire and express the trait. An example is the hypertrichosis
pinnae auris trait. This trait is characterized by having hairy ears.

Why is sex-related inheritance not following

Mendel’s laws?

Inheritance of Sex-Linked Traits
In Mendelian inheritance, the heterozygous genotype expresses the dominant trait. On
the other hand, the heterozygous genotype of X-linked traits in females will result in a
carrier female. The female will only express the phenotype if both of the X chromosomes
have the gene for the X-linked trait.



In males, once their X chromosome has the allele for an X-linked trait, they will already
express that trait. This is because males only have one X chromosome. The table below
(Table 1.4.1.) shows the possible genotypes for color blindness. The same genotypes will
be used for hemophilia, but the letter C attached to the sex chromosome will be changed
into H.

Table 1.4.1. Possible color blindness genotypes and phenotypes of males and females
Female Male
XX Normal female XY Normal male
XCX Carrier female XCY Color-blind male
XCXC Color-blind female

In a Y-linked trait, only males will express the trait. They have a 50% chance of being
normal and 50% chance of having the Y-linked trait. In females, there is a 0% chance of
acquiring the trait. This is because females do not have Y chromosomes.

Did You Know?

There was no solution in the past to help color-blind people see or
distinguish colors. Nowadays, special lenses are created to filter
out various mixes of colors in order for color-blind people to see
colors differently.



Special lenses are developed to help color-blind people distinguish
the colors of the white light spectrum.
Let’s Practice!
Example 1
Anna, who is a carrier of hemophilia, marries Juan, a man without hemophilia. Identify the
phenotype of their possible offspring.

Solution
Step 1: Identify the genotypes of both parents.
Anna is a carrier of hemophilia. → XHX
Juan is normal. → XY

Step 2: Create a Punnett square.

Anna
XH X
X XHX XX
Juan
Y XHY XY



Step 3 Interpret the results.
XHX = carrier female
XX = normal female
XHY = hemophiliac male
XY = normal male

Step 4 Provide the final answer.
The possible trait of the female offspring of Anna and Juan is 50%
normal and 50% carrier. If the offspring is male, the chances are 50%
hemophiliac and 50% normal.

1 Try It!
Identify the phenotype of the possible offspring of a color-blind woman married to a
man with normal color vision.

Example 2
Marie, a single mom, claimed that John was the father of her child. John denied it, claiming
that Marie’s current boyfriend was the father. Marie is color-blind, while John has normal
vision, and the daughter is color-blind. Is it possible that he is the father?

Solution
Step 1: Identify the genotypes of both parents.
Marie is color-blind. → XCXC
John is normal. → XY

Step 2: Create a Punnett square.



Marie
XC XC
X XCX XCX
John
Y XCY XCY

Step 3: Interpret the results.
XCX = carrier female
X Y
C
= color-blind male

Step 4: Provide the final answer.
If Marie is color-blind and John has normal vision, they cannot have a
daughter who is color-blind. Based on the Punnett square, the
phenotype of the possible offspring if John is the father is carrier
females and color-blind males.

2 Try It!
Someone removed the ID bracelets of four babies in a maternity ward. The parents
want to be sure that they have the right ones back. A particular dad is hemophilic,
while his wife is normal. The first baby is a hemophilic female; the second is a normal
female; the third is a hemophilic male, and the fourth is a normal male. Which baby
must be theirs? Explain.

Example 3
There was a man who was acting strangely at a restaurant, so the police were called in.
When the police arrived, they noticed that the man was with a young girl. The man claims
that he is the girl’s father, but the girl is too young or too afraid to answer questions. The
young girl is color-blind, and the man has a normal vision. Is he telling the truth that he is
the father?



Solution
Step 1: Identify the genotypes of the father and the young girl.
The young girl is color-blind. → XCXC
The man has a normal vision. → XY

Step 2: Create a Punnett square. Do a trial and error of the possible genotypes
of the mother to check if there is a possibility that if the mother is
married to the man, one of the offspring will be a color-blind girl.

Possibility 1: The mother is color-blind (XCXC).

Possible Mother
XC XC
X XCX XCX
Man
Y XCY XCY

Possibility 2: The mother is a carrier (XCX).

Possible Mother
XC X
X XCX XX
Man
Y XCY XY



Possibility 3: The mother has normal vision (XX).

Possible Mother
X X
X XX XX
Man
Y XY XY

Step 3: Interpret the results.
Possibility 1 offspring → 2 carrier females, 2 color-blind males
Possibility 2 offspring → 1 carrier female, 1 normal female, 1 color-blind
male, 1 normal male
Possibility 3 offspring → 2 normal females, 2 normal males

Step 4: Provide the final answer.
It is not possible that the man is the father of the young girl, since
whatever the genotype of the mother, it is impossible to have a
color-blind daughter if the father has normal vision.

3 Try It!
The mother of a baby girl died shortly after giving birth. The girl grew up without
knowing her biological father. This led her to hire a detective to locate her father. If
the mother is a carrier of hemophilia, and the girl is hemophilic, what characteristics
of the father should the girl expect from the detective’s report?

Other Sex-Linked Traits
Other sex-related traits are the sex-influenced and sex-limited traits. Both traits are
autosomal, which means that as opposed to the sex-linked trait, these traits are not
located on the sex chromosomes. However, sex still has something to do with the
expression of the trait.



Sex-influenced traits can be found in both sexes but expressed more in one sex than
in the other. In other words, the manner of expression is different between sexes. An
example of this is the baldness trait. Baldness (coded by allele B) is more common in
males than in females because they have a 2/3 or 66.7% chance of acquiring the trait. As
shown in the table below, the possibility of a male to acquire the trait is 2 (Bb and Bb) out
of 3 genotypes. On the other hand, females only have 1/3 or 33.3% chance of acquiring
the trait. It is because the possibility of a female to acquire the trait is 1 (BB) out of 3
genotypes. This means that males will become bald if they have at least one copy of the
baldness allele. Females need two copies of baldness allele to become bald. Note in the
table below (Table 1.4.2.) that, because the trait is already autosomal, males and females
will have the same set of genotypes unlike that of in X-linked traits.

Table 1.4.2. Possible genotypes and corresponding phenotypes for male and females
differ in pattern baldness.
Female Male
BB Bald BB Bald
Bb Non-bald Bb Bald
bb Non-bald bb Non-bald

By contrast, genes for sex-limited traits can be found in both sexes but only one sex
expresses it on their phenotype. An example of this trait is the lactation trait or the
ability of the mammary glands to produce milk. The gene for this trait is found both in
males and in females. However, only the females express it in their phenotype. The table
below (Table 1.4.3.) shows that the trait (coded by allele R) is found in male genotypes but
any genotype could not express the lactation trait in the phenotype of males.



Table 1.4.3. Genotypes and corresponding phenotypes differ between sexes in lactation.
Female Male
RR Lactating RR Not lactating
Rr Lactating Rr Not lactating
rr Not lactating rr Not lactating

Key Points
_____________________________________________________________________________________

● Recombination is a mechanism where the homologous pairs of chromosomes

exchange genes.
● Sex linkage is termed as such because their phenotypic manifestation and
inheritance patterns vary between males and females. Therefore, genes that go
along with either sex chromosome are said to be sex-linked.
○ When the trait is linked to the X chromosome, it is called an X-linked trait
while if the trait is linked to the Y chromosome, it is called a Y-linked trait.
○ As opposed to Mendelian inheritance wherein the heterozygous genotype
expresses the dominant trait, the heterozygous genotype of an X-linked trait
in females will result in a carrier female.
● Other sex-related traits are the sex-influenced and sex-limited traits.
○ Sex-influenced traits can be found in both sexes but expressed more in
one sex than in the other.
○ Sex-limited traits have genes that can be found in both sexes but only one
sex expresses it on their phenotype.
_____________________________________________________________________________________




A. Identify if the following statements describe X-linked, Y-linked,

sex-limited, or sex-influenced inheritance. Put a checkmark on the
appropriate column.

Statement X-linked Y-linked Sex-limited Sex-influenced
1. Genes are found

on the X
chromosome.
2. An example of
this is the
lactation trait.
3. Traits are
expressed more
frequently in
one sex than in
the other.
4. Traits are
expressed

exclusively in
one sex.
5. An example of
this is the
hypertrichosis
pinnae auris
trait.



B. Compute for the probability of the indicated offspring given the parental
genotypes or phenotypes.
1. a color-blind daughter from a normal father and a carrier mother

2. a color-blind son from a normal father and a carrier mother
3. a normal son from a normal father and a genetically normal mother
4. a carrier daughter from a carrier mother and a normal father
5. a genetically normal daughter from a normal father and color-blind mother
6. a hemophilic son from a hemophiliac father and a genetically normal mother
7. a daughter who is genetically normal for clotting from a carrier mother and a
hemophilic father
8. a carrier daughter from a hemophiliac father and a genetically normal mother
9. a bald son from a non-bald father and bald mother
10. a bald daughter from a heterozygous bald father and a bald mother
11. a non-bald son from a homozygous bald father and a non-bald mother
12. a bald daughter from a homozygous bald father and a non-bald mother
13. a bald son from a homozygous non-bald mother and a heterozygous father
14. a non-bald son from non-bald father and a bald mother
15. a lactating daughter from a non-lactating father and a homozygous lactating
mother

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.
1. Why are X-linked traits more common in males than in females?

2. What is the difference between the three sex-related traits in terms of location of
genes and occurrence in males and females?
3. By using a Punnett square, show the possible traits of the offspring of the following
parents. Identify the possibility (percentage) and phenotype of the possible children.
Use the table below to identify the genotypes or phenotypes of the parents.



Names Color blindness Lactation Baldness
1. Liza Normal rr Bb
2. Kath Carrier RR bb
3. Nadine Carrier Rr Bb
4. James Color-blind RR bb
5. Daniel Color-blind rr Bb
6. Enrique Normal Rr BB

a. Color blindness trait of Kath and Daniel
b. Lactation trait of Liza and James
c. Baldness trait of Enrique and Nadine



Photo Credit
Eight Ishihara charts for testing colour blindness, Europe Wellcome L0059163.jpg by
Wellcome Images is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Bibliography
Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B. and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin
Cummings/Pearson.

Starr, Cecie, Ralph Taggart, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology: the Unity and Diversity
of Life. Boston, MA: Cengage, 2019.



Key to Try It!

1. Identify the phenotype of the possible offspring of a color-blind woman married to a
man with normal vision.

Mother
XC XC
X XCX XCX
Father
Y XCY XCY

The possible offspring will be 100% carrier female and 100% color-blind male.

2. Someone removed the ID bracelets of four babies in a maternity ward. The parents
want to be sure that they have the right ones back. A particular dad is hemophilic,
while his wife is normal. The first baby is a hemophilic female; the second is a
normal female; the third is a hemophilic male, and the fourth is a normal male.
Which baby must be theirs? Explain.

Mother
X X
XC XCX XCX

Father
Y XY XY

Their baby must be the normal male since it is the only possible offspring that
would result from the cross.

3. The mother of a baby girl died after giving birth. The girl grew up without knowing
her biological father. This led her to hire a detective to locate her father. If the



mother is a carrier of the hemophilia trait, and the girl is hemophilic, what
characteristics of the father should the girl expect from the detective’s report?

Possibility 1 → The father is hemophilic (XHY).

Mother
XH X
XH XHXH XHX

Father
Y XHY XY

Possibility 2 → The father is not hemophilic (XY)

Mother
XH X
X XHX XX
Father
Y XHY XY

The girl should expect her father is hemophilic since it is the only
possible genotype of the father that will result in an offspring who is a hemophilic
female.


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Lesson 1.

Predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents

● Explain the foundations and development of

● Describe and apply the Mendelian laws of

...have you ever

...have you ever

Molecular genetics Cytogenetics

Transmission genetics Population genetics

Molecular genetics Cytogenetics

Transmission genetics Population genetics

Molecular genetics Cytogenetics deals with

Transmission genetics Population genetics

Molecular genetics Cytogenetics

Molecular genetics Cytogenetics

Transmission genetics, also called classical genetics, is the oldest

Mendel took the path to

Previous Notions Homunculus

Hugo de Vries Carl Correns Erich von Tschermak

Mendel’s paper, The Experiments on Plant Hybridization, was rediscovered

Our chromosomes occur in pairs

Our chromosomes occur in pairs

Paternal (from the father or male parent)

Our chromosomes occur in pairs

Paternal (from the father or male parent)

Maternal (from the mother or female parent)

A gene is the basic unit of heredity.

A gene is the basic unit of heredity.

In our given example, the gene

Also, note that genes occur in pairs.

How about this gene pair?

How about this gene pair?

The highlighted gene

Genotype refers to the set of alleles

Let’s say that the given chromosomes give

Let’s say that the given chromosomes give

If the phenotype for seed shape is round, then

If the phenotype for seed shape is round, then

The allele for round pea is

The allele for wrinkled pea is

Gregor Mendel utilized seven characteristics of peas in his

A monohybrid cross is a mating between two individuals

In this example, the height of

In this example, the height of

The parents have contrasting

In this example, the height of

The parents have contrasting

Both parents must also be

The parental generation

The ﬁrst ﬁlial generation

The second ﬁlial

In a heterozygous individual, one allele

TT - tall Tt - tall tt - dwarf

Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:

Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:

Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:

P generation Tall × Dwarf

Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:

P generation Tall × Dwarf TT × tt

Thus, we can have the genetic cross as follows:

P generation Tall × Dwarf TT × tt