Grade 7 Biology

Lecture Note

Unit 2. Cell Biology

Main Contents:
2.1 Microscope and its Uses
2.2 The Cell
2.3 Observation of Cells
2.4 Cell Type, Shape and Size
Unit Summary
Review Exercise for Unit 2
Learning Outcomes:
ˆ define microscopes;
ˆ classify them into simple and compound;
ˆ identify their parts and tell the functions of each part;
ˆ define cell, list parts of plant and animal cells seen under a compound microscope;
ˆ tell the functions of each part and compare a plant cell with an animal cell;
ˆ examine plant and animal cells under a microscope and draw and label the structures seen under a
microscope; and
ˆ show types, shapes, and sizes of cells using diagrams.

M. Behailu F.
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2 Cell Biology
ˆ Cell Biology is a branch of biology which deals with the basic unit of an organism known as cell.

ˆ This unit explains about:

– The most important tools that biologists use to study living things which is microscope.
– The types, parts and uses of compound light microscope
– The invention of microscope that led to the discovery of cells
– Structure and function of cell (Plant and Animal Cells)
– Differences and similarity between plant and animal cells
– Precaution to be exercised When a using microscope
– General procedures on how to set a microscope
– Various types, shapes, and sizes of cells

2.1 Microscope and its Uses

ˆ What is a microscope?

– A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too small to be seen clearly with the naked eye.
– Microscope is one of the most important tools that biologists use to study living things.
– Microscope uses lenses or system of lenses to produce a magnified image of an object under study.

– Terms:
* Microscope: an optical instrument used to observe very small objects.
* Microscope is a very useful instrument which is used to observe and study different types of cells.
* The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy.
* Microscopic: very small objects which are only viewed with microscope.
* Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
* A microscope enlarges the size of the object observed so that it looks bigger than its actual size. This is
called magnification.
* Magnification: ability of a microscope to enlarge the image of the sample (specimen).

ˆ Word Roots and Origins

– Microscope: is made up of two smaller Greek words.

– Micro which means small and, scope meaning to ‘look’ or ‘see’.

ˆ Historical background

– Robert Hooke
* The first observation of cells was made in 1665 by the English scientist Robert Hooke.
– Anton van Leeuwenhoek
* In 1673, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant pioneered the invention of one of the best
microscopes of the time.
* He was the first to observe, draw, and describe a variety of cells including bacteria, other one-celled organisms
and sperm cells.

ˆ What is the use of a microscope?

– A microscope offers a chance to closely study and learn more about smaller organisms.

ˆ Types of Microscopes

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Figure 1: Different types of simple microscopes

A) and B) magnifying lenses; C) reading lenses;
D) binocular two eyepieces and E) monocular (single eye piece)

– There are two types of microscopes.

– These are
1. Simple microscope
* A simple microscope is a microscope that uses a single convex lens that is capable of magnifying
an object.
* It consists of only one curved lens.
* A hand lens is an example of simple microscope.
* The magnifying glasses, reading lens and hand lens, magnify between 10 times to 20 times (usually
written as 10X to 20X).
* It means that the object you are looking through these simple microscopes will appear 10X larger
than its normal size.
2. Compound microscope
* A compound microscope is a microscope that uses two lens systems at the same time.
* The two lens systems are the eyepiece (ocular) lens and the objective lenses.
* The eyepiece lens usually magnifies ten times and is labelled as 10X.
* The objective lenses magnify four to hundred times.
* The total magnification is the product of the eye lens and objective lens magnifications.
* For example, if the magnification of the eye lens is 10X and the magnification of the objective lens is
4X, then the total magnification is 40X.
* Two types of compound microscopes:
· Monocular compound microscope: A compound microscope with single eye piece lens.
· Binocular compound microscope: A compound microscope with two eye pieces.
* Recent models of compound microscope can have a total magnification up to 2,000X.

Parts of a Compound Microscope

ˆ The compound light microscope is a type of microscope which is commonly used in many laboratories.

ˆ This light microscope consists of different parts through which the sample under study is magnified and observed.

ˆ Different parts of a Compound Microscope:

1. Ocular (eyepiece lens) 6. Nosepiece 11. Stage

2. Body tube (barrel) 7. Low-power objective lens (LP) 12. Stage clips Diaphragm (iris)
3. Coarse adjustment knob 8. Medium-power objective (MP)
4. Fine adjustment knob 9. High-power objective lens (HP) 13. Light source (lamp or mirror)
5. Arm 10. Oil immersion objective 14. Base

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Figure 2: Compound light microscope and its parts

The compound microscope parts and their function

Structure (part) Function (job)
Ocular (eyepiece lens) A convex lens used to magnify the image (usually 10X)
Body tube (barrel) Supports the eyepiece and the nosepiece.
Coarse adjustment knob Moves the tube up and down and produce a rough focus of the image.
Fine adjustment knob Moves the tube up and down by very small amount and produce a sharp focus of the image.
Arm Used to carry the microscope.
Nosepiece Contains the high- and low-power objectives.
Low-power objective lens (LP) A convex lens used to magnify the image (usually 4X)
Medium-power objective (MP) A convex lens used to magnify the image (usually 10X)
High-power objective lens (HP) A convex lens used to magnify the image (usually 40X)
Oil immersion objective A convex lens used to magnify the image (usually 100X)
Stage Supports the glass slide and contains the specimen being observed.
Stage clips Hold the slide in place.
Diaphragm (iris) Adjusts the amount of light passing through the stage.
Light source (lamp or mirror) Illuminates the specimen.
Base The bottom of the microscope, used for support.

2.2 The Cell

What is a cell?

ˆ A cell is the smallest unit of life and is often called the building block of life.

ˆ The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

ˆ Most cells are very small in size.

ˆ Since they are so tiny they can only be seen with the aid of a microscope.

ˆ Every living thing - from the smallest bacterium to the largest whale - is made of one or more cells.

ˆ All plants and animals are made up of one or more cells.

ˆ The word “Cell” came from Latin word, cellula, means “small room”.

ˆ Based on the number of cells they have, organisms can be grouped as unicellular (consisting of a single cell) or
multicellular (made up of many cells).

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1. Unicellular organisms
– Unicellular organism: an organism which is made up of a single cell.
– Unicellular organisms are those organisms composed of one cell.
– Examples of unicellular organisms include:
* different bacteria
* most algae and
* protozoans such as, amoeba and paramecium.

Figure 3: Different Unicellular Organisms

2. Multicellular organisms
– Multicellular organisms: organisms that are made up of many cells.
– Plants and animals are examples of multicellular organisms.
– Our body is made up of 37.2 trillion (3.72 × 1013 ) of cells.
– Within your body, cells have different functions. We have:

* blood cells * Muscle cells * heart cells and many types of

* skin cells * bone cells other cells.
* brain cells * reproductive cells
* Nerve cells * gland cells

– Plants are multicellular organisms, for instance, a rose plant has also different types of cells: like stem cells,
root cells, and many other types.
– Despite their differences, cells in living organisms have similar structures and functions.

Figure 4: Different Multicellular Organisms - Human beings and Plants

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Structures of Plant and Animal Cells

ˆ Cells, the tiny structural units of life, are made up of different parts.

ˆ The parts of cells are known as sub-cellular structures or organelles.

ˆ Different sub-cellular structures carry out different functions in cells.

Figure 5: Differences between simple animal and plant cells

ˆ Under a compound microscope, both animal and plant cells are observed to have three main parts. These are:

– cell membrane or plasma membrane,

– cytoplasm and
– nucleus

ˆ Cell membrane:

– part of a cell, which is very thin and delicate envelope (membrane) that covers and contains the internal parts of
a cell.
– controls materials that get in and out of the cell.

ˆ Cytoplasm:

– the internal fluid component of the cell.

– contains different sub-cellular structures in which chemical processes take place.

ˆ Nucleus:

– part of a cell and found within the cytoplasm. It is membrane bound structure which contains the genetic material
of the cell.
– controls reproduction and the activities of the cell.

Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

ˆ Animal and plant cells have some key similarities and differences as well.

ˆ Similarities between plant and animal cells:

– Both, animal and plant cells, have cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm.

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– Both animal and plant cells have vacuoles.

ˆ One of the primary differences between animal and plant cells is that plant cells have a cell wall made up of cellulose.

ˆ Plant cells have chloroplast, which contains the chlorophyll pigment in which they make their own food in the
process known as photosynthesis.

ˆ Although both, animal and plant cells, have vacuoles, the vacuoles in plant cell merge together at maturity and form
large vacuole.

ˆ Differences between plant and animal cells

– Animal cells – Plant cells

* Cells are smaller in size * Cells are larger in size
* Have no cell wall * Have cell wall
* Have no large central vacuole * Have large central vacuole
* Have no chloroplast * Have chloroplast

Differences between plant and animal cells

Animal cells Plant cells
Cells are smaller in size Cells are larger in size
Have no cell wall Have cell wall
Have no large central vacuole Have large central vacuole
Have no chloroplast Have chloroplast

Key Terms

ˆ Vacuole: a smaller cavity which is both found in animal and plant cells.

ˆ Large vacuole: large-sized which is only found in mature plant cells.

ˆ Cell wall: a rigid and protective external cover of plant cells, which is made up of cellulose.

ˆ Chloroplast: sub-cellular part of plant cells which contains chlorophyll and in which photo-synthesis takes place.

ˆ Chlorophyll: a green pigment found in chloroplast and responsible for absorption of light by plants to provide energy
for photosynthesis.

ˆ Photosynthesis: the process in which plants use sunlight energy to synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water.

2.3 Observation of Cells

ˆ Here, you will practice observing different cell samples obtained from different organisms under compound light microscope.

ˆ This will give you the opportunity to:

– observe different types of cells.

– examine plant and animal cells under a microscope.
– draw and label the structures of plant and animal cells seen under a microscope.

ˆ Specimens (different cell samples) to be examined under compound light microscope are:

– pollen grains and insect eggs

* Pollen grains: are male reproductive cells of plants, the botanical equivalent of the mammalian sperm.
* Pollen is produced in Anther (The part of the stamen).
– Elodea cells
* Elodea is an aquatic plant often called water weed (water plant).
* Parts of the cell that can be seen under microscope are the nucleus, cell wall and chloroplasts.
* Elodea cells are stiff-rectangular shaped.
– Onion cells
* Examin by removing a section of the skin (epidermis) between two layers of onion.
* Should be stained using iodine solution.

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* Parts of the cell that can be seen under microscope are the nucleus and cell wall, but no chloroplasts.
* Onions are underground and do not have access to the sun, so they lack chloroplasts.
* Onion cells have a round and rectangular-shaped structure.
– Cheek cells
* Examin by scraping cells from their own cheeks.
* The specimen should be stained using methylene blue solution.
* Parts of the cell that can be seen under microscope are the nucleus, cell membrane, and cytoplasm.
* Cheek cells are irregularly shaped because they do not have cell walls.
* The shape creates a flat, smooth surface so food does not get caught on the skin.

Precaution to be Exercised When a Using Microscope

ˆ Make sure the working table is clean and without any unnecessary items.

ˆ When the microscope is not in use, place the low power objective in position.

ˆ Avoid tilting the microscope and do not touch lenses with your finger.

ˆ Carry the microscope by the arm with one hand and support its base with the other hand.

ˆ Treat your microscope respectfully and according to proper instructions.

General Procedures on How to Set a Microscope

ˆ Put the microscope on the working table, keeping the arm towards yourself and stage away.

ˆ The base of the microscope should be kept several centimeters away from the edge of the table.

ˆ Rotate the nosepiece to make the low power objective in line with the body tube.

ˆ By using the coarse adjustment, raise the body-tube about 2 cm above the stage.

ˆ Open the diaphragm of the condenser for passing the light on the stage.

ˆ Look through the eyepiece, adjust the light source so that it is directed upwards.

ˆ Do not use coarse adjustment when viewing through the high power objective.

ˆ Keep the microscope always in upright position.

General Instructions for the Preparation of Specimens

ˆ some general instructions for the preparation of specimens to be examined under a microscope. These could include:

– Obtaining a thin specimen – so that light can pass through it.

* Specimen: a sample to be examined under the microscope.
– Placing the specimen on a clean microscope slide.
– Staining the specimen so that the different parts show up more clearly.
* Stain: a dye (coloring agent) used to color and make visible the whole or part of specimen under the
microscope.
* Mounting: is the preparation of a specimen for observation under a microscope.
* Wet mount: a process during which water is used as mounting medium to examine specimen under study.
– Placing a cover slip on top of the specimen.
– Using absorbent paper to remove excess stain.

2.4 Cell Type, Shape and Size

ˆ Cells of different organisms are different, and also cells within the same organism are different in type, size, and shape.

ˆ Cells of different unicellular organisms vary in their shapes and their sizes.

ˆ Cells that make up a multicellular organism like us, are different in their sizes, shapes, and types according to their
functions.

Cell Type

ˆ Cells of different multicellular organisms are of different types.

ˆ For instance,

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– Some of the cells in our body: – Some of the cells in plants:

* skin cells * Epidermal cells
* red blood cells * Guard cells
* nerve cells * Palisade cells
* bone cells * Spongy cell
* muscle cells and many others. * Root tip cells, etc.

Cell Shape

ˆ Cells of different unicellular and multicellular organisms vary in their shapes.

ˆ Because of the presence of cell wall, plant cells have regular shapes when observed under the microscope.

ˆ Because of the absence of cell wall, animal cells have irregular shapes when observed under the microscope.

ˆ For instance,

– Shape of unicellular organisms: – Shape of cells that make our body:

* Paramecium is slippery, * a nerve cell is long and branched,
* yeast cells’s shape is oval,
* skin cells are flat and thin,
* amoeba’s shape is
textbftextcolorredshapeless, and * red blood cells are round disks, and
* chlamydomona’s shape is round. * muscle cells are pointed at both ends.

Cell Size

ˆ Cells of different unicellular and multicellular organisms vary in their sizes.

ˆ Majority of cells are microscopic in their size.

ˆ For example:

– Different cells in our body vary in their size.

– Eggs of animals including that of humans are exceptionally big size as compared to other microscopic cells.
– One of the longest cells is the giraffe’s nerve cell that extends from spinal cord to its feet, which is about 2 m
long.

Figure 6: Differences between simple animal and plant cells

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Figure 7: Differences between simple animal and plant cells

Figure 8: Differences between simple animal and plant cells