Geography Book 2 - Tie - DR Khaliyloullah

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Geography
for Secondary Schools
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Student's Book
Form Two
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Tanzania Institute of Education

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Geography for Secondary Schools
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© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019
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Published 2019
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ISBN 978–9987–09–034–1
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P. O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam
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Telephone: +255-22-2773005/+255-22-2771358
Fax: +255-22-2774420
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Email: [email protected]
Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, stored in any retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the
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Tanzania Institute of Education.

ii Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Student’s Book Form Two
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Preface
This book, Geography for Secondary Schools is written specifically for Form
Two students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared according
to the 2005 Geography Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Form I-IV issued by the
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.
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The book is divided into nine chapters, which are: Human activities, Agriculture,
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Water management for economic development, Sustainable use of forest
resources, Mining industry, Tourism, Manufacturing industry, Sustainable use of
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power and energy resources, and Transport.
Besides the content, each chapter includes activities and exercises. Learners are
encouraged to do all activities and answer all questions. These activities and
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questions will enhance the learners’ acquisition of the intended knowledge, skills
and competencies for the Form Two level.

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Student’s Book Form Two Ministry of Education, Science and Technology iii
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Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contribution
of all the individuals and organizations that participated in the design
and development of this textbook.
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Writers: Dr Thaudensia Ndeskoi, Dr Innocent B. Rugambuka, Dr Matilda
Sabayi, Mr Laurence C. Musatta, Mr Ernest Simon, Mr Aristarick
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Lekule, Mr Musa T. Mwalutanile & Ms Dorothy R. Makunda
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Editors: Dr Cosmas Sokoni, Dr Michael Andindilile, Dr Kelvin Haule,
Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Deoscorous B. Ndoloi & Mr Karani
H. Mdee (Chairman of the panel)
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Designers: Mr Jerome K. Ndubusa & Mr Katalambula F. Hussein
Illustrators: M
r Fikiri A. Msimbe, Alama Art and Media Production Co. Ltd.
& free Adobe stock images
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Cartographer: Ms Sauda A. Kileo
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Coordinators: Mr Musa T. Mwalutanile & Ms Dorothy R. Makunda
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TIE also extends its sincere gratitude to teachers and students in the secondary
schools that participated in the trial phase of the manuscript.
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Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology for facilitating the writing of this textbook.
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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General

iv Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Student’s Book Form Two
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Table of Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................ iv
List of figures.................................................................................................. vi
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List of tables.................................................................................................viii
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Chapter One
Human activities................................................................................................ 1
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Chapter Two
Agriculture......................................................................................................... 7
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Chapter Three
Water management for economic development............................................... 43
Chapter Four
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Sustainable use of forest resources.................................................................. 72
Chapter Five
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Mining industry................................................................................................ 86
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Chapter Six
Tourism.......................................................................................................... 102
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Chapter Seven
Manufacturing industry.................................................................................. 118
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Chapter Eight
Sustainable use of power and energy resources............................................. 132
Chapter Nine
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Transport........................................................................................................ 150
Glossary........................................................................................................ 163
Bibliography................................................................................................. 166

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List of figures
Figure 1.1 Rice paddy.........................................................................................2

Figure 1.2 Herd of Ankole cattle found in Kagera..............................................2
Figure 1.3 Small-scale miners using simple tools in Tanzania...........................2
Figure 1.4 Small-scale fishing in the Indian Ocean............................................3
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Figure 1.5 Forest products in Tanzania................................................................4
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Figure 1.6 Tourists observe lions at Tarangire National Park.............................5
Figure 2.1 Coffee plant berries..........................................................................12
Figure 2.2 Coffee-producing regions in Tanzania.............................................13
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Figure 2.3 Cotton farm......................................................................................15
Figure 2.4 Cotton combine-harvester...............................................................16
Figure 2.5 Palm oil tree.....................................................................................17
Figure 2.6 Tea plucking in Mufindi, Iringa.......................................................18
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Figure 2.7 Sisal farm in Tanga..........................................................................18
Figure 2.8 Clove plants in Zanzibar .................................................................20
Figure 2.9 Major cereal crops growing regions in Tanzania.............................22
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Figure 2.10 A large herd of cattle......................................................................31
Figure 2.11 Sedentary livestock-keeping..........................................................34
Figure 3.1 The hydrological cycle....................................................................44
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Figure 3.2 Evaporation from ocean water.........................................................45
Figure 3.3 Evapotranspiration...........................................................................45
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Figure 3.4 Heavy clouds in the air....................................................................46

Figure 3.5 Different forms of precipitation.......................................................47
Figure 3.6 Water infiltration into the soil..........................................................47
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Figure 3.7 Sections of a river basin...................................................................52

Figure 3.8 The Rufiji River Basin in Tanzania.................................................57
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Figure 3.9 Tennessee Valley Authority..............................................................58

Figure 3.10 A borehole......................................................................................65
Figure 3.11 Rock structure for underground water...........................................66
Figure 3.12 A well for drawing water manually...............................................66
Figure 3.13 Fishing using a basket...................................................................67
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Figure 3.14 Fishing by trawling.......................................................................68

Figure 4.1 Distribution of the world’s natural forests.......................................73
Figure 4.2 Equatorial rainforest........................................................................73
Figure 4.3 Mangrove forest...............................................................................74
Figure 4.4 Tropical monsoon forest..................................................................74
Figure 4.5 Deciduous forest..............................................................................75

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Figure 4.6 Coniferous forest............................................................................75

Figure 4.7 Planted forest at Sao Hill Mafinga – Iringa....................................76
Figure 4.8 Transporting timber using Angara River, Russia............................ 81
Figure 5.1 Distribution of minerals in Tanzania..............................................89
Figure 5.2 Distribution of some major minerals in the world.......................... 90
Figure 5.3 An open gold pit mine in Buzwagi, Shinyanga.............................. 93
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Figure 5.4 Distribution of major oil fields in the Middle East......................... 98
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Figure 5.5 Songosongo gas plant.................................................................. .100
Figure 6.1 Tourist centers in Switzerland...................................................... 106
Figure 6.2 Pyramidal peaks and valleys of the Swiss Alps............................ 107
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Figure 6.3 Major tourist sites in Namibia...................................................... 109
Figure 6.4 Sand dunes in Namib Desert, Namibia......................................... 110
Figure 6.5 Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.................................................... 112
Figure 6.6 Major tourist sites in Tanzania...................................................... 113
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Figure 6.7 Wild beasts in Serengeti National Park........................................ 113
Figure 7.1 Lorries carrying cement at Twiga Cement factory, Tanzania ......121
Figure 7.2 Electronic production centers in South Korea............................ ..126
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Figure 7.3 Location of some textile industries in Tanzania........................... 128
Figure 8.1 Windmill farm.............................................................................. 135
Figure 8.2 Solar panels.................................................................................. 136
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Figure 8.3 Geothermal plant.......................................................................... 136
Figure 8.4 A model of a hydro-electric power plant...................................... 137
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Figure 8.5 A derrick at an oil well.................................................................. 139

Figure 8.6 Natural gas plant at Kinyerezi 1, Dar es salaam...........................140
Figure 8.7 Biogas power plant....................................................................... 143
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Figure 9.1 Types of transport......................................................................... 150

Figure 9.2 Transportation by trucks............................................................... 151
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Figure 9.3 Transportation by animals............................................................ 151

Figure 9.4 Transportation by a donkey-driven cart........................................ 151
Figure 9.5 TAZARA passenger train............................................................. 152
Figure 9.6 TAZAMA oil pumping station..................................................... 152
Figure 9.7 Cable transport in Cape Town, South Africa................................ 153
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Figure 9.8 A conveyor-belt transporting coal............................................... .153

Figure 9.9 An Air Tanzania passenger plane.................................................. 153
Figure 9.10 A container ship......................................................................... .155
Figure 9.11 A passenger boat ........................................................................ 155
Figure 9.12 Major ocean shipping routes of the world.................................. 156
Figure 9.13 Road and railway line transport network in East Africa............ .158

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List of tables
Table 2.1 Major cash crops grown in Tanzania .........................................21

Table 2.2 Some major cereal crops grown in Tanzania ............................26
Table 4.1 World timber producing countries .............................................81
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Table 6.1 Revenue collected by National Parks in Tanzania Mainland in
US$...........................................................................................114
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viii Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Student’s Book Form Two
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Chapter One
Human activities
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Introduction
Human activities refer to things that people do or cause to happen. Human beings
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do such activities for social, economic, and political purposes. In this chapter, you
will learn about human activities, types of human activities, and the importance
of such activities.
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The concept of human activities Agriculture: Agriculture is an activity
Human activities are functions, tasks or which involves crop cultivation and
works that human beings perform to earn livestock-keeping. It is the oldest human
a living. Different individuals or groups activity which has been practised by
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of people carry out different activities all societies in the world. It provides
in different places. For example, the food for households and raw materials
Maasai of Tanzania and Kenya practise for industries. The type of agriculture
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nomadic pastoralism because of seasonal practised in a given place is determined
availability of pasture and water in an by various conditions of the area
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area. People in urban areas, on the other including climate, water availability,
hand, engage in activities in industries soil characteristics and terrain. It is
and offices. Some people engage also influenced by financial resources,
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in providing services in education, infrastructure, technology and conditions

administration, planning and health. of the market.
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Types of human activities Agriculture can be done by individual

There are three major categories of farmers, companies or co-operative
human activities. These are primary, societies. Crop farming is the type of
secondary and tertiary activities. agriculture that involves the cultivation
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of land to produce crops. Crop farming

Primary activities: Primary activities can be practised to produce food crops
are done by people when they interact and cash crops.
directly with the natural environment
to obtain their essential needs. These
activities include agriculture, forestry,
mining and fishing.

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Food crops include rice, beans, cassava,

maize, wheat, bananas, and potatoes
whereas cash crops include sisal, coffee,
tea and cashew-nuts. Figure 1.1 shows
a rice paddy.
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Figure 1.2 Herd of Ankole cattle found in Kagera
Source: http://ilovekageratanzania.blogspot.com
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Mining: Mining is the process of
extracting minerals from the crust of
the Earth. Mining is done on both small
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and large-scales. Large-scale mining
is done by companies using advanced
technology and heavy equipment
whereas small-scale mining is done by
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individuals who are known as artisanal
miners using simple tools. Some of the
Figure 1.1 Rice paddy minerals found in Tanzania include
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Source: Mwakalinga 03 June 2016: ippmedia.com tanzanite, diamond, gold, coal, uranium,
limestone, gemstones, salt, copper and
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Besides crop farming, there is also gypsum. Figure 1.3 shows small-scale
livestock-keeping with animals miners engaged in a mining activity.
domesticated or kept for meat, milk, wool,
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skins and hides. These domesticated

animals include cattle, goats and sheep.
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Livestock-keeping is widely practised

in Shinyanga, Mwanza, Mara and
Arusha regions. Other regions famous
for livestock-keeping include Kagera,
Dodoma, Singida and Tabora. Ranching
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or commercial livestock-keeping is
largely carried out by companies in
Tanga, Iringa, Njombe, Kilimanjaro,
Dodoma, Singida and Tabora. Figure Figure 1.3 Small-scale miners using
1.2 shows a herd of Ankole cattle as an simple tools in Tanzania
example of domestic animals kept in Source:https://www.dailynews.co.tz/news/2019-02-
Tanzania. 195c6bb0690c91b.aspx

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Fishing: Fishing involves catching fish Forestry: Forestry is a set of practises that
and other water creatures from oceans, involve managing forests for ecological,
lakes, seas, dams, rivers and ponds for social and economic purposes. There are
domestic or commercial purposes. In two types of forests: natural and man-
Tanzania, fishing is done in the Indian made (planted) forests.
Ocean and in lakes such as Victoria,
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Tanganyika, Rukwa and Nyasa. There Planted forests: Planted forests are
is also fishing in rivers such as Ruvu, those in which trees are planted by
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Kilombero and Rufiji. Fishing activities human beings. They are commonly
also take place in dams such as Mtera known as grown trees. The trees may be
and Nyumba ya Mungu. Major fishing
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obtained locally or from other countries.
areas in the world are found in Norway, In Tanzania, mahogany and teak are
Namibia, Japan and Sweden. examples of local species whereas pines
and eucalyptus are species from other
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Small-scale fishing relies on traditional countries. Some examples of planted
methods such as the use of fish-nets or forests in Tanzania include The Sao Hill
fish lines and hooks. Figure 1.4 shows forest plantantion in Mafinga, Iringa
small-scale fishing in the Indian ocean. Region and The West Kilimanjaro forest
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Large-scale fishing is conducted in deep plantation in Kilimanjaro Region.
waters of the large seas and oceans where
modern fishing methods such as fishing Natural forests: Natural forests are
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trawlers are used. the forests that generated themselves
naturally. Examples of natural forests
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include the Eastern Arc (Usambara)

Mountains forests, Mdandu (Njombe
and Ludewa), Mitarure (Kilwa, Lindi),
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Kikongoro and Minziro (Misenyi) and

The Duru-Haitemba forest (Babati).
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Other examples of natural forests

include The Congo rain-forest found
in the Congo basin of the Democratic
Republic of Congo and The Amazon
forest in Latin America. Natural forests
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are also found in other countries such as

Finland, Sweden, Canada and Russia.
Forests offer many benefits to people
Figure 1.4 Small-scale fishing in the Indian living close to forested areas and even
Ocean beyond. For example, charcoal is one
Source: https://www.worldfishing.net/news101/Comment/ of the largest industries in Tanzania,
ben-yami/speaking-up-for-small-scale-fisheries employing tens of thousands of rural
people and supplying energy to millions
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Figure 1.5 Forest products in Tanzania
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Source: http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?103600
of urban households. Figure 1.5 shows primary activities as raw materials are
one of the products from forests. The included in secondary activities. These
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forestry industry provides employment include for example manufacturing of
opportunities such as selling of timber, cloth from cotton, production of sugar
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firewood and charcoal. Also some from sugarcane and steel casting from
people are employed as forest guards iron ore.
and forest officers. Forests are also
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a source of employment for timber Tertiary activities: Tertiary activities

merchants and carpenters. Furthermore, belong to the service sector. These
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the forestry industry is also a source of activities involve the provision of

building materials such as wood, pulp specialised services required for primary
and poles. In addition, forests serve as and secondary activities. Such activities
sites for recreation and research. include transport and communication,
trading, administration, banking and
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Secondary activities: Secondary insurance.

activities are subsidiary as they are
performed in addition to primary Transport and communication:
activities. They involve processing Transportation is the action or process
products obtained from primary of moving people, goods and services
activities. Occupations which produce from one place to another. This may
finished goods using the products of be done by road, railway, air, pipeline
and water.
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Likewise, communication is the Tourism industry creates employment

exchange of information between and and stimulates the growth of service
among different people. Major means of sectors such as transport, hospitality,
communication include radio, television, insurance, communications and tour
newspapers, telephone and the internet. guiding. Figure 1.6 shows tourists in a
car observing lions, one of the wildlife
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Tourism: Tourism is the movement of attractions.
people within a country or from one
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country to another for the purpose
of leisure, pleasure, studies or trade.
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Tourism involves travelling to and
staying in places outside the usual
residence for a certain period. Tourists
travel to see the beauty of wildlife,
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landscape and man-made features. These
features include wildlife conservation
areas such as national parks and game
reserves, beaches, and historic (heritage)
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and cultural sites. Beaches in Tanzania Figure 1.6 Tourists observe lions at Tarangire
are found along the coast of the Indian National Park
Ocean and on shores of lakes Victoria, Source:https://www.tanzaniawildcats.com/tanzania-
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safaris/6-days-african-lions-safari
Tanganyika and Nyasa.
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National parks are areas created and Trading: Trading is the process of
protected by law for the purpose of buying and selling goods and services
conservation of wildlife and its associated between people, organisations and
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habitat. Examples of National Parks in countries. It takes place between

Tanzania include Serengeti, Mikumi, producers and consumers. Some of
the things involved in trading include
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Lake Manyara, Ruaha, Gombe, Mahale,

Katavi, Kitulo, Saadani, Kilimanjaro, machinery, clothing, food, medicine,
Mkomazi, Saanane Island, Rubondo, cars and fuel. Trade may take place
Nyerere Nationa Park at Selous (the upper within a country or between countries.
part of Selous), Udzungwa and Tarangire. International trade allows countries
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Game reserves include the lower part of to expand markets for both goods
Selous (which is the largest protected and services, which are not available
area in Tanzania), Rukwa, Ugalla and in a particular country. Furthermore,
Maswa. Ngorongoro conservation area international trade allows countries to
is the only protected area in Tanzania participate in global economy hence
where humans, livestock and wildlife encouraging opportunities for foreign
live together in the same environment. investment.

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Importance of human activities

Human activities are important in 4. Describe one activity that is done
at home for increasing family
many ways. People are employed
income.
in different sectors depending on
the kind of activities they can do.
For example, in mining there are 5. Write True or False for each of
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multi-national companies such as the following statements:
Williamson Diamonds and Barrick
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(a) Tertiary activities provide
Gold (now known as Acacia), which services whereas secondary
employ many people. The companies activities are done for
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also pay tax to the government. processing and manufacturing
Moreover, employment in different goods.
human activities generate income
which improves people’s standards (b) Primary activities are
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of living. associated with land
degradation unlike secondary
activities, which are associated
Exercise
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Answer the following questions: (c) The distribution of different

1. Define the following terms: types of human activities is
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(a) Human activity related to the types of human
(b) Mining settlements.
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(c) Forestry
(d) Secondary activities are
2. Mention human activities which carried out without depending
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are influenced by the weather of a on primary and tertiary

particular area. activities.
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3. List four benefits of human (e) Types of human activities is

activities in Tanzania. related to the types of human
settlements.
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Chapter Two
Agriculture
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and types of agriculture, the
effects of rapid population growth on small-scale agriculture, characteristics of
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small-scale agriculture, advantages and disadvantages of small-scale agriculture,
and ways of improving small-scale agriculture. You will also learn about types
of large-scale agriculture in the world, major crops grown in each type of large-
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scale agriculture, characteristics of large-scale agriculture and problems facing
large-scale agriculture in Tanzania and the USA. Finally, you will learn about
the various types of livestock keeping practises as well as their benefits and
constraints by focusing on Tanzania and Australia.
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The concept of agriculture Small-scale crop cultivation: Small-
Agriculture is a science which deals with scale crop cultivation is the growing of
crop cultivation and livestock keeping. crops on a small piece of land. It is also
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It is the oldest human activity which called subsistence farming. It aims to
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has been practised by many societies in produce enough food for the wellbeing
the world. Through agriculture, human of families. In some instances, when the
beings grow crops for use by households production is high, the surplus is sold.
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and supply to industries. Factors Individuals engaging in small-scale crop

influencing agriculture include climate, cultivation are known as peasants. They
water availability, soil characteristics and are also called subsistence farmers as
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terrain. Agriculture is also influenced they grow food crops to feed themselves
by availability of financial resources, and their families with little or no surplus
infrastructure, technology and markets. for sale.
Crop cultivation As noted earlier, the agricultural system

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Crop cultivation can be categorised into at subsistence level falls under this
different types basing on factors such as category. A farmer owns a small piece
size of farms, type of crops, motive of of land for food crops cultivation. The
production and level of mechanisation. produce is enough only for the family.
Based on size, crop cultivation is divided It is hand to mouth existence which may
into two types: small-scale and large- lead to famine if the harvest is bad. In
scale crop cultivation. years with good harvest the farmer
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may have surplus to sell to the local destroyed in a few days. Green manure
markets. The farms are small, about one is ruined and soil profile is altered by the
to five hectares owned by the family. destruction of bacteria and humus. Areas
Application of machines is difficult as practising this system include Malawi,
farms are small. Zambia, Liberia and Uganda. In Zambia
this system is called ‘slash and burn’
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Small-scale crop cultivation is done agriculture or the ‘Chitemene.’ Shifting
by using different methods such as cultivation in Tanzania is commonly
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shifting cultivation, crop rotation and known in Kiswahili language as ‘kilimo
bush fallowing. cha kuhamahama’ (shifting agriculture),
but also unofficially known as ‘mahame’
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Shifting cultivation: This is a traditional (shifted land) or ‘malale’ (fallow land).
system of cultivation used in tropical Regions practising shifting cultivation
rainforest and miombo wooded savanna. include Morogoro, Lindi, Rukwa,
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It operates where population is sparse. Mbeya, Iringa, Tabora, Dodoma and
People farm and move to another fresh Tanga. In Tabora, for example, tobacco
area when the yields are low. The farming relies heavily on shifting
cultivator or farmer burns the forest and cultivation.
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sows seeds in the intermixed ash and
soil. Little attention is given to the crops Crop rotation: Crop rotation involves
until they ripen. If the harvest declines, growing different crops on the same land
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the land is abandoned and a fresh area is at different times.
cleared. The yields decline after three to
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five years. The cultivator may return to Bush fallowing: Bush fallowing is
the original land after some years. The not different from shifting cultivation
constant moves ensure fresh land with in that in bush fallowing people have
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high yields, as the land is fertile. There permanent settlements. They clear the
is no serious soil erosion since only a bush, burn the vegetation and sow seeds.
Yield declines after three to five years.
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small area is exposed which support

many crops and therefore little bare earth The farm is left to regain its fertility for
is seen. Any soil washed is trapped by nearly ten years. Another bush is cleared
dense plant roots and at the forest edge. and cultivated. No movement is involved
The system is less risky of diseases. in bush fallowing. This is possible in
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areas with dense population.

The methods used in shifting cultivation
differ with people’s culture and the Small-scale crop cultivation is
varieties of crops they grow. Some use advantageous to farmers. It allows them
fire to clear the land. Such system results to grow varieties of food crops. Different
to wastage of valuable timber, which crops grown in small farms make
took over a hundred years to grow but it easy to control pests and diseases.

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Elementary tools such as pangas, hand population growth puts more pressure on
hoes and axes lead to low cost of running small-scale farmers. Yet, subsistence
the farms, hence low capital involved. farmers are not likely to raise their output
Farmers depend on rainfall only which to feed the growing numbers because
is unreliable hence, during droughts the of lack of capital. Subsequently, land
farmers suffer from famine. becomes overpopulated and resources
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overused. Also high population growth is
Characteristics of small-scale crop associated with smaller farms and lower
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cultivation: Small-scale crop farm wages. As a result households in
cultivation is characterised by the densely populated areas increasingly
rely on off-farm income.
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following features:
(a) The harvest from the farm is used
for family consumption. Effects of rapid population growth on
(b) It is practised on small pieces of small-scale crop cultivation
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land, often less than five acres in Overpopulation does not depend merely
size. on the total number of people living in
an area, or on the population density. It
(c) Peasants use simple tools such
depends much on the available resources
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as hand-hoes and machetes for
in a given area. When an area has more
cultivation. In some cases, ox
people than it can support to give them
driven ploughs are used.
a reasonable standard of living, the
(d) Farmers often grow different
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area will suffer from overpopulation
types of crops on the same field. or population pressure. If the area has
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This technique is known as inhabitants who are too few to develop

intercropping. The crops grown the resources available to improve living
may include grains such as beans, conditions, then the area suffers from
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maize and millet. under-population.

(e) It is associated with the use of
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organic manure to improve soil Population pressure is caused by rapid

fertility. increase of population. In Third World
(f) Farming activities are mainly done countries, population is growing rapidly
by family members. and food demand is high whereas food
production is low. As the population
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Relationship between population increases, shortage of land in the

growth and small-scale crop productive areas becomes a source
production of serious concern. In some parts of
Population growth is an increase in the regions such as Kilimanjaro, Mara,
number of people in a particular area. Kigoma, Shinyanga, Mbeya, Manyara
Rapid population growth could be due to and Morogoro, where a high population
natural increase or in-migration. The rapid increase has occurred, land shortage has

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become a serious problem. In fact, the Advantages of small-scale crop

land available has been over cultivated cultivation: Small-scale crop production
and exhausted, hence paving way to is cheap to operate since it involves the
soil erosion. Over the years, many use of simple farming tools such as
people have been migrating from their hand hoes and machetes. It is also cheap
homelands to other regions in search of because the sources of labour are family
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fertile land for cultivation. members and, hence, easy to manage. In
addition, small-scale agriculture needs
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The resulting population growth small capital since it operates on small
affects land use patterns. This may pieces of land.
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cause shortage of food and poor
living standards. The solution to this This type of agriculture when intergrated
problem is to improve small-scale crop with livestock-keeping provides biomass
cultivation. The government and other which is useful in the production of biogas
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organisations should help farmers by energy. This energy is commonly used
providing them with education and for cooking. Another advantage of small-
capital to make subsistence agriculture scale crop cultivation is that farmers
more intensive and more productive. get fresh food such as vegetables and
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Moreover, the government, non- fruits. Therefore, small-scale agriculture
governmental organisations (NGOs) contributes to the development of local
and co-operative societies should help communities.
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the farmers to select better seeds, use
proper insecticides, pesticides, and Disadvantages of small-scale crop
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apply fertilisers properly. In addition, cultivation: Small-scale crop cultivation

they should help in providing transport is associated with loss of soil fertility
to make sure the products reach proper due to overuse of the same plots of
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storage places and markets. Furthermore, land. Moreover, the practise of burning
the government should emphasise and vegetation during farm preparation tends
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support the opening of joint agriculture to destroy soil nutrients, hence lower
ventures, finding of markets for surplus its fertility. As a result, subsistence or
products and establishing good storage peasant farmers’ yields tend to fall.
facilities. Additionally, deliberate efforts Such low yields are also contributed
should be made to provide education on by low use of fertilisers and pesticides.
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good farming practises, for example, Therefore, various ways are needed to
the use of simple but improved farming reduce the challenges of small-scale crop
technology. cultivation.

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Ways of improving small-scale crop In large-scale crop cultivation, the type of

cultivation: Small-scale farmers need farming practise is mostly monoculture,
training on the best cultivation practises in which a single crop is produced in
such as the application of manure and large quantities. In developing countries
proper use of chemical fertilisers. monoculture is associated with tropical
Farmers should also be educated on and sub-tropical plantation which
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the use of hybrid seeds and irrigation were established through European
schemes. Furthermore, the establishment colonisation. After independence of
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of co-operative unions can help small- individual countries, the plantations were
scale farmers to get soft loans, access owned by government and others were
markets, undergo training and benefit
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allocated to individuals as small holders
from extension services. and peasant farmers. These plantations
also known as estates are large and found
in sparsely populated arears.
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Exercise 2.1
Crops from the plantations for example
Answer the following questions: sisal and tobacco are processed before
1. Define agriculture. leaving the plantation and further
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2. Name two types of agriculture. processed right after harvesting to
3. Explain any four characteristics of raise the value of the product per unit
small-scale crop cultivation. weight, and reduce its weight for long
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(a) List any three advantages of distance transferring. Mechanisation and
small-scale crop cultivation. irrigation are applicable on this kind of
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(b) List any three disadvantages of agriculture, hence weather change is not
small-scale crop cultivation. a problem. Poor people cannot manage
this type of farming because it needs
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4. Mention the effects of rapid

very big capital.
population growth on small-scale
crop cultivation.
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Characteristics of large-scale crop

cultivation: Large-scale crop cultivation
is characterised by cultivation of a large
area with the application of high level
Large-scale crop cultivation: Large-
of technology. The technology involves
scale crop cultivation is a farming system
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the use of tractors, combine harvesters,

that covers a large area of land to produce
and processing machines. As large-
one type of crop for commercial purposes.
scale farming is highly mechanised,
This type of large-scale farming is also
it employs few skilled people because
known as commercial agriculture.
machines carry out agricultural activities
that otherwise could have been done
manually by humans.

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In addition, such commercial farming

is capital-intensive to support the
production. Also, it is often based
on a single crop, a practise known as
monoculture. Chemical fertilisers are
highly used to maximise yields. Large-
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scale agriculture is basically a source of
raw materials for different manufacturing Figure 2.1 Coffee plant berries
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source: https/www.getttyimages.com/photo/coffee-plant
industries.
It forms an important cash crop for
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Types of large-scale crop cultivation:
Large-scale crop cultivation can be export. In Tanzania, coffee is grown in
divided into two types: plantation Kagera, Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Mbeya,
agriculture and extensive food Katavi, Iringa, Mara, Njombe, Tanga,
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cultivation. Plantation agriculture Morogoro, Kigoma and Ruvuma regions
involves cultivation of cash crops (Figure 2.2). Coffee is also grown in
on estates. The cultivation is highly Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of
mechanised. Major crops grown on Congo, Zambia, Rwanda and Ethiopia.
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plantations include coffee, cotton, tea, Other countries include Cameroon,
rubber, oil palms, cocoa, sisal and sugar Brazil, Columbia, Indonesia, Honduras,
cane. Plantation agriculture is dominant India, Vietnam, The Philippines and
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in some regions of Africa, Asia, North Mexico. There are over 60 varieties
and South America where there are of coffee yet, only two of them have
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favourable climatic conditions. Extensive commercial importance; these are

food cultivation deals with large-scale Arabica and Robusta.
food crop production. Machines are
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highly used in ploughing, sowing, Conditions necessary for growing

harvesting, processing, packaging and coffee: There are four essential growth
conditions required for the cultivation
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transportation of farm produce. Crops

grown under extensive agriculture are of coffee:
cereals which include beans, maize and Climate
wheat. A description of some of the crops Coffee is a tropical plant, which is
under large-scale crop production is also grown in semi-tropical climate. It
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provided in the following sub-sections. requires heat, humidity and abundant

rainfall. The plant grows in warm to hot
Coffee: Coffee is a crop which produces temperature ranging between 16°-21°C.
coffee beans that are processed to make Coffee needs abundant rainfall ranging
a beverage (Figure 2.1). from 1100 mm to 1780 mm annually
and a relatively dry season for picking.
Growth is most rapid during the hot rainy
season, and during the cool dry season
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berries ripen and are ready for picking. An ideal shade tree should belong to
Bright sunshine and warm weather are the leguminous type, because these not
necessary for the harvesting. Hill slopes, only provide shade but also enrich soil
which receive orographic rainfall, are with nitrogen. Traditionally, most of the
thus best for coffee cultivation. varieties of coffee plants were shade
grown, as they were naturally intolerant
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Shade of direct sunlight, hence they preferred a
Direct sunlight is harmful for coffee canopy of sun-filtering shade trees. The
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plants; therefore, these are planted under trees in coffee plantations play several
shade of taller trees such as bananas. roles including the following:
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se
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in
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Figure 2.2 Coffee-producing regions in Tanzania

source: Coffeeboard.or.tz/news_Publications2009
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i. Protecting coffee from direct Topography

sunlight. Trees reduce the amount Generally, coffee is grown on slopes
of heat reaching the coffee plant having a height between 600 to 1,800
during the daytime. meters. Water stagnation is very harmful
for coffee plants; therefore, hill slopes
ii. Acting as physical barrier by are best suitable for growing coffee.
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protecting coffee plants from
destruction by winds. Soils
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Soil is the guiding factor in coffee
iii. Mulching the soil with their fallen plantation. Coffee plantation requires
leaves which helps to protect the
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deep well drained soils which are rich in
soil from excessive temperature
humus, minerals nutrients and of good
and retain soil moisture thereof
texture to allow free air circulation.
reducing evaporation.
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Farm preparation, planting and
iv. Minimizing the erosive power of
rainfall by acting as a physical care of coffee: Coffee farms need
barrier in reducing the amount of preparation for at least six months. The
coffee seedlings are raised on seed-beds
the rain reaching the ground.
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and transplanted after six months, with
v. Maintaining the organic matter three meters spacing. The coffee trees
content in the soil which creates are pruned annually to ensure maximum
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a conducive environment for yield. Pruning is also done to facilitate
many beneficial microorganisms the picking of coffee beans. Weeds
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like nitrogen fixers; hence trees such as star-grass and couch grass are
contribute to soil fertility. removed to increase yields. In addition,
spraying of coffee plants is done in cases
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vi. Providing a lively habitat, which of leaf rusting and Coffee Berry Diseases
is able to harbour different bird (CBD). Fertilisers such as nitrogen,
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species. The birds help to facilitate phosphates, potassium and magnesium

pollination and serve as a biological are applied in places where soil fertility
insect control. Due to increasing is low.
demand of coffee, a scientific way of
productivity which involve growing Harvesting, processing, storage and
coffee plants in the open sun, was
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transportation: Harvesting of coffee

developed for coffee farming. This
berries is done by hand. Only the red
approach is accompanied with the
continued application of chemical ripe berries are picked. Berries are dried
fertilisers and pesticides which, in the sun and then are sorted, weighed
among other things, make up for and transported to the processing mills.
the loss of nutrients. Since coffee can easily absorb external
odours which can affect its quality, it

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must be stored in cool, dark and dry Conditions necessary for growing
places to ensure freshness. cotton: Cotton grows in warm
temperatures of about 25°C. It requires
Uses of coffee: Coffee is mainly used moderate rainfall of about 550 mm to
as a beverage at home and in hotels. 1,000 mm. However, in areas with less
It also has healthy benefits such as rainfall cotton can grow under irrigation.
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preventing type 2 diabetes, burning For example, the Gezira Irrigation
fat, and improving body performance. Scheme in Sudan supports cotton
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People drink coffee to relieve mental and growth. It also requires well-drained
physical fatigue and to increase mental fertile soil. Moreover, cotton requires
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alertness. Other uses include treatment at least 200 frost-free days as the crop
of headache, low blood pressure and is sensitive to frost.
obesity. The coffee pulp is used as
fertilisers on farms. Farm preparation, planting and
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care of cotton: Cotton farms are prepared
Cotton: Cotton is a flowering plant which before the rainy season. The planting of
is grown for making cotton fabric and cotton seeds takes place during the rainy
threads. It is a soft and fluffy fibre that season. Cotton flowering occurs between
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grows in a boll or protective case around two and three months after planting. To
the seeds of a cotton plant. The plant is maintain healthy cotton plants, there is
native to tropical and sub-tropical regions a need for regular spraying of cotton
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in the world including Africa and the plants with pesticides. This measure is
Americas. The major cotton producers necessary because a number of pests
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are China, USA, India, Pakistan, and diseases attack cotton plants. The
Brazil, Egypt, Benin, Mali, Cameroon, common pests which usually attack
Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Australia, Turkey, cotton plants include cotton aphids,
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Sudan, and Russia. In Tanzania, cotton is stink bugs and boll weevils. In addition,
mainly grown in Mwanza, Tabora, Mara, diseases such as cotton leaf curl, cotton
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Shinyanga, Geita and Simiyu regions. It blue and root rot attack cotton plants.
is the second largest export crop after
coffee and the fourth largest produced
cash crop in Africa. Figure 2.3 shows a Harvesting, processing, storage and
cotton farm. transportation of cotton: Cotton is
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usually ready for harvesting between five

and seven months after planting. In most
tropical countries including Tanzania,
harvesting is done by hand. Large-scale
cotton producers, on the other hand, use
machines such as combine harvesters.
Figure 2.3 Cotton farm Figure 2.4 shows a combine harvester
Source: worldwildlife.org/industries/cotton at work.
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Oil palm: Oil palm is a plant grown in

tropical areas specifically for producing
palm oil. It is grown on both small-
scale on farm lots and large-scale on
plantations. In Tanzania palm oil is
grown in Kigoma and Mbeya regions.
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Other palm oil growing countries in the
world are Malaysia, Nigeria, Indonesia
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and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.
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Conditions necessary for growing oil
palm: Oil palm grows well in areas with
high temperatures throughout the year
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with mean monthly temperature of over
21°C, heavy rainfall throughout the year
(about 1,500 mm to 2,040 mm), and
needs a well-drained soil to enable water
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Figure 2.4 Cotton combine harvester to pass through.
Source: https/www.pinterest.com/pin
Farm preparation, planting and care of

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After picking cotton, dirty or spoilt oil palm: Farm preparation takes place
cotton is removed. Clean cotton is before transplanting. Palm oil seeds
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packed into sacks and transported to are sown in nurseries which are later
ginneries for removing seeds from lint. transplanted to a farm when they are
The lint is compressed into large bales 12-14 months old. Palm oil plants begin
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and transported to textile industries or bearing fruits when they are five years
exported. old and reach maximum production after
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8-10 years. After ten years, yields start

Uses of cotton: Cotton is used in different to decline. Palm fruits usually grow in
ways. Primarily, cotton fibres are used large bunches. Each oil palm plant has
for making clothes and thread. The seeds a capacity of bearing between two and
from cotton are used to make oil which ten bunches annually. Figure 2.5 shows
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is used for cooking, making soap and a palm oil tree.

margarine. Cotton by-products are also
used for feeding animals. Besides, cotton
wool is used for sanitary purposes. The
cotton lint is used in making mattresses
and pillows.

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Tea: Tea is a plant whose leaves are used

for making a beverage. In Tanzania, tea is
mainly grown in Mbeya, Iringa, Njombe,
Kagera, Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions.
Other major tea growing countries in
the world are Kenya, Uganda, Malawi,
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China, Sri-Lanka, India, Indonesia and
Argentina.
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Conditions for growing tea: Tea grows
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well in warm to hot temperatures ranging
from 15°C to 29°C. However, the
temperature should not be below 21°C
during the growing period. In addition, it
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Figure 2.5 Palm oil tree needs high and well-distributed rainfall
Source: inews.co.uk/news/world/palm-oil-industry-curb- of about 1,400 mm to 1,750 mm. It also
deforestation-flaws-falling-prices/ needs frost-free conditions during the
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Harvesting, processing, storage and drained soil able to retain moisture. The
transportation of oil palm: The fruits of soil should also be slightly acidic with
the palm oil trees turn red, when they are little calcium.
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ripe and ready for harvesting. Each fruit
consists of a fleshy pericarp surrounding Farm preparation, planting and
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a nut. Fruits are boiled in pots or drums caring of tea: Farms for tea growing
at high temperature. The processing are prepared by clearing land. The ideal
continues to the point where the pericarp row spacing for tea plantation is 100 –
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is compressed to obtain palm oil. Inside 110 cm with the plant spacing of 65 – 75
the pericarp there is a kernel which is cm. This spacing makes it possible to
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also a source of oil. Oil from the kernel is plant 15,000 plants in an acre.
obtained by crushing the nuts in a grinder
and compressing them. The extracted Tea also needs full shade and protection
palm oil is packed in containers ready from other previously planted trees.
for domestic use and export. The trees protect the plants from being
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affected by wind. In other words, they

Uses of palm oil: Palm oil is used as act as a wind breaker. Tea production
vegetable oil for cooking, and making is a labour-intensive activity because
soap and candles. Residue from planting, weeding, picking and
processed kernels can be used as animal processing largely depend on human
fodder and manure. labour.

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Harvesting, processing, storage and Sisal: Sisal is a tropical plant whose

transportation of tea: It takes two years leaves produce strong threads (fibres)
for tea plants to be ready for harvesting. which are used for various purposes such
Picking of tea leaves requires experience as rope and carpet making. Sisal was
because if it is done poorly, it may result originally grown in southern Mexico.
in low quality tea. Tea plants are normally Subsequently, it has been widely
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plucked for 3-4 years after which all old cultivated in many other countries. In
branches are pruned for new shoots to fact, it has widely been introduced in the
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grow. The plucked tea leaves undergo tropics and subtropics. In Tanzania, sisal
fermentation under regulated moisture to was introduced in 1893 by Dr Richard
Hindorf and the first 62 sisal plants were
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ensure quality tea product. Thereafter, tea
leaves are rolled to enhance the breakup planted near Pangani in Tanga Region.
of the leaf cells and fibres. The leaves Until the 1960s, Tanzania was the leading
are then dried in temperatures of about producer of sisal, but since then Brazil
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105°C. This process is called roasting or has become the major world producer
firing. Roasting stops fermentation and of sisal, followed by Tanzania, Kenya,
reduces moisture. Cool and dried tea Madagascar and China. In Tanzania, sisal
is sorted in different sizes and graded. is grown in Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha,
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Unwanted particles are removed before Morogoro, Lindi and Mtwara regions.
packing. At this stage, tea is ready for
consumption and export. Figure 2.6
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shows the plucking of tea leaves in
Iringa.
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Figure 2.7 Sisal farm in Tanga

Source: https://www.ippmedia.com/en/news/strategising-
restore-sisal-cash-crop-day
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Conditions for growing sisal: Sisal

Figure 2.6 Tea plucking in Mufindi, Iringa
Sourse: Tea production...ratetea.com growing needs high temperatures
ranging between 25°C and 30°C. It
Uses of tea: Tea is primarily used as a also needs slight rainfall ranging from
beverage. A person with a sore throat 650 mm to 1,500 mm. It is grown in
and a hoarse voice can get better after well drained loamy soil. This type of
taking a few cups of strong tea. soil contains a lot of decayed vegetable

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matter with little amounts of sand and Harvesting, processing and

clay. Rainfall plays an important role transportation of sisal: Harvesting of
as far as fibre production is concerned. sisal begins when the colour of thorns
On the whole, sisal does not need too at the tips changes from dark brown to
much rainfall and cannot tolerate frosty light-brown. The processing of leaves
conditions. should take place 48 hours after being
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harvested. Through processing, sisal
Farm preparation, planting and caring fibres are obtained whereby the leaves
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of sisal: It is recommended that land are crushed between rollers and then
should be well-prepared by ploughing mechanically scraped. Then the fibres
are washed and dried. Drying of fibres
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to a depth of 30 cm before planting.
is done in the sun or by using drying
Bulbils are initially grown in nurseries machines. This is followed by brushing
before being transplanted in double rows of the dried fibres for straightening as
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after a year. In the nursery, the bulbils well as polishing. Thereafter, the fibres
should be planted in beds at 10 cm x are graded depending on their length and
10 cm apart. It is recommended to use colour. It is important to ensure
sisal waste for their growth. Thereafter, cleanliness of the bale. Graded fibres are
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they are shifted to a second bed where then packed into bales either manually
they are planted at 30 cm x 30 cm apart. or by using machines.
After 12 to 18 months, the young sisal
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plants are ready to be planted in the field. Uses of sisal: Sisal is used to make
Unlike many other crops, sisal does not ropes, buffing cloth, mattresses, carpets,
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need much care. However, when it is handicraft mats, and baskets. Sisal is
planted on a previously used old land, it commonly used in the shipping industry
is important to use fertiliser. During the for mooring small craft, lashing, and
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first two years it is important to control handling cargo. It is also used in the
weeds by hand, machines or chemicals. automobile industry with fiber glass in
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Although the sisal plant is resistant to composite materials. Other products

pests and diseases, it is important to developed from sisal fibre include
control pests and diseases such as sisal lumbar support belts, rugs, slippers,
weevil and bole rot. Growing sisal does clothes and disc buffers. Farmers also
not require irrigation as the sisal plant use sisal fibre for tomato plant support
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is drought-resistant and cultivated as a and ropes for reinforcement of ceiling

rain-fed crop. corners. Waste from sisal extraction
can be used for making biogas,
pharmaceutical ingredients and building
materials. Fibres can also be used as
fertiliser or animal feed.

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Clove: Clove is an evergreen tree of Farm preparation, planting and care

humid tropical climate (Figure 2.8). of cloves: Clove seeds are sown at 2 cm
Its flower buds are spices used in food, to 3 cm spacing with a depth of about
drinks and medicine. The clove was 2 cm. The germinated seedlings are
introduced in Zanzibar in the United transplanted in bags. The seed-beds have
Republic of Tanzania in the first half to be protected from direct sunlight. The
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of the 19th century from Indonesia. young plants are left for almost 2 years.
Clove growing in Zanzibar started with Then the seedlings are transplanted in the
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plantations but it has progressively been field at the spacing of 6 to 7 meters apart.
fragmented into smaller holdings of about
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3 acres.The prominent clove growing Harvesting, processing and
countries in the world are Indonesia, transportation of cloves: Clove trees can
India and Madagascar. Indonesia is the grow up to 15 meters high. Therefore,
biggest grower, importer and consumer harvesting involves picking of flower
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of cloves. buds which is done by climbing or
scaling. Harvesting is done by hand
Conditions for growing cloves: Cloves by skilled climbers. In Zanzibar, the
require a humid tropical climate with harvesting occurs from September
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annual average temperatures of between to November. Sorting is necessary to
20°C and 30°C. They prefer well separate leaves from the buds. The buds
distributed rainfall, which is ideal for and flowers are left to dry in the sun for
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flowering. In this regard, the annual 3 - 7 days. To ensure quality, the dirty
rainfall should range from 1,500 mm – and unwanted particles are removed
in
2,500 mm. In addition, cloves require from the dried cloves. The Zanzibar
deep loamy soils with high humus State Trading Corporation (ZSTC) is
content and well-drained black loam an organ responsible for buying and
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soils of semi-forest regions. Cloves need exporting cloves from the Isles in
good drainage and prefer partial shade Tanzania to major importers such as
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and a cooler climate. Taiwan, India, the United Arab Emirates

and the United Kingdom.
Uses of cloves: Cloves can be used in

the production of oil which is used in
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dentistry, sanitary applications and as

medicine. They also serve as a spice
in food. Moreover, cloves add flavour
in tea and cigarettes. Cloves are a
cash crop that is sold to earn foreign
Figure 2.8 Clove plants in Zanzibar currency.
Source: https://www.alamcom/stock-photo/clove-plant.html Table 2.1 shows major cash crops grown
in Tanzania.
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Table 2.1 Major cash crops grown in Tanzania
Crop Areas
Kagera, Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Mbeya, Ruvuma, Kigoma and
Coffee
Mara
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Cotton Mwanza, Tabora, Mara, Tanga, Shinyanga, Geita and Simiyu
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Palm oil trees Kigoma
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Tea Mbeya, Iringa, Njombe, Tanga, Kilimanjaro and Kagera
Sisal Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Morogoro, Lindi and Mtwara
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Cloves Unguja and Pemba

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Activity
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Cereal crops
1. Visit a nearby plantation and This section describes the cereal
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mention the type of crop grown. crops which are cultivated under
Desribe the conditions for growing extensive large crop cultivation for
that crop. food and commercial purposes. The
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major cereals in the world are maize,

rice, wheat, barley and sorghum. The
2. (a) Mention the uses of the crops
following section provides descriptions
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listed in Table 2.1.

on maize,beans,wheat and rice. Figure
(b) Describe their contribution 2.9 shows major cereal crops growing
to individual and national regions in Tanzania.
economy.
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Figure 2.9 Major cereal crops growing regions in Tanzania

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Maize between the rows and 30 cm between the

Maize is a cereal crop whose origin is plants. Germination usually takes place
South America. It is one of the most under warm, moist conditions. Seedlings
widely cultivated cereals grown in both emerge after about 6 - 10 days. However,
tropical and warm temperate latitudes. under cool or dry conditions this may
In Tanzania, maize is widely grown as take two weeks or more. The optimum
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a staple food. Major maize producing temperature range for germination is
regions are Rukwa, Katavi, Mbeya, between 20°C and 30°C.
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Songwe, Njombe, Morogoro, Iringa and
Ruvuma. Countries that are major maize Maize needs good care which includes
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growers in the world are United States weeding, thinning and pest and disease
of America, China, Brazil, South Africa, management.
Russia, Yugoslavia and Romania.
Weeds compete with maize plants for
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Conditions for growing maize: Maize water, nutrients, space and light which
grows well in areas that experience reduce plant yield. The early stage of a
summer temperatures of between 18°C maize plant (first three weeks) is very
and 27°C. It also needs a period of 140 sensitive to weed competition. Weeding
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frost-free days and annual precipitation in a maize farm can be done using the
ranging from 635 mm – 1,145 mm. hand-hoe, machine or through chemical
Maize grows in a wide range of soil weed control (herbicides).
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types. However, it grows better in
deep rich soils of the sub-tropics with Harvesting, processing and
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abundant nitrogen. In the tropics, maize transportation of maize: Maize can be

can grow at altitudes ranging from sea harvested after 3 - 6 months depending
level to 2,900 m above sea level. A dry on variations in temperature and seed
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sunny season is important for maize to types. Harvesting methods include

grow, to enable cobs to ripen and the manual hand cut and machines (combine
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seeds to dry. harvesters). The mechanised system

removes not only the ear or husk from
Farm preparation, planting and the plant but also the grain from the
caring of maize: Maize requires deep cob whereas hand harvesting requires
tillage which is done by a hand-hoe initial removal of the ear or husk, which
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and ox-drawn plough in small-scale is shelled at a later stage. The grain is

or subsistence farming, and by using winnowed to remove unwanted materials
tractors in large-scale or commercial and low quality grains. Then the product
agriculture. Planting is done by burying is stored in bags ready for transportation
seeds directly in the soil in a depth of to homesteads, and some to silos and to
at least 10 cm with spacing of 75 cm the market.

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Uses of maize: Maize is a staple food in Farm preparation, planting and

Africa and Asia. It is also used to feed caring of wheat: If the field has been
domestic animals such as cattle, pigs previously used for farming purposes,
and chicken. Maize is also used to make it is recommended to smoothen the soil
industrial products such as vegetable oil, with a rake. A shovel is attached to a
starch and alcohol. Domestically, maize tractor to plough the field and dig long
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stocks and cobs are burned to produce narrow furrows. Moderate quantities of
heat energy for cooking mainly in rural natural manure is used to fertilise the
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areas. Maize stalks are also used to make soil and ensure proper growth of the
manure. wheat stalks. Wheat seeds are spread
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in the furrows using a semicircular
Wheat movement of the wrist or a grain drill
Wheat is one of cereal crops which grows attached to a tractor. Immediately after
well in temperate regions. Wheat in planting the wheat seeds, watering is
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Tanzania is grown almost exclusively as important. This is also done once each
a commercial crop on a large-scale basis month during the growing season. If an
in the northern highlands (Manyara) and area gets a lot of rain, it might not need to
by small and medium scale farmers in the be watered at all. Fertiliser is used twice
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southern highlands (Njombe). It is also during the growing season. Although
grown in Angola, Burundi, Democratic it may look primitive, several plastic
Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, flags or streamers are placed throughout
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Madagascar, Mozambique, Rwanda, the wheat patch. The noise made by the
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is plastic blowing in the breeze deters birds
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also grown in Greenland and distributed from landing and scares off any birds that
from Scandinavia to South America and are already in the field. This prevents
across Asia. birds from eating the wheat seeds before
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they can sprout.

Conditions for growing wheat: Wheat
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grows well in warm temperatures Harvesting, processing and

ranging from 21°C to 24°C. Wheat also transportation of wheat: In the process
needs a lot of sunshine, especially when of harvesting, there is a need to test the
the grains are filling. Areas with low crop. In this regard, fingers are used to
humidity are better since many wheat rub the wheat head and pieces of grain are
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diseases thrive in damp weather. The chewed. If the grains crack in the mouth
amount of rainfall required for wheat and become soft as they are chewed,
cultivation varies between 300 mm and then they are ready for harvesting. Clean
1,000 mm. The major wheat lands of the places are prepared for keeping the
temperate regions have an annual harvested wheat. When using a sickle
rainfall of 380 mm - 800 mm. for harvesting, it should be checked to
make sure it is sharp enough for making

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clean cuts. In commercial farming, Rice

the combine harvester is adjusted to Rice is an edible seed from one of the
harvest the wheat. Harvesting is done grass species. As a cereal crop, it is
when the crop reaches maturity (at least the most widely consumed staple food
100 days). The part that is harvested is for a large part of the world’s human
called kernels. Freshly harvested wheat population, especially in Asia. It is an
y
is taken to a local grain elevator as soon agricultural commodity with the third-
as possible after harvest. highest worldwide production. Rice
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is grown in most regions of Tanzania
As wheat arrives in the mill, it passes including Coast, Morogoro, Tabora,
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through a cleaning process to remove Mbeya, Mwanza, Shinyanga, Simiyu,
coarse impurities, and to separate the and Geita. Globally, it is grown in China,
grain by size, shape and weight. The India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Brazil,
finished product, that is, the whole pure Thailand, Japan and Kenya.
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wheat then goes through conditioning
bins before milling to produce a uniform Conditions for growing rice: Rice is a
moisture content to prevent break-up tropical crop which grows well where the
of the bran (hard outer layer) during average temperature during the growing
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milling. After conditioning, different season is between 20°C and 27°C.
batches of wheat are blended together Abundant sunshine is also essential
to make a mix capable of producing the during its four months of growth. The
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required quality. Wheat is sold raw to minimum temperature should not go
manufacturers. From here it is milled below 15°C as germination cannot
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into finished consumable products. take place below that temperature. Rice
On large farms, harvesting is done by requires more water than any other crop.
combine harvesters whereas on small As a result, paddy cultivation is done
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farms, it is done by hand using sickles. It only in those areas where minimum
is normally transported by road in lorries rainfall is 1,150 mm. Paddy also needs
from the farm to the market and silos. flooded conditions with the depth of
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water varying over 25 mm at the time of

Uses of wheat: Wheat serves as food transplanting to as much as 150 mm for
for human beings and animals. Human 10 weeks of the growing period.
beings use wheat to make bread, cakes
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and, sometimes, stiff porridge. The Farm preparation, planting and care
remains of wheat are used to feed of rice: Planting work begins with land
animals. Wheat starch is used in the preparation as well as the nursery bed for
manufacturing of paper. For example, obtaining the seedlings. The seedlings
in the United States wheat is used to should be planted as young as possible,
strengthen paper. usually at 20 days. Seeds are planted by
removing them from the nursery to the

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paddy fields. Good rice planting should starch center is what we know as white
use the pull to the right and to the left rice. Large-scale farmers use large
with a distance of 20 cm x 20 cm. This conventional grain harvesters whereas
is to enable maintenance, either weeding small-scale farmers use sharp sickles for
or fertilising in addition to allowing each harvesting. Farmers use tractors, power
plant to receive enough sunlight and tillers and lorries to transport paddy from
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nutrients evenly. Seedlings are planted the farm to grain storage facilities at the
with just one seed in one planting hole. farm or home or silos for large-scale
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Farmers are required to maintain water grain storage. Rice in Tanzania and in
and water discharge on paddy fields and most parts of the world is mostly sold
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weeding (weed control). Irrigating rice to consumers as polished milled rice.
crops in rice fields should consider the From the farmers it is sold directly to
depth of water in accordance with the age the millers or middlemen.
of the plant. Weeds are herbs that live
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with cultivated plants and are generally Uses of rice: Rice is used in many ways
very harmful to rice crops. As such, for food and other purposes. The bran is
weeding is very important. Fertilisation used to make oil. Straws (grass) from the
is done to add nutrients needed by plants leaves and stems are used for weaving
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in the soil. As the grain begins to mature, roof tops, baskets, hats, bedding and
the farmers ‘lock up’ the water on the for feeding animals. Husks are used as
bays. This means no water leaves the a source of energy in bricks making.
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paddock as it is fully utilised by the rice Table 2.2 shows some major cereal crops
plant. The soil then dries out in time for grown in Tanzania.
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harvest to begin.
Table 2.2 Some major cereal crops
Harvesting, processing and grown in Tanzania.
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transportation of rice: Rice is

processed in the following ways. Crop Regions
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Step one involves removal of the hard

Rukwa, Katavi, Mbeya,
protective husk. The rice husk is the Maize Songwe, Njombe, Morogoro,
protective layer surrounding the grain. Kigoma, Iringa and Ruvuma
Once removed, the rice grain is packaged
as brown rice. Brown rice is healthy
Wheat Manyara and Njombe
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because it still contains the rice germ

and outer bran layers which is important
for healthy body functions. Step two
Coast, Morogoro, Mbeya,
involves removal of the germ and brown Mwanza, Shinyanga,
layers. Gentle milling removes the germ Rice
Arusha, Kigoma, Simiyu
and bran layers from the grain to expose and Geita
a white starch center. The polished white

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Contribution of crop production to It also relies on seasonal rainfall.

the economy of Tanzania Climatic changes have largely affected
The majority of Tanzanians heavily the amount of rainfall in many areas of
depend on agriculture. It is estimated Tanzania. Since the majority of large-
that 75% of the population is engaged scale farmers in Tanzania rely on rain-fed
in agriculture. It has played a significant agriculture, whenever there is a shortage
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role in improving people’s lives. It has of rainfall, agricultural production falls.
stimulated the development of industries Agricultural products from large-scale
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especially those related to the processing crop cultivation in Tanzania such as tea,
of tea, fruits, sisal and sugar-cane, among sisal and coffee face stiff competition
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others. The sector has also led to the from other countries that produce the
creation of employment opportunities same crops. As a result, prices of such
in the country as many people are products tend to be low. In addition,
employed in agro-related industries large-scale crop cultivation in Tanzania
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whereas others are self-employed. has to contend with pests and diseases.
Furthermore, the sector has contributed Pests such as army worms and quelea
to the generation of government revenue quelea tend to destroy crops faster than
and capital development in form of tax measures aimed to control them can
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and duty payment as well as exports. cope. Inadequate management of pest
It has also stimulated external trade invasion leads to heavy loss of crop
and international relations through production. Similarly, the outbreak of
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the exportation of cash crops to earn diseases such as Coffee Berry Diseases
foreign currency. It has contributed (CBD) and army worms affect crops
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to the development of transport and before they are ready for harvesting,
communication system from the farm which leads to low production.
to the market and from the market to the
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farm. Additionally, it has encouraged the Ways to improve large-scale crop

raising of the standard of living for the cultivation in Tanzania: There are
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people in the country because of what several ways to improve large-scale crop
individuals and families earn from farm cultivation in Tanzania. Improvement of
produce. the transport network and communication
systems will facilitate the transportation
Challenges facing large-scale crop of farm inputs to the farm and agricultural
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cultivation in Tanzania: Some of products to industrial centers and

the challenges facing large-scale crop markets. The government should also
cultivation in Tanzania are high cost render the necessary support to prop
of production. Large-scale farming up large-scale farming by providing
requires a large capital investment subsidies in addition to creating a
to buy machinery and farm inputs, conducive investment climate by
prepare land and pay farm labourers. reducing the heavy and number of taxes

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on agricultural facilities. Moreover, there Agriculture, which is highly mechanised,

is also a need to establish and expand operates on a large-scale and makes
irrigation schemes through public and a significant contribution to the
private partnerships. Furthermore, USA economy through provision of
farmers should be empowered through employment opportunities to about 11%
the establishment of co-operative banks of the Americans. Through agriculture
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for loan provision and sustainable the country also earns foreign currency,
markets. There is also a need to enforce which helps to increase the National
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a mechanism aimed to ensure extension Domestic Product (NDP) through the
officers work in the field with farmers export of beverages and other processed
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where they can provide technical foods. Improvement of standards of living
assistance on the selection of seeds, of the people who live near plantations
use of fertilisers and pesticides, and such as the Cotton and Corn belts is
processing and packaging of crops. Also another contribution of large-scale
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provision of real-time weather related agriculture in the USA. Furthermore,
information to farmers is necessary. the country has benefited significantly
from development and growth of beef
Contribution of crop production to and dairy farming industries, which
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the economy of the United States of employ the largest percentage, followed
America by bakery, fruit and vegetable plants. The
The United States of America (USA) agricultural sector also plays a role in
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has a diverse climate and the ability to stimulating the development and growth
grow a wide variety of crops across the of towns and cities such as Chicago and
in
vast country with 50 states. Agriculture St. Louis.

is a major industry in the USA, which
is a net exporter of food. Although Challenges facing large-scale
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agricultural activity occurs in every state, agriculture in USA: There are several
it is particularly concentrated in the Great challenges facing large-scale agriculture
Plains, a vast expanse of flat, arable land
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in the USA. Some of them are high

at the center of the nation in the region cost of production as agriculture in the
around the Great Lakes known as the USA is highly mechanised. Automatic
Corn Belt. Corn is another name for irrigation and agricultural machinery
maize which is a chief cereal crop. The require fossil fuels and other sources of
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economy of the USA heavily depends energy to run them. The increase in the
on manufacturing industries. However, price of fossil fuel, therefore, increases
it is so diversified and characterised with the cost of production. At times, there
a variety of sectors including services, is a shortage of water as irrigation
entertainment, telecommunications and requires a lot of water. The amount of
agriculture. underground water drawn for irrigation is

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Exercise 2.2
increasing whereas the amount of water
to refill is decreasing; which results in
A. For this section, do the following:
shortage of water for agricultural use.
Another problem has to do with loss of
1. Give the meaning of the term small-
soil fertility as the soil is eroded faster
scale agriculture.
than it can be replenished due to over-
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2. State the disadvantages of large-
cultivation. Also, over-irrigation causes
scale agriculture.
leaching of soil nutrients.
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3. Differentiate between plantation
agriculture and extensive cereal
Other challenges include the high cost
cultivation.
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of land management in large-scale
4. List four characteristics of large-
agriculture where monoculture is a
scale agriculture and give three
common practise. Monoculture exhausts
examples of plantation agriculture
nutrients from the soil that requires
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in Africa.
constant application of fertilisers.
5. Mention five crops grown in large-
Natural disasters such as drought,
scale farms in Tanzania and outline
hurricanes, floods and tornadoes also
their uses.
pose severe challenges to agricultural
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6. Explain why large-scale agriculture
production. Crops are damaged by
is not practised in many areas in
periodic drought, floods, tornadoes and
Tanzania.
hurricanes. This damage leads to low
7. Mention three conditions necessary
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production which, ultimately, affects the
for successful growing of coffee.
economy. The natural disasters also affect
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8. Outline the contribution of crop

transportation network which finally
production to Tanzania’s economy.
hinders the movement of agricultural
9. Mention five major challenges
products from the field to storage and
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facing large-scale agriculture in the

market centers.
USA.
10. Mention four ways to improve
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large-scale agriculture in Tanzania.

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B. Write True or False for each of the following statements:

1. Brazil is a major coffee producer in the world.
2. In Tanzania, cotton is produced in Kilimanjaro and Arusha.
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3. The Gezira Scheme in Sudan is an example of an irrigation project.
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4. Palm oil tree is a tropical plant that originated from South Africa.
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5. Europe is the major producer of maize in the world.
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C. Fill the gaps in the following table with appropriate crop or country:
Crop Major producing country in the world

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(a) Cotton _________________
(b) _________________ USA

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(c) Palm oil trees _________________
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(d) _________________ Brazil
(e) _________________ Tanzania

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Livestock-keeping
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Livestock-keeping is the rearing of since it is a source of food as well as

animals and poultry for food and raw materials for industries. It is also a
commercial purposes. The word source of income as well as employment
‘livestock’ applies primarily to cattle opportunities. Besides, it is a source of
or dairy cows, goats, pigs, camels, foreign currency.
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horses, mules, poultry and sheep.

Poultry includes ducks, chicken, turkey Livestock-keeping is categorised into
and geese. The population growth and traditional or subsistence and modern
ever increasing demand for food supply or commercial livestock-keeping.
lead to the growth of livestock-keeping. Categories of traditional livestock-
Livestock-keeping contributes to the keeping are nomadic, semi-nomadic,
economic development of a country transhumance and sedentary. Traditional
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or subsistence livestock-keeping is festivals. To the nomads, animals are a

practised in arid areas that receive less symbol of wealth and prestige.
rainfall per annum. These places do not
support crop production. Ethnic groups
that engage in traditional livestock-
keeping are the Maasai, Sukuma and
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Barbaig of Tanzania. In Uganda, it is
mostly practised by the Karamajong. In
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Kenya, it is practised by the Maasai, the
Turkana and the Samburu.
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Nomadic pastoralism/True
pastoralism
Nomadic pastoralism involves continual
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movement of pastoralists with large
numbers of animals from place to Figure 2.10 A large herd of cattle
place in search of pasture and water. Source:http://learn.e-limu.org/topic/view/?c=48&t=276
People involved in this practise are
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called nomads or pastoralists. Tribes Characteristics of nomadic
which practise nomadic pastoralism pastoralism: The nomads normally
include the Maasai, Barbaig, Kwavi and move in groups. These groups are formed
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Karamajong. Nomadic pastoralism is through the integration of families or
mostly practised in sparsely populated members of a given ethnic group. A
in
areas where the natural vegetation is group involves a chief or elders who
mainly grass and bushes and, sometimes, make decisions for the entire group.
scattered trees. In these areas, rainfall is
nl
very low and unreliable. The pastoralists Indeed, large herd tend to cause
follow specific routes in their movements. overgrazing. Overgrazing is a situation
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Figure 2.10 shows a large herd of cattle. where the number of cattle is greater
The animals kept by pastoralists are a than the carrying capacity of the grazing
source of food and income through the land. As a result, overgrazing causes soil
selling of animals and their products. erosion, land degradation and loss of
Major products from animals are meat valuable species.
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and milk. The pastoralists spend the

money they earn to meet family needs Another feature of the nomadic
such as buying cereals, paying school pastoralists is the breeding process,
fees and meeting health expenses. In which is uncontrolled. This situation
addition, the cattle raised are used for may lead to the spread and outbreak
paying bride price and giving gifts as of animal diseases, hence low animal
well as slaughtering during cultural quality and deaths.

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In addition, there is poor control of pests pastoralism tends to cause conflicts as

and other diseases, which result to poor they interfere with crop cultivators’
quality of animal products. Furthermore, land. Because of their nomadic nature,
nomadic pastoralism takes place where many of the pastoralists’ children fail to
the population is scarce as the animals attend formal education. As such, their
are grazed in open range, which needs periodic movements result in many of
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a lot of space. these children being denied their right to
education and associated opportunities.
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Advantages of nomadic pastoralism:
Generally, managing livestock using Semi-nomadism: Semi-nomadism is a
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traditional methods under nomadic transition between total nomadism and
pastoralism is cheap. It also ensures sedentary animal keeping. It involves
the availability of food to the family. In keeping a large number of animals
addition, indigenous species of cattle especially cattle. Tribes which practise
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such as Zebu, Boran and Ankole are semi-nomadism include the Turkana of
resistant to diseases. Furthermore, northen Kenya. The people involved
the animals can tolerate walking over in semi-nomadism usually travel away
long distances and withstanding other from their home for long periods during
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environmental hardships such as high the dry season in search of pasture and
temperatures. They can also stay for a water. This season is associated with
long time without water. Likewise, the scarcity of grass and water. Also, the
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cattle are cheap to manage in terms of semi-nomads’ movements contribute
shelter. to the spread of diseases among their
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livestock. Semi-nomads usually cultivate

Disadvantages of nomadic pastoralism: crops during the rainy season to sustain
Nomadic pastoralism suffers from lack their lives.
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of processing and storage facilities,

hence causing a significant loss of Transhumance: Transhumance is a
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the products. Also, over-grazing seasonal movement of livestock from one

under nomadic pastoralism leads to grazing ground to another, specifically
soil erosion. Moreover, the control to lowlands in winter and highlands in
of diseases is difficult since animals summer. It is a form of semi-nomadic
are always on the move, which can pastoralism in which domestic animals
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affect the health of the animals and play a predominant but not an exclusive
lower productivity in the process. For role in shaping the economic and cultural
example, there have been cases of loss life of the people who depend on them.
of large numbers of livestock due to
lack of water and pasture. This situation Under transhumance, pastoralism is a
affects the economy of the pastoralists. predominant economic activity with
Furthermore, the practise of nomadic varying emphasis on agriculture as
a supplementary activity. Countries
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that practise transhumance include livestock-keeping is also known as zero

Switzerland, Morocco, Kosovo and the grazing. This type livestock-keeping
Sudan-Sahelian zone of Mali. is characterised by a small number of
animals that are kept in sheds.
Advantages of transhumance:
Transhumance has several advantages Advantages of sedentary livestock-
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including an attempt to maximise keeping: The size of the livestock makes
productivity by exploiting annual grazing it easy to control diseases since livestock-
nl
imbalances. This ensures the availability keepers use modern methods of treatment.
of pasture to feed the animals throughout Sedentary livestock-keeping also takes
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the year. It also enhances income earning place in places where the population
from the sale of pastoral products. In prevents the movement of animals from
addition, it stimulates considerable one place to another in search of food
national, regional and international and water. Keeping animals in barns
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trade. Transhumance provides raw also enables the keepers to engage in
materials such as dairy and non-wood other economic activities such as trade.
forest products for local industries. Sedentary livestock-keeping can either
Moreover, it provides services to other be for food or commercial purposes.
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sectors of the economy, thus serving
as a complementary resource for the Disadvantages of sedentary livestock-
country’s overall economy. It also offers keeping: Despite the advantages
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many jobs for pastoral communities sedentary livestock-keeping presents,
and a diversity of actors involved in it is labour-intensive and can be time-
in
the livestock marketing circuit and value consuming. It is also expensive in terms
chain for other products. of building barns, feeding and taking
care of the animals. In fact, livestock-
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Disadvantages of transhumance: keepers under the sedentary system

Transhumance has disadvantages as it sometimes have to deal with scarcity
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accelerates deforestation (as the case of animal feeds. This shortage may lower
of southern regions of Mali), causes productivity particularly due to change
damage to crops, increases conflicts of weather conditions such as prolonged
and contributes to natural resource drought.
degradation. In Tanzania, sedentary livestock-
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keeping is commonly practised among

Sedentary livestock-keeping: Sedentary the Chagga of Kilimanjaro, Meru of
livestock-keeping involves keeping Arusha and the Bena of Njombe. In
animals in a permanent place. In Kenya, sedentary livestock keeping is
fact, this type of keeping animals is commonly practised by the Kikuyu and
called sedentary when livestock are to some extent the Kamba. Figure 2.11
permanently held in an area. Sedentary exemplifies sedentary livestock-keeping.

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For such commercial livestock-keeping,

land is managed to control soil erosion.
Pasture for grazing and supplementary
food also exist. In the meantime, water
holes are created to ensure the availability
of water for livestock and dips for pest
y
control. Grazing is controlled by dividing
the ranch into fenced-off sections known
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as paddocks.
Under this system, cattle move from
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one paddock to another to ensure that
once a paddock has been grazed it
has time to recover fully before being
used again. Examples of ranches in
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Tanzania include Ruvu and Kongwa.
There are many countries in the world
with ranching systems. These countries
include Argentina, USA, Northern
Figure 2.11 Sedentary livestock-keeping
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Source: flickr.com/photos/ilri/16563813546 Australia, Iran, India, China and New
Zealand.
Commercial livestock-keeping
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Commercial livestock-keeping involves Dairy cattle keeping is common in
rearing of animals for the purpose of areas where pasture is rich and where
in
selling their products such as meat, milk, animals are fed with high quality fodder
wool and hides. Ranching, as part of during winter. Moist and mild climates
commercial livestock-keeping, is mostly favour the growth of good pasture. Dairy
nl
practised in more remote areas where farming deals with milk production for
land is extensive and population density sale either in liquid form or as butter and
is low. Extensive land provides sufficient
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cheese. Moreover, milk is condensed into

grass to support a large number of powder especially in areas which are
animals. Commercial livestock-keeping far from dairy farms. Dairy farming is
is determined by factors such as capital, a common practise in countries such as
level of technology, market, availability the USA, Germany, China, Netherlands,
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of pasture and climatic conditions. In Brazil, India, Britain, Argentina and

temperate regions, supplementary food Australia. In Africa, dairy cattle-keeping
such as hay and root crops are used to countries include Tanzania and Namibia.
feed them during winter. Animals are
kept for meat (beef cattle), for milk
(dairy cattle and camel) and for wool
(sheep).

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Characteristics of commercial pests because it limits animal movement.

livestock-keeping It also uses high technology and scientific
Commercial livestock-keeping takes methods in management.
place on a large area with low population
density. More space is needed for the Disadvantages of commercial livestock-
construction of ranches and growing keeping: Despite the advantages,
y
grass for feeding livestock. Generally, commercial livestock-keeping is
commercial livestock-keeping is costly in establishing, operation and
nl
practised in more remote areas where maintenance. Moreover, it uses much of
other forms of land use are limited. the resources mainly human and physical
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Usually, one type of animal is kept for in the production process. Furthermore,
quality control of products. In addition, commercial livestock-keeping needs
commercial livestock-keeping is large sparsely populated areas. If animal
capital-intensive as it demands money wastes and discards are not properly
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for buying land, paying for labour, treated they can cause water, land and
fencing and buying machines and air pollution, and diseases.
equipment. Furthermore, cross breeding
in commercial livestock-keeping is an Benefits of livestock-keeping: Livestock-
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important management practise. keeping stimulates the growth of
industries that process different animal-
Advantages of commercial livestock- related products such as hides, horns
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keeping: Commercial livestock-keeping and hooves as raw materials. Also it is
acts as a source of raw materials for a source of income by selling animals
in
industries such as food processing, shoe and their products. In addition, livestock-
and cloth making. In addition, it is one keeping provides employment to people,
of the sectors which employs people. It which helps to improve their living
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also serves as a source of government conditions. Moreover, livestock keeping

revenue. Commercial livestock-keeping contributes to government revenue.
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provides food products such as meat

and milk consumed by households and Challenges facing livestock-keeping:
industries. Moreover, it contributes to Livestock keeping faces a number of
the production of goods such as shoes, challenges. Climatic changes resulting
bags and animal foods. The benefits of in prolonged drought may lead to
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commercial livestock keeping include the shortage of water and pasture which
ability to utilise breeds that can enhance may cause animal deaths. In tropical
the reproductive performance. This conditions, animals are infected by
practise also stimulates the development tsetse flies, causing nagana disease.
of transport and communication. There are also diseases such as
Commercial livestock-keeping also East Coast Fever, Rift Valley Fever
facilitates the control of diseases and (RVF), Foot and Mouth Disease

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(FMD). Inadequate financial capital government has been striving to improve

for investing in commercial livestock infrastructure and markets. There
farming is another challenge. should also be partnership between
the government and private sector in
Livestock-keeping is affected by poor developing livestock keeping. Due to
transportation for animal products population pressure, nomads should
y
from farms to markets because some be encouraged to switch to sedentary
areas are inaccessible. In some cases, livestock-keeping.
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pastoralists suffer because of unreliable
markets and poor storage facilities. Focal studies
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As a result of poor transportation Livestock-keeping in Tanzania
networking, especially due to poor and Livestock production is one of the major
inaccessible roads, their animal-based agricultural activities in Tanzania. It
products get spoiled before reaching contributes to the availability of food
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the market. However, the market is very and raw materials. The sector also
limited because of the low purchasing contributes to the country’s Gross
power of the people in some areas. Domestic Product (GDP). The National
This low purchasing power affects the Ranching Company (NARCO) is
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income of livestock-keepers and, as a responsible for managing all public
result, they fail to purchase vaccines ranches in the country. Most of the
for the growth and health of animals. livestock products are for the domestic
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Moreover, insufficient availability market. This sub-sector needs to be
of seminars and training on modern developed particularly in dairy farming
in
livestock-keeping methods lead to low and its products and meat processing
production. In some areas, animals to meet the domestic demands and
are kept traditionally due to low-level for export. Overall, livestock-keeping
nl
of technology. The changing climate helps to reduce household poverty and

further compromises the availability of ensure food security.
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water and pasture for the animals.

Challenges facing livestock-keeping
Ways of solving problems facing in Tanzania
pastoralists: There are several measures Prevalence of pests and diseases affects
being taken by the government of animals’ health and, eventually, causes
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Tanzania to solve problems facing low or poor production. Also, over-

pastoralists. These measures include grazing causes shortage of water,
providing education on sustainable pasture and soil erosion. There is also
livestock-keeping, improving extension a problem of poor transportation of
services in pastoral areas so as to livestock and livestock products from
control pests and diseases and, hence, one place to another. In addition, low
improve production. In addition, the level of technology to improve the

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animal breeds as well as preserve animal training in modern livestock-keeping

products has been another limitation in coupled with easily accessible extension
the development of livestock-keeping services. For commercial livestock-
in the country. These challenges lead to keeping, there is a need to attract
low quality and productivity. The low foreign investment in the sector but such
livestock production in turn, lowers the investment should also be geared towards
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quality of life of livestock-keepers and benefiting local people. Availability of
affects development generally. Lack domestic and international markets will
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of reliable markets is a serious threat promote livestock-keeping significantly.
to the sustainability of the livestock-
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keeping sector. Livestock-keeping in Australia
Australia is made up of mainland
In addition, low capital investment Australia, the island of Tasmania and
limits the development of the livestock- numerous isles Livestock industries
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keeping sector in the country. Also, have played a fundamental role in the
inadequate land for grazing leads development of Australia over the past
to conflicts between farmers and 200 years, first as an essential source
pastoralists. Nomadic pastoralists, of food and later as the principal
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for example, always move from one source of exports which triggered the
place to another in search of pasture economic growth of the nation and
and water. As a result, they sometimes supported the development of its land
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graze on the farms, hence conflicts and water resources. The livestock
arise between them and farmers. With export industry supports the livelihood
in
nomadic pastoralism, the animals get of many people in both rural and urban
tired due to long distances over which areas. The sector contributes to about
they move. Sometimes, the animals 45% of the gross value of annual
nl
get sick and die, thus leading to low production of Australia’s agricultural
production in terms of quality and sector.
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quantity.
The Australian government has
Ways of solving challenges facing responsibility in the export of livestock.
livestock-keeping in Tanzania: Its Department of Agriculture and
Challenges to livestock-keeping Water Resources, for example,
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can be reduced through encouraging regulates exports in the country’s

and supporting individual livestock livestock industry. Livestock exporters
keepers and their groups to buy modern must meet high animal welfare
accessories such as modern cattle sheds, standards in the areas of production
cattle mats and cool roofs that would and transportation. The Merino is one
improve their livestock-keeping. In this of the most prevalent and economically
regard, they would need support with influential breeds of sheep.

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The Merino sheep breed produces and experience. Such expertise also
high quality wool products not only demands higher salaries. The shortage
in Australia but also in other parts of of such highly skilled labour force
the world. The Australian Merino is can hinder operations in the livestock
not a single homogenous breed but a industries, hence reduce productivity and
number of ‘strains’ of sheep of which, lower the national income. Furthermore,
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regardless of their origins, are uniquely improper transport, processing and
Australian. The Merino originally shipping infrastructure reduce the quality
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came from Spain. Australian livestock of the livestock products.
industries are spread geographically
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throughout the entire continent. Sheep Similarities between livestock -keeping
production is largely located in the in Tanzania and Australia: Livestock-
southern states whereas beef production keeping in Tanzania and Australia has
is found in every state and territory. the following similarities:
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Furthermore, pork, dairy and poultry Both countries keep similar types of
tend to concentrate in regions that are livestock, for example, cattle and
reasonably near the major metropolitan poultry. Also, both countries have set
areas or along the coast. aside areas for ranching. In Australia,
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ranching is found at Victoria River,
Challenges facing livestock keeping Alexandria Station and Anna Creek.
in Australia These places are found in Queensland,
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Livestock farming is affected by climate South Australia, Western Australia and
change and weather, particularly the Northern Territory. Examples of
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changes in temperature and water. ranches in Tanzania are Kongwa, Ruvu,

The increase in temperature affects Kagera, Arusha, Morogoro, Kitulo and
the quality and quantity of pasture and Lushoto.
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forage crops.
In both countries, dairy farming is
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Diseases may also increase due to practised where there is adequate water
changes in weather and climatic supply and plenty of pasture. Overall,
conditions. In addition, the establishment the development of the livestock-keeping
of cattle and sheep keeping in most cases sector is important in both countries.
have resulted in negative environmental Moreover, the two countries practise
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impacts. The livestock industry is also a livestock at both the subsistence and
major source of land degradation, water commercial levels. The animals and their
pollution, in addition to being a driver products can be used to meet family needs
of deforestation. It also faces a shortage and sometimes be sold to raise revenue.
of skilled labour. This type of labour is In Tanzania, sedentary livestock-keeping
characterised by higher education and is practised in densely populated areas
expertise levels obtained through training and, hence, with a shortage of land such

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as the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro Economic importance of livestock-

and the Southern Highlands whereas in keeping: In Tanzania and Australia
Australia it is practised specifically in livestock-keeping is important because it
the South East of the country. stimulates other sectors of the economy,
for example, the development of
Differences between livestock-keeping transport and communication networks
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in Tanzania and Australia: Livestock- and processing industries such as leather
keeping in the two countries has the and milk. Moreover, livestock-keeping
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following differences: The majority promotes trade through selling animals
of livestock in Australia is kept for and animal products within and outside
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commercial purposes. Australian sheep, these two countries. It also promotes
particularly the Merino, are mainly employment to different people who
kept for wool production. More than work in processing industries. Livestock-
60 percent of livestock products from keeping provides skins, hides, cheese,
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Australia are exported to Europe and butter, milk and meat. These products are
other continents. sold and enable individual households and
the nation to earn money. Furthermore,
Livestock-keeping in Tanzania, on the the sector generates revenue to these
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contrary, is mainly for meeting domestic countries through tax collection from
demands with some few animals and the industries operating in this livestock
animal products being exported, but sector. It also encourages the use of
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on a lower scale than in Australia. In marginal lands. Livestock-keeping,
Tanzania, sheep and goats are kept for especially ranching and pastoralism,
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meat and skins. Moreover, the application which need large open areas, make use
of science and technology in livestock- of land which is otherwise not suitable
keeping is much more advanced in for other uses. Farmers also apply cattle
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Australia than it is in Tanzania. The main manure to add nutrients to the soil and
rearing system of livestock-keeping in improve productivity.
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Tanzania is pastoralism and zero-grazing,

whereas in Australia it is primarily the Livestock farming businesses provide
ranching system. In addition, Australia direct employment for the Australian
has many industries for processing people. The livestock and livestock
animal products, whereas in Tanzania processing industries also generate about
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efforts are underway to establish such $11.2 billion in export revenue annually.
industries on a commercial scale. In fact, the value of these exports has
increased steadily over recent years
generating foreign currency.


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Exercise 2.3
A. Circle the letter of the best answer

1. Traditional livestock farming is practised in areas where there is:
(a) Very low rainfall
(b) Heavy rainfall
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(c) No rainfall
(d) Dry lands
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2. Examples of pastoralists include:
(a) Maasai, Barbaig and Karamajong
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(b) Sukuma, Gogo and Nyamwezi
(c) Sangu, Kwavi, Ngoni and Hehe
(d) Ngoni, Sukuma and Maasai
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3. Examples of societies that do not practise sedentary farming are:
(a) Sukuma, Gogo and Nyamwezi
(b) Chagga, Meru and Bena
(c) Sukuma, Meru and Nyamwezi
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(d) Turkana, Maasai, Karamajong.
4. Three categories of commercial livestock-keeping are:
(a) Pastoralism, sedentary and nomadism.
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(b) Traditional, modern and pure livestock-keeping.
(c) Beef livestock-keeping, dairy livestock-keeping and sheep-keeping.
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(d) Traditional livestock, cattle-keeping and diary livestock-keeping.

5. Large-scale livestock farming is conducted in:
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(a) Ranches
(b) National parks
(c) Zero-grazing
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(d) Urban areas

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B. Match each statement in Column A with the correct phrase in Column B:
Column A Column B
1. A type of agriculture involving (a) Tanzania, Ethiopia and Ghana
growing of cash crops on large
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areas of land, mostly in tropical (b) Commercial livestock-keeping
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regions.
2. Agriculture confined to the (c) Slash and burn
production of food crops for
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consumption by household (d) Agriculture
members.
3. The system of keeping animals (e) Mixed farming
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alongside cultivation.
4. Another name for shifting (f) Subsistence agriculture
cultivation.
(g) Coffee and tea
5. Beverage crops produced in
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plantations.
(h) Tea, cocoa and coffee
6. Labour is provided by the owner
of the land and members of the
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(i) Plantation agriculture
family.
7. A system of agriculture aimed at
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(j) Small-scale agriculture

making profit through regular sale
of farm products.
(k) Large-scale agriculture
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8. Countries practising the ranching

system in the tropical savannah of (l) Ranching
Africa.
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9. It refers to the rearing of livestock (m) Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda

with the main aim of producing
meat, milk, wool and hides for (n) Coffee, maize and tea
commercial purposes.
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C. Answer the following questions:

1. Mention four crops that are grown
in plantations.
2. Explain what nomadic pastoralism
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means.
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3. Describe the primary purposes for
keeping cattle.
4. Outline main challenges facing
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livestock keeping in Tanzania.
5. Suggest ways of solving
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challenges facing livestock-
keeping in Tanzania.
6. Elaborate challenges facing
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livestock-keeping in Australia.
7. Differentiate between traditional
and commercial livestock-keeping.
e
in
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Chapter Three
Water management for
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economic development
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the uses and economic importance of water;
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the relationship between family size, water supply, and the quality of life; the
relationship between vegetation and water supply; and the effects of distance to
water sources from households to a girl child in Tanzania. You will also learn
about river basin development, requirements for establishing a river basin project,
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as well as benefits and challenges facing river basin projects. Finally, you will
learn about land reclamation, underground water, aquatic resources, pollution
and water conservation.
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The concept of water management Access to water is fundamental to
Water is a colourless liquid found economic and social development.
naturally on the land surface, atmosphere However, population growth, rapid
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and underground reservoirs. Water urbanisation and industrialisation,
can exist in liquid, solid, or gas state. the expansion of agriculture and
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Although water is a familiar substance, it tourism, and climate change all put
is also a unique material of the earth. For water under increasing stress. This
a long time, water has been considered situation has impacted negatively the
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to be an abundant resource which socio-economic development of most

is found freely to all people. Today, developing countries. As a result,
most countries are facing increasing at the global level, there is a major
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pressure on water resources and growing concern regarding the management

competition between differing interests. of water resources. Water resources
Chronic water scarcity is perceived to be management emerged as a response
one of the threats to global prosperity to real and foreseen water crises and
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and stability. Other threats include increasingly unsustainable pressure

hydrological uncertainty and extreme on the freshwater resources, which
weather disasters such as floods and emanate from rising populations,
droughts. growing demands for water due to
competing water uses, and increasing
pollution.

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Water resource management refers to economic growth and sustainable

the process of planning, developing, agricultural development, promote
distributing and managing the effective democratic participation in governance,
use of water resources. In today’s and improve human health.
interconnected world, there is no doubt
about the value of integrated planning for Sources of water
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sustainable development. There is a need There are several sources of water.
to have an integrated water resources These include rainfall, wells, springs,
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management that supports the economic, ponds, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.
social and environmental dimensions There are various ways used to manage
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of sustainable development. Integrated water resources. These are policies, by
Water Resources Management is one laws, laws, regulations, and awareness
of the initiatives for sustainable use raising campaigns.
of water resources, and it refers to a
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process of promoting the coordinated Fresh water and hydrological cycle
development and management of water, The hydrological cycle is a continuous
land and related resources, in order to circulation of water from the
maximise the resultant economic and earth’s surface to the atmosphere
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social welfare in an equitable manner through the process of evaporation,
without compromising the sustainability evapotranspiration, condensation,
of vital ecosystems. The management precipitation and infiltration. Figure 3.1
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helps to protect the environment, foster illustrates the hydrological cycle.
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Clouds
Clouds
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Clouds
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Figure 3.1 The hydrological cycle

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Evaporation Evapotranspiration
Evaporation is the process by which Evapotranspiration refers to the process
water changes from liquid to gas or whereby water is transferred from the
vapour. During evaporation, water land to the air through plant roots and
moves into the atmosphere in the form leaves. Water from the land is carried by
of water vapour or moisture (see Figure roots to the leaves, a process known as
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3.2). Water bodies such as rivers, transpiration, and then from the leaves
lakes, seas and oceans contribute it changes into vapour and moves into
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about 90% of the moisture found in the atmosphere through the process of
atmosphere through evaporation. Water evaporation. The combination of these
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changes into vapour under the great two processes form what is termed
influence of temperature. Areas with as evapotranspiration (Evaporation +
high temperatures and low humidity transpiration = evapotranspiration) Figure
experience a high rate of evaporation. 3.3. Evapotranspiration is determined by
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Evaporation is also determined by factors such as temperature, humidity,
humidity and wind. wind, soil and type of plants. These
factors are hereby explained.
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Temperature: An increase in temperature
accelerates the rate of evaporation.
During the warm season, plants open
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their stomata (pores) and then release
water in the form of water vapour.
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During the cold season, plants close their

stomata and thus prohibit the release of
Figure 3.2 Evaporation from ocean water water. It should be noted that 10% of the
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moisture in the atmosphere is contributed

by release of water from plants.
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Moisture in the atmosphere

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Transpiration
Heat
Evaporation
Stomata
Water absorbed by roots
Figure 3.3 Evapotranspiration

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Humidity: Evapotranspiration is also Clouds are masses of water droplets

affected by humidity. When the air which continue to accumulate and
around the plant contains too much when they are saturated, they become
moisture, the rate of evapotranspiration
dense and fall as rain. Condensation
is low. Indeed, when moist air surrounds
is a very essential process in the
the plant, the rate of evapotranspiration
hydrological cycle because it leads to
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is low and vice-versa. the formation of clouds which produce
rainfall (Figure 3.4). Rainfall is the
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Wind: Wind affects evapotranspiration main route through which water returns
by keeping air in constant movement. to the earth’s surface.
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This movement increases the rate of
evapotranspiration as it clears any
humidity around the plants, hence
increasing the rate of transpiration.
Soil: The type of soil also determines

the amount of water that can be
retained in the soil and the amount of se
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water that can be drawn from the soil
through transpiration or evaporation.
Fertile soil tends to support the growth
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of vegetation which increases the rate Figure 3.4 Heavy clouds in the air
of evapotranspiration. Soil, which Source: ruvumapress.blogspot.com-mawingu mazito
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supports vegetation, allows much

evapotranspiration to take place. Precipitation
Precipitation is the falling of water
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Types of plants: Plants with long from the clouds in form of rain, snow,
taproots carry large amounts of water sleet or hail. Figure 3.5 shows different
to the leaves, hence influencing the forms of precipitation. It is the last stage
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rate of evapotranspiration compared to that demonstrates the return of water to

plants with shallow roots. the earth’s surface after changing into
a gaseous form. Precipitation may be
Condensation heavy or light thereby creating heavy
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Condensation is the process whereby rain, snow or hail. Whereas rain is

water in its gaseous form changes into directly in liquid form, snow and hail
liquid. The moist warm air from water are water in solid form as a result of
bodies and plants moves upwards where freezing. Water reaches the ground
there is very low temperature. Then it in form of snow or hail after the
reaches a dew point (point at which temperature in the atmosphere fails to
water condenses) and forms clouds. melt it completely before reaching the

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ground. Upon reaching the ground, surface is called underground water.

which has higher temperature than the Infiltration is an essential process
atmosphere, the snow and hail melt as it feeds water bodies and soils
into liquid as surface run-off. Also which are sources of evaporation and
some water infiltrates into the earth’s evapotranspiration.
surface through soil and cracks.
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Economic importance of water
Water is a source of life for almost all
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living organisms including animals and
plants. Numerous economic activities
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are conducted in water while others use
water as part of raw material.
Human beings are primary users of
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water and integrate it in their economic
Figure 3.5 Different forms of precipitation activities in various ways. Their ability
Source:pinterest.com-forms of precipitation to plan and conduct economic activities
is basically supported by water. Water
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Infiltration: Infiltration, which is is used as an important ingredient in
sometimes called percolation, is the sustaining life, especially for cooking,
process whereby water that has reached drinking and maintaining cleanliness.
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the ground penetrates into the soil or Generally, water is essential for
rocks (Figure 3.6). economic development. It is used in the
in
manufacturing industry, hydro-electric

power generation, and navigation as well
as domestic activities and trade.
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Rain
Moreover, water is used in various

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Permeable processing and manufacturing industries

rock
for the production of food and beverages.
Infiltration It is important in mixing ingredients that
are added to raw materials during food
Underground water and beverage processing and production.
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Impermeable rock
For example, water is a component of
Figure 3.6 Water infiltration into the soil
most beverages such as soft drinks,
milk, coffee and tea. These beverages
Some of the water may seep through contribute to the economy of many
and go deep underground and create countries as a source of income
underground runoff or aquifer in the generation. They are sold locally and
rocks. Water that percolates the land exported to earn foreign income. Other

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industrial uses of water include cooling Furthermore, water is useful in the

and washing. navigation sector in various ways.
Human beings navigate different
Also, water is important for irrigation vessels such as canoes, boats, ferries
purposes. Many countries around the and ships to move people and goods.
world do not depend completely on Transportation of heavy machines
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rainfall for agriculture due to its uneven for factories and industries, vehicles,
distribution. To ensure that agricultural timber and logs is made possible on
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activities are carried out largely for water. In Tanzania, water transport
commercial purposes, irrigation has on lakes and oceans facilitates the
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proven to be the best option. For importation and exportation of various
example, in Tanzania, there are irrigation goods such as machines and vehicles.
schemes in rice paddy plantations; these In fact, water as a means of transport
are Mbarali rice farm, Kapunga rice is likely to reduce the transport cost
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farm in Mbeya Region and sugar-cane compared to other means of transport
plantations in Kilombero and Mtibwa and, hence, contribute meaningfully to
in Morogoro Region; and Kagera sugar economic growth. Water is the habitat
plantation in Kagera Region. Other for aquatic organisms such as fish which
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countries which use water for irrigation are useful to human beings. Usually,
on a large-scale in Africa include Sudan water bodies such as oceans, sea, lakes,
and Egypt. The irrigated plantations rivers, dams and ponds attract fishing
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produce high output which contributes and, hence, fishing related activities.
to economic development through sale Fishing provides human beings with
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in local markets and for exportation. food and income through local selling
and exportation of fishing products.
Water is also a source of electrical power. In addition, water is used for trading
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Modern economies depend much on the which supports local communities to

supply of electricity. One of the sources earn income and the government to
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of electric power is water to produce what get the much-needed revenue.

is commonly known as hydroelectric
power (HEP). HEP is one of the Other uses of water which contribute
cheapest and environmentallyfriendly to economic growth and prosperity
sources of power. This power is used are tourism and sports. Some water
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in industries to run machines, transport sceneries attract local and foreign

goods and provide services as well as tourists which helps to earn income for
in communication systems. Moreover, the host countries. Water-based sports
power contributes to the establishment such as skiing, surfing, canoeing and
of small and large-scale economic diving are also sources of income.
activities which eventually contribute to
the economic growth of a given country.

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Family size, water supply and diarrhoea are common in areas with
quality of life scarcity of water supply. About three-
Family size refers to the number of quarters of households in sub-Saharan
family members. The size of the family Africa get water from sources located
influences the household water demand away from their homes, with women
and use, hence making it central to and girls bearing the main task of
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any measurement of socio-economic collecting water for their respective
status. Indeed, the larger the family, the households.
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higher the water demand for domestic
use. With adequate and reliable supply Effects of distance to water sources
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of water, the quality of life is improvedon the girl-child in Tanzania
as families will not need to spend most Water fetching in most Tanzanian
of their time searching for water. societies is a cultural and gender-related
International Treaties and Declarations activity in terms of who is responsible
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of the United Nations recognise the for carrying it from the sources. The
right to water as essential for securing responsibility of fetching water and the
an adequate standard of living. The overall water management in
reason is that water is one of the most households is influenced by gender and
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fundamental conditions for survival. cultural norms. The burden of fetching
The right to water, emphasises that water is borne by both women and
everyone should have access to children, particularly girls. They travel
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sufficient, safe and affordable water forover long distances to fetch water for
personal and domestic uses. Article 11 domestic purposes.
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of Human Rights of the United Nations These distances coupled with other
recognises the right of everyone to factors such as difficult terrain, poor
adequate standard of living, including water flow, and queues at the water
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adequate health, sufficient food and sources take a lot of time from girls.
shelter, all of which require access to Fetching water appears to have direct
effect on the physical health of the
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clean water.
girls and their ability to participate in
Many people in the world and domestic responsibilities.
particularly in the developing countries
have inadequate water supply to meet Children, particularly girls, experience
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their daily needs. Indeed, shortage of pains or movement problems associated

water has a serious health implication with walking long distances in search
as it can lead to illness and even death of water. This, in turn, is associated
among the poor in many developing with disability linked to spinal
countries. Water-borne diseases such disorders and cervical compression
as cholera, bilharzia, typhoid and syndromes. In addition, walking over

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long distances while carrying water improve the health of a family, but
contributes to psycho-social and also provides an opportunity for girls
emotional suffering. The suffering can to attend school and spend their time
have general health implications that more productively on academics than
may lead to disability and affect work on fetching water.
performance. Moreover, incidents and
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fear of physical and sexual violence Relationship between vegetation and
are widely reported by women and water supply
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children in relation to water-fetching Vegetation refers to the collection of
activities. plants growing in a particular area
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under certain climatic conditions.
The extent of the problem of walking Vegetation growth depends on various
over long distances to water sources is factors such as rainfall, temperature,
more pronounced in low and middle soil and relief. In particular, rainfall
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income societies than in high income provides water which is required for
ones. Since economic, political and the growth of plants. Areas with dense
social inequalities are reflected in access vegetation cover tend to experience
to drinking water, the marginalised high rates of evapotranspiration which
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groups may suffer differently from the is necessary for rain formation.
negative economic and health effects
of carrying water over long distances. The amount of water supply in a
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Furthermore, this situation leads to particular area also determines the type
material deprivation for women, lack of vegetation growth. For example, due
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of voice and capacity to cope with any to their semi-arid climatic conditions,
form of crisis. This, in turn, widens the central parts of Tanzania such as
poverty gap and gender inequalities in Dodoma and Singida experience little
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Tanzania. rainfall in a year. The vegetation cover

is mainly shrubs with little influence
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In addition, carrying water over long on formation of rainfall. On the other

distances limits women’s participation hand, areas with equatorial climate are
in productive economic activities, covered with thick vegetation (equatorial
hence low school enrolment for girls. rainforests). This type of vegetation has
Access to water and sanitation is, significant influence on rain formation
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therefore, related to the time that girls due to high rates of evapotranspiration
need to attend school, and can be determined by high temperatures in these
among the reasons that keep them out regions. High rainfall results in adequate
of school. Therefore, access to fresh water supply.
water and sanitation does not only

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Vegetation cover plays an important the catchment areas. As a matter of fact,

role in protecting catchment areas. In deforestation may turn an area into arid
other words, vegetation reduces the or semi-arid land.
amount of water loss in those areas.
As a result, enough water supply to Exercise 3.1
those areas is maintained. In Tanzania,
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the areas around the slopes of Mount Answer the following questions:
Kilimanjaro experience constant flow
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1. What is the correct term for plants
of water throughout the year because of releasing water from their leaves,
the presence of thick vegetation cover. which then evaporates?
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(a) Evaporation
It should be noted that plants require (b) Precipitation
different amounts of water for their (c) Transpiration
growth. However, water is not evenly (d) Condensation
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supplied. As such, plants adapt differently
2. What is evaporation?
to their physical environment. This is
(a) Water freezes
one of the reasons for the different sizes
(b) Water vapour meets cold air
and appearance of the plants in different
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and changes back into liquid
geographical areas. For example, in
(c) Water gets warm and changes
dry areas, plants develop adaptation
from liquid to water vapour
mechanisms.
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(d) Plants take in water from the
soil
The leaves develop thorny leaves or a
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waxy surface to reduce loss of water 3. What is the correct term for the
through transpiration. Plants develop rising water vapour meeting with
deep roots in the ground to reach water. colder air and turning back into
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Other plants develop storage organs. water droplets?

For example, a baobab tree stores water (a) Condensation
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in its trunk. Some plants shed their (b) Precipitation

leaves during periods of water scarcity. (c) Evaporation
The relationship between vegetation (d) Infiltration
and water supply may be influenced by 4. Transpiration is…
human activities such as water drilling (a) soil infiltration.
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and deforestation. Water drilling may (b) water turning directly from ice
increase water supply in areas with to water vapour.
water scarcity and, thus, influence the (c) evaporation from the
growth of the planted vegetation. On leaves of trees.
the other hand, deforestation exposes (d) runoff from steep hills.
the area previously covered by the
forest to evaporation and thus destroys

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5. The process by which water is River basin development

taken up by plants and released A river basin is an area of land drained
into the atmosphere is called: by a river and its tributaries. It has
(a) Condensation features such as tributaries, watershed
(b) Evaporation and convergence. Tributaries are small
(c) Precipitation rivers flowing into larger rivers whereas
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(d) Transpiration a watershed is an area of highland
6. Name five uses of groundwater. surrounding a river basin. Convergence,
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also known as confluence, is a place
7. How and where does groundwater where a river joins another river. Figure
flow?
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3.7 shows the sections of a river basin.
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Source Source Smaller stream
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Interfluve
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Larger
stream
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ver
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Tributary
Direction of the Ri
Confluence
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Distributaries Main River
Season stream River mouth

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Sea Sea
Figure 3.7 Sections of a river basin

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River basin development is a long- (a) Construction of dams for retaining

term planning and management for water.
a multipurpose project focusing on (b) Removal of silt or mud from the
sustainable utilisation of the area within river or dam (dredging).
the basin. River basin development (c) For transport purposes, the river
may include better land use, better channels should be straightened
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water use, adequate energy and food and widened so that they can
supply, transport, flood control and accommodate more water.
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protection of the environment. (d) Trees should be planted on marginal
land, hill slopes and riverbanks.
A good river basin requires constant This will help to control soil erosion
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volume of water. This increases the and check the movement of surface
possibility of carrying out various run-off, to reduce or prevent silting
development projects. Projects which and flooding.
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take place in river basins should not If such requirements are observed river
have negative impacts on the people basin projects will achieve the expected
or the environment. The impacts may benefits.
include disturbing the habitat of various
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species such as fish. Other impacts are Benefits of river basin development
water pollution, disease outbreak and projects
resettlement of villages. The benefits of a river basin project vary
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depending on the nature and scale of
In Tanzania, environmental impacts are the project, location and administrative
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controlled by carrying out Environmental structure. The lower section of rivers is

Impact Assessment (EIA). The EIA aims usually exposed to excessive rain water,
to establish potential environmental causing floods. To prevent floods, basin
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impacts that may be caused by a given management establishes dams which

project that is planned to be conducted. serve as collection areas of excessive
It is usually done by a registered expert water. River basins in their natural
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through the National Environment state may hardly be safe for human
Management Council (NEMC). settlement. In fact, the establishment of
basin development projects increases
Requirements for establishing a the value of the basins and makes them
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river basin project more conducive for human settlement.

As river basin projects serve social This compels governments to extend
and economic purposes, they need to social services such as infrastructure,
be carefully designed by observing a health and education.
number of issues. The following are
some of the requirements which should River basin development also attracts
be observed when establishing a river irrigation. Due to availability of water
basin project: in a basin, commercial agriculture is
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established through irrigation schemes. Basin development projects also

Sometimes, individual peasants use a generate employment opportunities in
well-managed river basin for watering agriculture, forestry, tourism, transport
their small farms using traditional and fishing. Such development projects
mechanisms such as buckets. In contribute to income generation for
addition, river basin development the country and, consequently, to the
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projects involve planting of trees growth of its economy. Nevertheless,
and construction of dams. They also there are challenges resulting from
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involve strict measures for prohibiting the establishment and running of these
deforestation and poor cultivation projects.
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practises. All these measures aim to
foster appropriate use of the land to Challenges facing river basin projects
keep it productive. These measures River basin projects face numerous
also enable the preservation of the challenges. Many of these challenges
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ecosystem. By doing so, these projects are caused by natural events and human
contribute to preventing the land activities that take place in the basins.
from being eroded by environmental These are described below.
problems such as soil erosion, floods
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and loss of soil fertility. Siltation
Siltation is one of the challenges facing
Basin development projects involve the river basin projects. The water in dams
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establishment of hydroelectric power depends on the supply of water from
plants following the construction of highland areas through streams and
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dams. The water from the dams is used rivers. Usually streams flowing into
to generate electricity for domestic and dams carry some sediments which
industrial purposes. In Tanzania, Mtera, ultimately accumulate in the dams. This
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Kidatu and Kihansi dams in Rufiji accumulation of sediments leads to a

Basin are hydroelectric power stations. decrease in the volume of water which
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In addition to hydroelectric power, the may have numerous impacts. These

constructed dams create opportunities impacts may include lowering the
for fishing; for example, Mtera Dam is ability of dams to produce enough water
one of the dams where fishing activities necessary for electricity generation,
take place. Moreover, well-managed in addition to affecting transport and
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basins which have gorges, waterfalls, destroying marine organisms.

man made reservoirs and land scenery
attract tourism. Tourism is one of Water pollution
the potential sources of income and Water pollution is another challenge
contributes significantly to the national related to the dam projects. In many
economy. cases, modern agriculture involves the
use of agro-chemicals. These agro-
chemicals dissolve in water and get
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transported to the dams through water the largest river basins in Africa, and
streams which may affect marine covers an area of about 177,420 km2.
organisms, including fish. This basin occupies 20 percent of the
country. It occupies parts of Iringa,
Costs Njombe, Mbeya, Ruvuma, Morogoro,
Generally, the establishment and Dodoma and Pwani Regions (Figure
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maintenance of river basin projects 3.8). The basin contains the Rufiji River
is costly. The cost may be higher which is the largest river in Tanzania.
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particularly when the basins encounter It originates from the south-western
unexpected natural events such as highlands. It has four main tributaries,
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droughts or excessive rainfall. Whereas namely, the Great Ruaha, Kilombero,
droughts reduce the volume of water in Luwegu and the Rufiji lower section.
dams, excessive rainfall may lead to These four tributaries join to form the
overflow and too much siltation in the Rufiji River.
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dams. The overflow damages property
and farms in outlining areas. There are several socio-economic
activities within the basin which benefit
Trans-boundary conflicts individuals and the nation. These include
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Some basin projects face management agriculture, tourism, hydropower
challenges as they extend to different generation, fisheries, mining and
countries. As a result, establishing any livestock keeping. Land in the Rufiji
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project in one of the partner countries Basin is used mainly for agriculture,
of the basin may require a consensus tourism, wildlife conservation, fisheries
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from other countries which is not and mining. Agriculture is mainly

always guaranteed. For example, the practised in the Usangu Plain in Mbeya
Nile Basin is shared by Tanzania, and Kilombero Basin in Morogoro.
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Uganda, Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, South

Sudan, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi and Apart from being rich in water
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Eritrea. For decades, there has been resources and biodiversity, the basin is
complaints from upstream countries endowed with a good climate, fertile
(Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia soil, minerals and human resources. It
and Sudan) about the dominant use is known for its agricultural production
of the Nile waters by Egypt. The Nile and is often called the “bread basket”
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Valley Initiative is a project that aims of Tanzania. Within the basin, there
to solve these disputes peacefully. are important national parks (Kitulo,
Ruaha, Mikumi, Udzungwa and
Rufiji Basin in Tanzania Uluguru), large game reserves (the
The Rufiji river basin is managed by lower part of Selous, Rungwa, Usangu,
the Rufiji Basin Water Board (RBWB) Mpanga/ Kipengere, and Lunda), forest
under the Ministry of Water. It is one of reserves, and pasture for livestock.

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Fishery is practised in the Kilombero, on sugar and rice are carried out in
Great Ruaha and Rufiji rivers. the Kilombero Valley and Usangu
Mining projects are developed in the Plains respetively.
Selous Basin at Namtumbo District vii. There has been an increase in the
where Uranium is developed and copper planting of teak and rubber trees
project in Iringa District at Nyang’oro in some parts of the Rufiji Basin.
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Hills. Because of its large agricultural, These trees can potentially benefit
hydroelectric and other potentials, the the timber and rubber industries in
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basin is the focus of the Government the country. The irrigation projects
of Tanzania, donor and private also increase agricultural products
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development plans. It has also attracted for food and commercial purposes.
large numbers of people migrating to
the area seeking land for cropping and
raising livestock. According to the Challenges facing the Rufiji Basin
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national census of 2012, the districts Water Board
within the basin had 9,032,089 people Apart from having benefits, the RBWB
compared to 3,055,051 in 2002. It is also facing some challenges including
also contains Kihansi spray toads, the following:
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which are a unique species for tourist i. Poor labour supply due to out-
attraction. These frog species are not migration to urban centers.
found anywhere else in the world. ii. Diseases like cholera and malaria
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affect the farmers such that they
Benefits of the Rufiji Basin Water fail to contribute effectively in the
in
Board development of the scheme.

i. It has promoted the market of HEP iii. Climate related problems like
from Kidatu power plant. drought have been affecting water
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ii. There has been flood control. availability; sometimes the volume
iii. It has led to the creation of of water in the river decreases.
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employment opportunities in Climatic changes are experienced

the valley, thus promoted living in most parts of Tanzania including
standards of people. Rufiji Basin, with prolonged drought
iv. It has led to the development of and unreliable rainfall leading to
villages and towns, for example new insufficient water supply. This
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towns like Kidatu, Makambako and situation affects food production in

Mikumi. the basin, sugar plantations, HEP
v. The board provides expert advice to and wildlife.
the farmers on good farming practice iv. Transport problems prevail,
and solutions to their farming especially during rainy season
problems. during which the area is not always
vi. A number of large irrigation projects accessible.

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Figure 3.8 The Rufiji River Basin in Tanzania

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Other river basin development River Development Project in Kenya.

projects Outside Africa, river basin development
There are various river basin projects include the Ganges Project
development projects in Africa under (India), Amazon Basin Development
different authorities. In Tanzania, the Scheme (Brazil), and Tennessee River
river basins include Rufiji River Basin Basin Project in USA.
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in which the Stiegler’s Gorge project
(Nyerere Hydroelectric Power Plant) The Tennessee Valley Authority
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for generation of hydroelectric power is The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
located, and Kagera River Basin which is a federal cooperation agency in the
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is jointly managed by Tanzania, Rwanda, United States of America (USA). It is
Uganda and Burundi. Other river basin the largest public power company in
development projects in Africa include the United States. It supplies electricity
the Gezira Irrigation Scheme (Sudan), to millions of people in the USA.
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Aswan High Dam (Egypt) and Galole Tennessee River is a tributary of the
Irrigation Scheme (Kenya). Others are River Ohio River, and the Ohio is a
the Volta River Project (Ghana), Orange tributary of the River Mississippi River
River Project (South Africa), Cabora (Figure 3.9). The Tennessee River
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Bassa Basin (Mozambique) and Tana Basin lies in a seven-state area in the
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in
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Figure 3.9 Tennessee Valley Authority

Source: bkushistory.pbworks.com tva

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south-eastern part of United States. economic development;

Its drainage area covers 40,900 square ii. Generation of electricity;
miles (105,930 square kilometers), iii. Sale and transmission of electricity
mostly in the State of Tennessee, but to wholesales and large industrial
with parts also in Kentucky, Virginia, customers; and
North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and iv. T ransmission of economic
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Mississippi. development activities that generate
a higher quality of life for citizens
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The TVA was established in 1933 by of the Tennessee Valley.
the US Government. The development
of TVA was triggered by social and Benefits of the Tennessee Valley
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economic conditions in the Tennessee Authority
Valley in the 1930s. During those The TVA has achieved many aims
years the region was largely rural and for its establishment. These are described
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undeveloped, poverty-stricken, and in the following sections.
characterised by degraded environmental
conditions due to poor farming methods. Power generation
Similarly, there was severe erosion, TVA has the responsibility of providing
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extensive deforestation and deteriorating reliable, affordable electric power
environment. that helps businesses and families
prosper. In 1998 the main sources of
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The establishment of the TVA was meant power were hydro and thermal, which
to achieve four key functions, which are: represent nearly 14 percent of TVA’s
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(i) To improve navigability and provide total generating capacity. In 2008 the
for the flood control of the Tennessee authority supplied power to 159 local
River; (ii) To provide for reforestation power companies that served 8.7 million
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and the proper use of marginal lands in people, and 650,000 businesses and
the Tennessee Valley; (iii) To provide for industries in the seven-state TVA area. In
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agricultural and industrial development 2017, TVA’s power portfolio contained

of the Tennessee Valley; and (iv) To 30 dams or hydroelectric facilities, eight
provide for national defence by the coal plants, 16 natural gas plants, three
creation of a corporation for the operation nuclear plants, 14 solar energy sites,
of government properties. Later, after its and one wind energy site. Currently,
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establishment, the functions of the TVA TVA supplies power from a diverse
were expanded to include: energy portfolio that includes nuclear,
i. Management of the Tennessee coal-fired, natural gas, hydroelectric,
Valley River system for multiple and renewable power. This is supplied to
purposes including navigation, more than 10 million customers within
flood control, power generation, the valley. Today, TVA is the largest
ensuring water quality, public public utility and one of the largest
land conversation, recreation, and
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electricity providers in the United States. always been a key to the economic
Likewise, the generation of power has development of the TVA through
stimulated different manufacturing and commercial ships which facilitate the
heavy industries in the valley. movement of goods and machinery.
Likewise, the authority managed to
Environmental stewardship construct dams which increase the
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TVA was mandated with the water supply for irrigation, domestic
responsibility of managing the natural and industrial uses. Consequently, the
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resources in the Valley for the benefit of dams have also led to the development
the region and the nation. For example, of fishing industries for domestic and
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the TVA manages the Tennessee River commercial purposes.
system and neighbouring public lands
so as to reduce flooding, maintain The TVA has managed to increase the
navigation channels, support power land for the cultivation of crops. The
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production and recreation, improve land, which was earlier affected by
water quality and supply, and protect soil erosion, has now been controlled
shoreline resources. Currently, the using various methods. Trees have
authority has a sophisticated system been replanted and good cultivation
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of dams to control flooding along practises, such as construction of
the Tennessee River watershed. This terraces, have been applied on the
provides an opportunity of controlling valley slopes. All these measures have
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the floods by controlling about $ 260 stabilised agricultural production,
million in flood damage annually. To which is a good indicator of agriculture’s
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date, the operation of this system has contribution to the improvement of

prevented over US$5.4 billion in flood income of the people in the Tennessee
losses across the Tennessee Valley, Valley. The TVA was charged with the
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including about US$ 4.9 billion in following short-term objectives: To

damage averted at Chattanooga the control floods, improve navigation,
Valley’s most flood-prone city. The
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develop HEP, improve the land along

system has also prevented about US$ the river banks, conserve soils and
470 million in flood losses in the lower carry out reforestation projects to
Ohio and Mississippi River drainage check erosion in the region.
basin.
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TVA was also involved in other activities

Economic development such as industrial development, wildlife
TVA builds businesses and community conservation, forest, road and rail
partnerships that bring jobs to the development, malaria control, planning
region and keep them there with a for towns and educating farmers in
view to making the economy stronger. sound agriculture techniques. The
For example, the Tennessee River has long-term aim of TVA was to raise the

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standard of living of the people in the It has also plans to conduct periodical
area. Moreover, the TVA has established online seminars to the public. These
more than 100 public parks and camping seminars aim to inform the entire USA
community on initiatives geared towards
sites to attract tourists. Tourists visit the
valley because of a number of attractive improving the Tennessee River Basin.
natural and man-made land sceneries. The seminars also intend to collect views
from the public on how to improve the
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These developments in the basin have
valley in future. The main target of
contributed to the establishment of a
the projected improvement which is
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strong tourism industry in the valley. emphasised by TVA when seeking the
views from the people include increasing
Prospects of the Tennessee Valley
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tourist attraction centers, expanding
Authority employment opportunities, improving
The Tennessee Valley Authority is one water quality and aquatic life. Generally,
of the largest river basin development TVA plans to ensure that the Tennessee
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projects in the world. Despite the Valley becomes a habitable place with
innumerable successes achieved so far, minimum challenges.
TVA still has more room to establish
more development projects. The
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authority aims to exploit sustainably Exercise 3.2
every potential opportunity undertaken
in the valley. TVA intends to increase A. Answer the following questions:
1. Define a river basin.
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electricity production to meet the ever
increasing demand for electricity in the 2. Explain what a river basin
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valley. The authority has expressed a development project is.

desire of achieving more success in its 3. Describe necessary conditions
2019 Integrated Resource Plan (IRP). for river basin development.
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This is a long-term plan that provides 4. With reference to Rufiji Water

direction on how TVA can best meet the Basin and TVA, explain how
electricity demand in the next 20 years. a community can benefit from
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TVA also intends to provide electricity the river basin.

to the people at a price affordable to 5. Explain why river basin
everyone. development projects are
challenging to the authorities
Through this plan, TVA intends to
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that manage the basins.

provide regular updates to customers
and stakeholders on every development
and opportunity available.

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B. Match the development scheme in if not handled with great care. The
Column A with its corresponding reclaimed lands can also be vulnerable
country in Column B to natural hazards such as earthquakes
because they are in most cases not as
Column A Column B strong as naturally situated lands. In
fact, the reclaimed land can easily sink
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1. Gezira Irrigation (a) Brazil
when there is an earthquake. Erosion
Scheme (b) India
may also be severe in the reclaimed
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2. Aswan High Dam (c) Pakistan
land because of the nature of the soil.
3. Galole Irrigation (d) USA
Scheme (e) Sudan Soil in the reclaimed land is not as
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4. Rufiji Basin (f) Egypt compact as in the naturally situated
Water Board (g) Kenya land.
5. Amazon Basin (h) Tanzania
Development Methods used in land reclamation
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Scheme Methods used for land reclamation
depend on the nature, location and
size of the land to be reclaimed. For
example, land may be reclaimed from
Land reclamation
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Land reclamation refers to a process of water bodies, dry land, saline land and
turning waste or poor land into a useful swampy area.
state. In other words, land is changed These different types of land require
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from not being valuable to being different methods of reclamation as
valuable. It is turned into a state in elaborated bellow:
in
which it can be used for growing crops,

keeping animals, fostering settlement (a) Land affected by stagnant water
or covered by water, draining
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and boosting industrial development.

techniques can be applied. The
When land is reclaimed, it is termed as excess water is removed from
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reclamation ground. Land reclamation the land by draining to make it

aims to increase areas for agriculture useful for the intended purpose.
and settlement. The reclamation also An example of land reclamation
aims to obtain land for industries and by draining out water is the Zuider
places for recreation. Further, the focus Zee Project in the Netherlands. In
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is also on improving transport systems this project, dykes or high walls

on the land and waterways as well were built to enclose seawater and
as controlling floods that might take thus prevent it from entering the
place in an area. Nevertheless, land land. Then, the enclosed water was
reclamation processes are expensive pumped out. The land obtained is
and may damage corals and marine life regularly drained to remove salt for
farming and settlement use.

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(b) Reclamation of a land affected Land reclamation in Tanzania

by soil erosion differs from land There have been various projects and
covered by water. Soil affected by efforts for land reclamation in Tanzania.
erosion calls for planting of trees. The major reclamation projects have
Trees will act as binding agents for been carried out by the government
keeping the soil particles together through
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and absorbing excess water which its agencies and international agencies.
would otherwise flow rapidly over In particular, major reclamation
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the land. Moreover, using better projects have been carried out in
methods of agriculture such as Dodoma and Shinyanga regions. They
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contour ploughing, terracing and are soil conservation programmes better
strip farming especially in steep known by their Kiswahili acronyms as
slopes helps to prevent erosion. HADO (Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma) and
HASHI (Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga).
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(c) Land may also be reclaimed by
restoring its fertility. In this case,The HADO project was a large project
land which has lost fertility may implemented by the Government
require planting cover crops and of Tanzania in 1973-1997, and was
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addition of organic manure and funded by the Swedish International
fertilisers to improve its fertility. Development Agency (SIDA). The
The fertility will attract vegetation main objective of the project was
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growth. Vegetation will not only to conserve land and water, and
bind the soil but also protect it fromrehabilitate the already depleted areas,
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excessive loss of water through particularly the severely affected Irangi

transpiration. Hills. The project strategies focused on
promoting tree planting, bee-keeping,
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(d) Land affected by excessive animal soil and water conservation, reclaiming
keeping can be restored by reducing degraded land, and local participation
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the number of animals in the area. in conservation matters. The method

This simple reclamation method of land reclamation involved the
allows the land to be proportionally construction of terraces and cutting off
used. drainage to check the speed of runoff
water. However, the construction was
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(e) Steep slopes may be reclaimed by not successful as grazing animals

levelling the land. and uncontrolled runoff destroyed
the barriers. HADO also involved
wide areas, which were eroded due to
uncontrolled livestock-keeping. As a
result, huge gullies developed.

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Therefore, to minimise the destruction with scarce water supplies, it does

of the barriers, about 85,000 animals provide resources that humans rely on.
(cattle, goats, sheep, and donkeys) were
removed from the area. Afforestation Underground water: This is the most
was carried out to hold the soil plentiful of all freshwater resources.
and check the speed of runoff. The As water percolates into the ground
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government stopped livestock from through layers of soil, clay, and rock,
using these areas. The government some of it adheres to the topmost layers
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through HADO campaigns also to support plant growth. Most often,
advised people interested in grazing groundwater is accessed by humans
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to size down their livestock and try to via wells. To build a well, one must
practise zero-grazing. Significant gains drill down past the water table. In most
have emerged from HADO initiatives. cases, a pump is placed at the bottom
of the well, and water is pumped into
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Generally, the land has been restored as homes, businesses and water treatment
soil fertility and vegetation in the worst plants, where it is then distributed for
degraded areas have gained a new lease usage.
of life. The areas which were no longer
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useful for supporting human activities Surface water: Surface water is water
have been transformed into potential that exists in streams and lakes. This
farming areas also suitable for other water is primarily used for potable
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nature dependent activities. water supply, recreation, irrigation,
industry, livestock, transportation and
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Sustainable use of water resources hydroelectric energy. Over 63 percent

Water resources come in many forms, of the public water supply is withdrawn
but the three main categories are from surface water. Irrigation gets 58
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saltwater, groundwater and surface percent of its water supply from surface
water. Sustainable use of water water. Industry gets almost 98 percent
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resources includes all activities of its water from surface water systems.
relating to current and future use of Small amounts may come form small
water resources in terms of protection, channels.
conservation and management. There Some springs release hot water, hence
are surface and underground water the name ''hot springs''. Other springs
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sources. may eject hot water and steam hence

Salt water: Salt water fish are a staple the tag ''geysers''.
in much of the world’s diet (although
overfishing and pollution has put much Boreholes
of the marine life population at risk). Sometimes, underground water gets
Furthermore, tidal waters are being used out through human force. One way of
as a source of hydroelectric energy. So, getting out the water for various uses is
while saltwater is not helpful in dealing through drilling of holes which are
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called bores, hence the term borehole. The process of underground water
The hole is drilled through the earth formation primarily depends on the
using a drilling machine until the amount of rainfall in a particular area
water table is reached. The depth of the and the nature of rocks found there.
borehole may range from few to several When rain falls, water infiltrates
hundred metres depending on the level through the soil and fills the joints
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of the water table. For a constant supply and forms underground water. The
of water, the borehole is deepened water becomes naturally stored and
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down to a permanent water table. The ultimately gets out through springs,
water has to be raised by a mechanical bore holes and wells.
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or by electrical water pump. Figure
3.10 illustrates a borehole. Springs
Springs refer to natural overflows onto
the land surface after the aquifer has
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been filled with infiltrating water, or
when the water table meets the earth’s
surface. The amount of water released
from the spring depends on the nature of
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the rocks and the position of the water
table. A large amount of water from
a spring can form a river while small
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amounts may form small channels.
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Wells
Figure 3. 10 A borehole A well is a structure usually constructed
in the ground by digging to access
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Underground water water. The depth of the well depends on

Underground water is water beneath the level of the water table of the area.
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the earth’s surface particularly in the The walls of the well may be lined with
faults or joints of rocks and soil pores. bricks or stones to prevent them from
Usually, underground water is found in collapsing into the bottom of the well.
the rock spaces (aquifers) which collect Sometimes well water is drawn from a
after infiltration through rock faults or shallow well. The water from shallow
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joints. The rocks that allow water to wells is mostly obtained from the soil
seep through are called permeable rocks and not rocks. In many cases, the water
(Figure 3.11). The rocks with holes or from shallow wells is largely unsafe
pores through which water can pass are for drinking by human beings if not
called porous rocks whereas rocks with treated. Figure 3.12 illustrates a water
joints or faults through which water well whose water is drawn manually
infiltrates are called pervious rocks. using a bucket.

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RAIN
ARTESIAN WELL
INTAKE LAYER
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PERME
ABLE R
OCK (RESERVOIR/ AQUIFER)
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IMPERMEABLE ROCK
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Figure 3.11 Rock structure for underground water
and important assets for human

beings. There are different types of
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water resources. These include fish,
plantations, oil, natural gas, decoration
materials, salt and some building
materials. The seas and oceans possess
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mineral riches whose exploitation could
be of great use to people. Exploitation
of oil in Nigeria has made the country
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Figure 3.12 A well for drawing water one of the stable countries in Africa in
manually terms of economic development. The
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seas and oceans possess a wealth of

Areas where tapping underground minerals such as copper, manganese,
water is practised widely in Tanzania nickel, cobalt and salt. Apart from
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include Dodoma, Singida, Dar es vast oilfields, the continental shelves

Salaam, Shinyanga, Manyara, Mara are rich in gas fields. All these water
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and Tabora. Due to climatic change, resources are of great use for the
even areas which had enough surface wellbeing of people in Africa.
water are facing water shortages. As a
result, the government and individuals Water resources are tapped using
are now tapping underground water for varying methods in different countries.
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different uses. Fishing is done using traditional as well

as modern methods. Mwanza, Kigoma,
Resources obtained from water Ruvuma, the coast of the Indian Ocean
A resource is anything useful that can and Zanzibar are good examples of
be utilised if necessary. It is a stock areas that exploit fish for domestic and
consisting of substances such as water, industrial use. Japan is an excellent
minerals, air, forestry resources or example of a country that exploits
land. Water resources are essential water resources through fish farming.
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Fish can be farmed and harvested in

the same way as crops. Fish is carefully
tamed in special areas and containers
and harvested for domestic use.
Other applicable methods depend on
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the scale of fishing. In many cases,
small-scale fishing relies on the use of
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traditional methods as described below:
Figure 3.13 Fishing using a basket
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Hand lining method: This consists of Source:thisisafrica.me
a long stick or rod and hook attached to
a string. A bait is attached to the hook Trawling method: A trawl net is a big
to attract fish. The fisherman sinks the bag-shaped net whose mouth is kept
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hook into the water to catch the fish. open by boards. Its mouth has floats at
The method is time-consuming. the top and weights at the bottom to
pull it down (Figure 3.14.) The net is
Trap method: A trap is used where pulled by a trawler.
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there is a flood or along the coast where As the vessel moves. the fish is caught
there are tides. The traps are set up in the open mouth of the trawler net.
at the bank of a river or on beaches. When sufficient amounts of fish have
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The fish is washed onto the banks or been trapped the vessel stops and the
beaches by water and as the water goes net is pulled into the boat.
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back, the fish remains trapped behind Other water resources

in the traps. Other water resources include oil. Oil
in Nigeria is obtained using a process of
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Fish basket method: This method distillation after the extraction of crude
is used in shallow water lagoons and oil. Refineries are used to distil crude
oil into different by-products. Building
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swamps, whereby a woven basket with

an opening protruding inward is placed materials from the sea are usually
at the bottom of the water. A bait is obtained by quarrying. Tanzania is one
placed inside the basket to attract fish. of the countries which quarry building
The fish enters the basket and fails materials along the Indian coast at an
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to move back-Large-scale fishing is area known as Kunduchi.

carried out in deep waters in the oceans
and lakes. In Tanzania, large-scale Salt in Tanzania is obtained at Uvinza
fishing is practised in lake Victoria, (Kigoma) and from Lake Balangida
Tanganyika, and Nyasa as well as in in Manyara through extraction and
the Indian Ocean. evaporation.

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ground line
Sea bed with weights
Figure 3.14 Fishing by trawling
of water resources
Different methods used in harnessing se
Problems resulting from the extraction (iv) Excessive exploitation of marine
life does not only lead to loss of
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life but also reduces the amount of
water resources have resulted in both fish, cuts down breeding capacity
social and environmental impacts as and replacement capacity of other
explained below. species.
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(i) Pollution of marine water is (v) Pollution of water, apart from

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one of the impacts the world affecting the life of fish, may also
is facing as a result of poor and damage the near shore marine
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bad methods of exploiting water environment.

resources. Polluted water affects
marine animals such as fish and (vi) Pollution from industrial activities
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planktons. as is the case with oil drilling regions

of the Niger Delta has resulted
(ii) Illegal, unreported and unregulated in damage to the environment in
fishing has resulted in some fish nearby shores.
species disappearing.
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(vii) When fresh water resources become

(iii) Poor methods of quarrying for saline, they can no longer be used
building materials has led to for irrigation or drinking. Saline
further land degradation of shores water is toxic to plants, and high
in addition to the destruction sodium levels cause dry soils to
of fish breeding areas and coral become hard and compact and
reefs. reduce their ability to absorb

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water. Ground water extraction the source of water for domestic use
and irrigation can increase salt in many communities, especially those
concentrations in water. Irrigation which have no formal water supply from
can also cause salinization by authorised dealers.
raising the water table and lifting
saline ground water near the surfaceTransportation and storage of
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into the root zone. This occurs materials which may spill and leak is
when irrigation efficiency is poor, another source of underground water
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so a large fraction of irrigation pollution. For example, chemicals
water infiltrates into the soil, andused in manufacturing, processing and
groundwater flow is slow. A similar
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construction industries sometimes are
problem occurs in some regions not transported and stored by observing
when trees are cut down. any specified handling precautions.
This leads to spillage and leakage to
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Water pollution the ground and, consequently, seepage
Water pollution occurs when harmful into the soil which pollutes underground
substances of different quality, quantity water through infiltration.
and form are mixed in underground
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water. The water may be polluted Furthermore, underground water is
through discharging waste in it or at times polluted by human activities
mixing it with chemicals usually from in their effort to use the land to earn
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factories and industries. Besides, water a livelihood. Experience shows that
pollution is also caused by domestic modern farming is characterised
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practises especially channelling toilet by the use of fertilisers, herbicides,

waste into water streams. All the insecticides and pesticides. The misuse
materials which pollute water are called of these chemicals in farming harms the
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pollutants. Water pollution is at times soil and once rain falls the chemicals
caused by the construction of latrines contaminate the underground water
directly in the ground. This way of through infiltration.
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pollution affects mostly underground

water. The latrines tend to seep wastes Underground water can also be
into the underground water. Many polluted naturally through volcanic
homes and industries with no access eruption. This occurs in areas
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to sewerage systems rely on shallow characterised by eruption of poisonous

underground disposal of waste. volcanic materials from the interior
of the Earth. The erupted materials
This way of waste disposal contaminates finally seep into the soil and mix with
shallow wells which may cause water- underground water. Generally, pollution
borne diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea of underground water is harmful to
and typhoid. Shallow wells are mostly the lives of people and other living

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organisms, which directly or indirectly (e) Watering should be done when

use the water. necessary, particularly in the
morning or late in the evening
Ways of conserving water when the temperature is low, to
Water conservation refers to the avoid excessive evaporation.
process of preserving and using water
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efficiently to reduce unnecessary loss. (f) Sewage pits and canals should be
Water conservation is best done when properly connected to recycling
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collective efforts from individuals, systems for effective disposal.
groups, private agencies and the Therefore, there is a need to ensure
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government bring about the desired that the laws and regulations of the
results. land aimed to protect and conserve
water are adhered to.
Each of the members in a given nation
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has a role to play in water conservation.
The following are some of the measures
for water conservation.
(a) Preventing loss of water during
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irrigation can be achieved by
applying efficient methods such as
drip irrigation.
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(b) People should be educated on the

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importance of conserving water.
(c) Water re-use is largely advisable.

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For example, water from the

kitchen may be used for plant
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watering and water from laundry

may be used for cleaning toilets.
(d) It is advisable to make routine

check-ups in the water supply
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system to ensure that there are no

leakages. Doing so will ensure
efficient use of water because most
of the water will end up in the
intended places.

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Exercise 3.3
B. Briefly answer the following
A. Write True or False for each of the questions:
following statements: 1. What are the causes of water
1. Condensation causes water pollution?
vapour to turn into water 2. How can water pollution be
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droplets. controlled among communities
2. Rocks that contain joints or
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in Tanzania?
faults are called porous rocks. 3. What were the reasons for the
3. Rocks that have pores through establishment of HADO and
which water can infiltrate are
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HASHI projects?
called pervious rocks. 4. What is the contribution
4. There is a relationship between of Rufiji Water Basin to
rainfall and underground water. environmental conservation?
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5. Underground water can be 5. What are the advantages of
polluted by improper solid TVA in the United States of
waste disposal. America?
6. What are the common
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domestic practises for
water conservation in your
community?
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7. How is underground water
accessed in Tanzania’s
in
societies?
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Chapter Four
Sustainable use of forest
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resources
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about types of forests, distribution of forests by type,
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factors for their distribution, and the importance of forests in social and economic
life. You will also learn about the importance of forests in the ecological and
environmental balance as well as challenges facing the forest industry.
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The concept of forest transporting, processing and selling
A forest is an extensive area of land timber. The terms ‘timber’ and ‘log’ are
mostly covered by trees of different sizes, used interchangeably to mean branches
species and other forms of undergrowth. or pieces of the trunk of a tree, but with
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By 2015, it was estimated that forests the bark attached. Harvesting of forest
covered about 31% of the earth’s surface. resources is generally sustainable when
Forest distribution on the earth’s surface there is no or little damage to the general
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varies. Such variation is caused by the environment. A forest can be natural or
amount of rainfall available and the planted. Animals, birds and insects use
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length of wet and warm seasons per year. forests to support their lives. Forests
Forests can be absent in some areas even provide aesthetic value and services to
where the climatic conditions allow tree human beings.
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growth. Absence of forests in extensive

areas can be caused by actions of human Natural forests: A natural forest refers
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beings and wild animals. to a collection of trees that have grown

naturally. The types of natural forests
Human beings obtain various products include equatorial rainforest, tropical
and services from forests. Forest products monsoon, deciduous, coniferous and
can be timber and non-timber products mangrove. The natural forests are found
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that help to sustain human life. Non- in many countries. Figure 4.1 shows
timber forest products include fruits, the distribution of various world natural
honey, leaves, roots and barks. The forests.
process of managing forest resources
for human use is known as forestry. Equatorial rainforest: This type of
Foresters engage in lumbering, which forest is found in the equatorial region
is an activity that involves cutting, between 5˚N and 5˚S of the Equator. In
this forest there are large and tall trees
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Arctic Ocean
Antlantic Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
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Southern Ocean
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Figure 4.1 Distribution of the world’s natural forests
that grows to over 80 metres high. Figure Characteristics of an equatorial

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4.2 shows an equatorial rainforest. rainforest
In Tanzania, equatorial rainforests An equatorial rainforest has some
are found in coastal areas, Kagera, characteristics that distinguish it from
Kilimanjaro and Kigoma regions. Other other types of forests. In an equatorial
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areas in the rest of the world that have rainforest, the vegetation grows in layers.
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equatorial rainforests are low-lying lands The upper layer forms a continuous
of the Congo Basin in Central Africa canopy, which provides shade for lower
and the coastal lands of West Africa. layers. Trees grow to over 80 metres
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This type of forest is also found in the high. The second or middle layer grows
Gulf of Guinea, West of Sierra Leone, up to about 30 metres high. The lower
Cameroon and Gabon, Eastern Coast canopy grows to a range of 5 to 15 metres
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of Madagascar, Amazon Basin and high. It consists of shrubs, palms and

Malaysia. ferns with little undergrowth.
The trees in this tropical rainforest

are of different species, which include
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mahogany, rosewood, greenheart,

ironwood and ebony. Most trees have
large buttress roots. In addition, tropical
rainforests contain climber trees.
Nearly all the trees are broad-leaved

Figure 4.2. Equatorial rainforest
and evergreen due to the availability of
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rainfall throughout the year. However, Characteristics of a mangrove

due to constant climatic conditions, forest: A mangrove forest has various
plants produce flowers, fruits and shade characteristics that distinguish it from
their leaves at the same time. other types of forests. Trees in mangrove
forests have deep root systems to enable
Mangrove forests: Mangroves are them to withstand wave action. The
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a collection of salt tolerant trees and roots in these forests are stilt and project
shrubs that grow on estuaries and deltas above mud and water to absorb oxygen.
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of tropical and subtropical coastlines. Trees in these forests tolerate high salt
Figure 4.3 shows mangrove forests. concentration, which makes them grow
Mangroves grow well in places where
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and survive in salty water and mud.
fresh water mixes with sea water and Mangrove trees usually provide hard
where sediments are composed of
timber. Hard timber is very useful in
accumulated deposits of mud. Most of
building houses or making boats.
the mangroves grow within 30o North
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and South of the Equator. Only a few of
them have adapted to temperate climates. Tropical monsoon forests: Tropical
monsoon forests consist of deciduous
In Tanzania, mangrove forests cover trees that shed their leaves during the
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most of the coast of the Indian Ocean dry season. Figure 4.4 shows a section
(Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Mtwara, Pwani of a monsoon forest. These forests are
and Zanzibar). Many mangrove forests
located in the monsoon climate beyond
are disturbed by human activities. In
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the equatorial region between 10º and
Tanzania, the least disturbed mangrove
forests are found in the Rufiji Delta. 25º North and South of the Equator.
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Other countries with mangrove forests These forests are found in areas with
include Nigeria, Mozambique and seasonal rainfall, along coastal regions of
Southwest India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
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Madagascar.
Myanmar, South Western Africa and
North-East and South-East Brazil.
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Figure 4.3 Mangrove forest

Figure 4.4 Tropical monsoon forest
Source: https://www.animalwised.com/endangered
Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Tropical
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Characteristics of a tropical monsoon Characteristics of a deciduous forest

forest: A monsoon forest has Deciduous forests have characteristics
characteristics that distinguish it from that distinguish them from other types
other types of forests. Monsoon forests of forests. They contain trees with broad
contain thick undergrowth of shrubs and leaves. Trees in these forests usually
small trees. This poses a challenge to shed their leaves in autumn and they
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people and animals when it comes to remain leafless throughout the cold
passing through these forests. However, winters to minimise loss of water by
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the forest is more open compared to transpiration. Deciduous forests are
equatorial rainforests. The main trees in composed of a mixture of various tree
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these forests are teak, acacia, casuarina species. Deciduous forest trees include
and bamboo. Trees in this forest are oak, elm, chestnut, maple, willow, ash
moderately tall compared to trees of and beech.
other types of forests. They grow up to
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30 metres high. Trees are not as close Coniferous forests: Coniferous forests
as in tropical evergreen forests. Due to have needle-like leaves and cone-shaped
this reason the undergrowth tends to be fruits. They are found in areas with long
a bit thick. winters and moderate to high annual
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precipitation. Figure 4.6 shows a part of
Deciduous forests: Deciduous forests a coniferous forest. Coniferous forests
are composed mainly of broad-leaved are located between 500 and 700 North
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trees that shed all their leaves during of the Equator. They cover an extensive
the dry season. Figure 4.5 shows a part area
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of a deciduous forest. These forests are of North America and Asia. They are also
located between 300 and 500 North and found on highlands and in mountainous
South of the Equator. They are found areas. In Tanzania, coniferous forests are
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in the eastern side of North America, found in Mufindi in Iringa and Njombe.
Western Europe, Northern Coast of The climatic condition in these areas is
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China, Japan, Southern and Western mostly cold, which supports the growth
Australia. of coniferous trees.
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Figure 4.5 Deciduous forest Figure 4.6 Coniferous forest

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Characteristics of coniferous forests: Characteristics of planted forests: The

Coniferous forests have characteristics major characteristic of planted forests is
that distinguish them from other types that they are composed of trees which
of forests. Trees in these forests are in result from deliberate influence or
most cases evergreen. In addition, the intervention of human beings. However,
trees have needle-shaped leaves that there are other characteristics which
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limit transpiration in winter. Trees and distinguish them from natural forests.
fruits are conical in shape to avoid the
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accumulation of snow on branches and
leaves. The trees in coniferous forests
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are of one type covering large areas.
Species of coniferous trees produce soft
wood. Coniferous trees include pines,
fir, spruce and hemlock.
Planted forests: Planted forests refer to

a collection of trees by human beings.
These forests cover relatively large se
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areas of land. Figure 4.7 shows part of Figure 4.7 Planted forest at Sao Hill
a planted forest at Sao Hill in Iringa. Mafinga - Iringa
Trees in these forests are of specific value Source: https://dailynews.co.tz/news
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such as commercial or land conservation.
Planted forests are usually grown on a Most of the planted trees are of the same
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large-scale or small-scale basis. In many species because forest growers aim at

cases governments and companies or specific tree species for targeted value.
groups of people establish large-scale For example, at Sao Hill, most of the
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forests while small groups of people or trees are pine and eucalyptus. Usually,
individuals establish small-scale forests. trees in planted forests are of the same
age because they are planted at the same
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In Tanzania, notable planted forests are

in Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro time though the growth speed of the trees
and Arusha regions. Trees are established may vary. The difference in growth may
through seeding and planting of either cause them to be harvested at different
native or exotic species. These forests periods. In addition, the difference in
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are properly managed from planting the harvesting of trees in planted forests
to harvesting time to ensure high may be caused by a system of planting
productivity. trees in blocks.
Planted forests are regularly cleaned by

removing unwanted undergrowth, which
may hinder the healthy growth of the
planted species. Foresters provide close
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and strict supervision from planting to Relief is another factor that influences the
harvesting because of the commercial distribution of forests. It determines soil,
value of the trees. For example, planted temperature and vegetation distribution
trees in Sao Hill are for electrical polls, across gradient. Tree distribution varies
paper-making and timber production. with altitude. For example, on Mount
Timber is sold locally or exported. Kilimanjaro at 1800-3000 m above sea
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level, forests consist of diverse tree
Factors influencing distribution of species. At higher altitude (3000 m),
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forests alpine heath dominate. Thus, differences
The distribution of forests on the earth’s in relief are associated with variations
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surface depends on many factors. The in the type of forests.
common ones are temperature, rainfall,
relief, soil, drainage and aspect. Soil: Soil contributes much to the
distribution of forests. In this case, soil
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Temperature: Temperature is a notable type, drainage, texture, permeability,
factor influencing the distribution of porosity and chemical composition play
forests. Different plants require different a significant role in tree growth. For
temperature ranges. Temperature example, soil rich in humus encourages
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limits the growth of trees, thus leading tree growth, which may turn into a forest.
to shallow forests or no forest at all. Regarding drainage, well-drained soils
Areas that are hot and humid such as the support a variety of trees whereas poorly
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equatorial region encourage the growth drained soils such as swamps or steep
of large trees with broad leaves. Cooler slope areas with immature soil cannot
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temperate climates that experience support tree growth. For example, coastal
snowfalls support coniferous type of tropical areas with sea alluvial salty water
trees that can withstand low temperatures attract mangrove forests growth. Also,
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and freezing conditions. tropical rainforest trees require deep

well-drained soils for proper binding
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Rainfall: The distribution of forests is together whereas coniferous trees have

also influenced by rainfall. Forests thrive fibrous roots which can grow in shallow
well in areas with plenty of rainfall of soils.
over 1200 mm throughout the year. The
dense equatorial forests have thrived well Aspect: Aspect refers to the position of a
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because of the presence of heavy rainfall place in relation to the sun. The influence
that is well distributed throughout the of aspect on tree growth is well noted
year. In deciduous forest regions, trees in temperate latitudes. In the Northern
that can survive the dry season exist. Hemisphere, the south-facing slopes are
These trees shed their leaves during the warmer than the north-facing slopes. In
dry season to reduce water loss through the Southern Hemisphere, on the other
transpiration as their means of survival. hand, the south facing slopes are cooler

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than the north facing slopes. Trees need Paper-based materials: Logs are
temperature and rainfall as important processed to make different types of
elements for their growth. Therefore, paper. Also some trees have tissues which
in the Northern Hemisphere the south are processed to make glue commonly
facing slopes tend to have more dense known as wood-glue.
forests compared to the north-facing
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slopes. Source of energy: Forests provide
firewood and charcoal which are used
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Human activities: Forest distribution can as sources of energy in the households.
also be influenced by human activities in Wood energy provides 9% of the global
different ways. For example, cultivation, primary energy supply, making it the
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herding and mining contribute to the most important source of bioenergy in
disappearance of forests. Indeed, large- the world. In some parts of Africa, fuel
scale agriculture requires the clearance wood is the most affordable source of
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of large areas of forests. In the meantime, energy and it accounts for about 90%
industrial demand for hard and soft wood of primary energy consumption.
necessitates people to increase the size
of planted forests. Extensive planted Employment: Individuals are employed
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forests in Tanzania are found at Sao Hill in the forestry sector as forest officers
in Iringa and Kawetere in Mbeya. and forest guards. Others are employed
as lumberers while some are self
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Importance of forest resources -employed in carpentry and joinery, and
Forests have significant contribution others are timber merchants who buy
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to social, economic and ecological and sell timber. Forest industries provide
development. They provide various formal employment to 0.4% of the global
products for human use such as timber, labour force, contributing to nearly 1%
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poles, wood, logs, leaves, roots and of global GDP in 2008.

honey.
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Medicinal value: Some forest trees have

Source of income: Forest products are medicinal value. They have roots, leaves,
sold in the country or exported to earn and bark which are used as medicine or
income. It is common for products such processed to make medicine for human
as timber, rubber, wood and poles to be beings and animals. For example, the
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exported to earn foreign currency. bark of the cinchona tree is used in

Likewise, forests make up 22.2% of manufacturing quinine which is useful
household incomes in developing for treatment of malaria. Also, some trees
countries. The main forest products that are used in making herbicides for use in
contribute to incomes are fuel wood, agriculture.
building poles, timber and building
materials.

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Tourist attraction: Some forests have provide suitable habitats for wildlife
rare and unique species of animals and and, therefore, contribute to the balance
plants which attract people to observe. of ecosystem. Various animals live in
For example, Gombe Forests in Kigoma the forest which gives them shelter and
have chimpanzees, which are a great food as they eat leaves, roots and fruits.
attraction for both local and foreign Moreover, forests help to control soil
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tourists. Many of the natural parks erosion as they protect the soil from
have forests that serve as habitats for being eroded by blowing wind and
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attracting animals and plants. running water. Trees in the forest bind
together the soil particles using roots,
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Rainfall formation: Areas with heavy and reduce the impact of raindrops with
forests are characterised by frequent the same roots. Plant leaves reduce the
rainfall. For example, in the Amazon impact of rain drops on the soil and
forests, 30 percent of rainfall is said to reduce excessive evaporation of soil
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be influenced by moist air from trees. water.
Importance of forests in ecological Also, the remains of forest trees including

and environmental balance foliage contribute to soil development
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Ecology is the way in which plants, through decomposition into organic
animals and people relate to each other matter, leading to formation of humus.
and to their environment. Ecological Soil in the forest is very fertile due to
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and environmental balance is the mutual humus from decomposed plant remains.
symbiotic system or state in which plants Solar energy helps plants to manufacture
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and animals benefit from each other, their own food through photosynthesis.
thus maintaining their survival in the Plants are eaten by herbivores; likewise,
environment. Plants, insects and animals herbivores are consumed by carnivores
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live together in a particular environment. who feed on meat. When they all die,
They live a symbiotic relationship by their remains are decomposed by bacteria
benefiting from each other. The specific
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which break down dead matter and

roles forests play in fostering ecological release nutrients into the soil. Therefore,
and environmental balance are as forests have input in the food chain.
elaborated in the paragraphs that follow: Tree canopies control the evaporation
of water from the soil beneath, hence
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During photosynthesis, oxygen is allow more retention of water in the

released by plants into the environment soil. The canopies also enable recharging
through the stomata, and this is used of ground water by controlling over land
by animals. At the same time animals flow after rainfall. In addition, forest
release carbon dioxide that is absorbed trees contribute to water vapour in
by the plants. By doing so, a balance the atmosphere which is important in
between oxygen and carbon dioxide in regulating atmospheric conditions.
the environment is maintained. Forests
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The humidity in the atmosphere is 5. Mention five products obtained

important in the rain formation process. from forests.
6. In four points, explain the
importance of forest resources.
Activity 4.1 7. What is ecology?
8. In four points, explain the
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Visit any nearby forest and collect importance of forests in the
information that will help you to environment.
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answer the following questions:
(i) What type of forest is it? Timber production in the world
(ii) What factors may have
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Timber production is a process of
contributed to its existence? growing, harvesting, and regenerating
(iii) Based on your observation, trees for industrial or domestic use.
how is the forest being used by Worldwide, USA is leading in timber
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the people around it? production with 481,092,992 cubic
(iv) Have you detected any metres. In Africa, Ethiopia is a leading
problem facing the forest? If country with 91, 283, 543 cubic metres.
the answer is yes, explain what There are ten leading timber- producing
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that problem is. countries in the world as listed in Table
(v) Explain what is likely to 4.1. Tanzania is one of the countries
happen if the forest you visited that produce timber. The major timber
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is cleared or destroyed. producing regions of Tanzania are
Tabora, Ruvuma, Coast, Njombe,
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Morogoro, Kilimanjaro, Kigoma,

Kagera, Iringa, Lindi and Arusha.
Exercise 4.1
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Transportation of timber
Answer the following questions: In many parts of the world, logs are
1. Define a forest. transported using different means.
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2. List five types of natural forests. In Tanzania, timber and logs are
3. Explain how temperature and transported mainly by road using
rainfall influence the distribution large trucks and by railway. For
of forests. example, the central railway and the
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4. Mention three species of trees that Tanzania- Zambia Railway are used
are found in the following types of to transport logs. Some logs are
forests. transported by trucks to harbours like
(a) Equatorial forests Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Mtwara and
(b) Coniferous forests Mwanza for exportation. In other parts
(c) Deciduous forests of the world, logs are transported by
water to ports or industrial centers.

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Table 4.1 World timber producing This means of transportation of logs

countries by water is common in the USA and
Countries Cubic Meters Canada. It is considered relatively
USA 481,092,992 cheaper compared to other means of
India 296,234,016 transportation. In Brazil and Mexico
well connected networks of railways
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China 284, 910, 024
and roads are widely used as means of
Brazil 236, 422, 218
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transportation of logs. In Russia, the
Canada 176, 692, 000 trans-Siberia railway line is used for
Russia 162,300,000 such transportation. Figure 4.8 shows
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Indonesia 119, 208, 572 logs floating in the Angara River on
Ethiopia 91, 283,543 the way to downstream ports. In Asian
Democratic countries, especially Myanmar (formerly
69,733,688
Republic of Congo Burma), logs are pulled to the edge of
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Nigeria 69,115,552 water bodies by elephants or tractors.
Then, the logs are floated downstream
Source: Compare Infobase Limited, 2006
during the rainy season.
(Updated Feb, 2016)
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in
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Figure 4.8 Transporting timber using the Angara River, Russia

Source: https://www.robertharding.com/preview/869-10/forestry-trees-transport-logs-river/

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Heavy greenheart logs are transported During the dry season, the volume of
by road. Later they are transported to water decreases whereas during the
river banks where they are loaded into rainy season the volume increases. In
pantoons and ferries. In the dense this case, the reduction in the volume
network of streams and major rivers of water in the rivers hinders the
in the Amazon and Congo basins, transportation of logs to the processing
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waterways have not sufficiently been industries. Similarly undeveloped means
utilised to transport logs. This leads of transportation also pose challenges
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to frequent stopage of logs at difficult in timber transportation from the forest
spots. In addition, the weight of huge to the processing centers, by road and
logs make floating in rivers difficult.
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railway.
Rapids and falls interrupt these rivers,
making floating of logs impossible. Challenges facing the forestry
The scattered distribution of the most industry
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valuable trees complicates even further Although forest resources contribute
the river transportation of logs. to the welfare of people, the forestry
industry faces numerous challenges.
Challenges facing timber Over-exploitation of forest resources is
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transportation in the world one of the challenges. Forest resources
Timber is useful for the achievement of are harvested to the point of reducing
social and economic development their ability to regenerate. For example,
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of various countries. However, some forest tree species, especially
transportation of timber faces a number natural trees, are usually in high demand.
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of challenges. The demand compels over-harvesting

The countries that depend on floating of such forest resources so much so
logs in water as the main means of that they face extinction. In some cases,
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transport, face challenges to transport forests are harvested without following

heavy logs. Timber transportation may governing procedures and, consequently,
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also pose a challenge especially when some tree species may disappear.
forests are located in remote areas away Experience indicates that ungoverned
from market centers. In fact, this situation exploitation is usually serious in public-
increases the transportation cost for owned natural forests than in private
harvested forest resources. For example, planted forests. Forests also face the
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in the equatorial rainforest, forests are problem of fire outbreaks with some
dense and located in hardly accessible fires occuring naturally while others
areas and, therefore, making it difficult are set by people. The fire, particularly
to transport logs to the processing areas. during late burning, destroys trees and
Seasonal variation of water in rivers is the undergrowth, which are the main
also a challenge for timber transportation. constituents of forests. Estimates indicate
Water in rivers fluctuate seasonally. that each year fires burn 6 – 14 million

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hectares of forests around the world. due to the absence of animals and other
Construction of different infrastructure organisms that matter to the eco-system
for social and economic support is a by keeping the forest soil fertile. Besides,
challenge to the forestry industry. destroying forest habitats may lead to
Different construction activities lead to scarcity of forest products such as trees
the devastation of forests. For example, of medicinal value, and honey.
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the construction of dams, roads and
railway lines forces the clearing of Addressing challenges facing forest
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some forest hectares. In addition, resources
population increase presents another Although forests continually face a
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challenge to the forestry industry. As number of challenges across the world,
the population increases, more space countries have been making concerted
for human settlement and life support efforts to find lasting solutions to these
is required. As a result, people tend to challenges. Simply put, deforested area
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invade the forests and clear them for should be reforested. Reforestation is the
settlements, farming, charcoal burning establishment of a forest through planting
and firewood fetching.Then there is the trees in an area where plant cover was
challenge of global warming. Global destroyed through careless felling of
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warming results from the accumulation trees. A reforestation programme that
of harmful gases in the atmosphere. In has been implemented in Tanzania is
this case, the gases destroy the ozone the Management of Natural Resources
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layer and makes some trees in the forest Programme funded by the Governments
wither and dry after failing to withstand of Norway and Tanzania. The programme
in
the situation. Similarly, deforestation is was implemented by the Ministry of

a challenge to the forests. It exposes the Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT)
soil, which was once protected by the between July 2002-June 2006. The
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forest cover, hence making it vulnerable objective of the programme was to

to the agents of soil erosion such as wind, increase benefits to rural communities
rainfall and water runoff. The resultant
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based on sustainable natural resource

erosion affects the quality of the soil management in Tanzania. The outcomes
which loses its fertility, and limits the of the programme were to:
growth of trees. (a) improve the quality of forests in all
Destruction of animal habitats is also a project regions: the number and
intensity of fires have decreased
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challenge to the forestry industry. Cutting

down, burning and over-exploitation significantly, woody vegetation,
of trees destroy the homes of animals and canopy cover have increased,
and soil organisms. Some animals may and the quantity and quality of
water has improved;
migrate to other less favourable and
(b) enhance the regeneration of
inhospitable areas only to die there.
vegetation in degraded areas
This act may lead to forest extinction around Karatu villages; and

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(c) inculcate the culture of tree In East Africa, forest guards receive
planting in some areas, training at forest training institutes such
particularly in Ruvu, which has as Olmotonyi in Tanzania, Nakuru in
enabled trees to be planted in Kenya and Uganda Forest School in
people’s farms. Uganda. Regarding public awareness,
people have to be educated on the
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Furthermore, there are two projects with importance of forest conservation. This
a component of planting trees. These awareness creation should extend to
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are Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga (HASHI) persuading people to participate fully
and Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma (HADO) in all activities involving the protection
Improving tree harvesting practises in
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of forests. This may be done through
the forest as an appropriate mechanism the mass media such as radio, television
for ensuring the trees are not depleted is and public meetings. Multiple uses of
important. Such eco-friendly practises forest and forest products may also act
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include selective cutting of trees where as a measure for overcoming some of
only mature or weak (i.e. diseased the forestry industry challenges. This
trees) are removed. Selective cutting is is a practise whereby some species used
practised in many countries including for timber marketing could be used for
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Tanzania, Southern USA, Finland and extracting tannin and those used for the
Sweden. This selective tree cutting extraction of tannin could be used as a
ensures that enough trees are left to grow. source of hardwood.
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Moreover, forests must be protected The practise is well established in
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from natural hazards such as fire and developed countries such as the USA
pests through close supervision and use where old rubber trees could also be
of watch towers and air patrol. In the used for other purposes.
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USA and Canada, an early sign of fire In Tanzania, forests serve as water
outbreak can be reported and addressed catchment areas, which in turn enhance
immediately. Fire can also be controlled
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forest management. Alongside multiple

through creating fire-breaks. Insects and uses, re-use and recycling of waste
pests must be prevented by regular papers can also serve as a measure for
inspection and spraying. Furthermore, forest conservation. It is also advisable
it is also important to set preventive to recycle used paper into other products
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measures such as laws, regulations and or re-use it for other purposes. This may
creation of public awareness. Laws are reducts cutting trees for paper-making.
to be enforced to prevent uncontrolled Products such as egg trays, packaging
harvesting of trees. In Kilimanjaro boxes, toilet paper and newsprints can
Region, no trees for timber can be be made from recycled paper products.
cut without permission from local In addition, alternative sources of energy
government authorities. Forest guards may be opted to reduce the speed of use
also patrol forest areas. of forest resources. For example, the use
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of alternative sources of energy such Exercise 4.2

as solar energy, biogas, hydroelectric
power, natural gas, instead of fuel wood A. Answer the following questions:
and charcoal reduces pressure on the use 1. With examples, mention
of forest resources. problems facing forests
resource harvesting.
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In Tanzania, the government puts 2. Explain the role of mass media
emphasis on the use of alternative in forest conservation.
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energy, especially for domestic use. It 3. Outline efforts made by
also stresses the use of recycled Tanzania in conserving forests.
4. List alternative sources of
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paper charcoal instead of charcoal
energy and explain how they
made from trees. In addition, there
can assist in reducing the use
has been an increase in the use of solar of forest products for fuel
power, especially where there is no wood.
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power. 5. Draw a map of Africa and
shade areas where equatorial
forests are found.
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B. Write True or False for each of the
Activity 4.2 following statements:
1. A forest is an extensive
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A. Visit a place where charcoal is lowland area covered with
sold in large quantities. Ask the undergrowth.
charcoal sellers the following
in
2. A natural forest refers to a

questions and then write a brief collection of trees that have
essay based on the answers they naturally grown.
provide:
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3. Most mangrove trees grow

1. Where do they get charcoal? within 300 and 450 North of the
2. How is charcoal prepared? Equator.
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3. Which type of trees are used in 4. Planting trees where all the
preparing charcoal? trees have been removed is
4. Are the trees used for charcoal called reforestation.
preparation regenerating? 5. Important natural forests
in Tanzania are found in
B. In a group of five students
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Morogoro, Kagera, Coast,

1. Explain the types of energy
Kilimanjaro, Njombe, Tanga
used at your home for lighting
and cooking. and Tabora regions.
2. Explain how the energy in use
contributes to destruction or
conservation of forests.

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Chapter Five
Mining industry
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about types of minerals found in the world, different
ways of mining, ways of processing different types of minerals, and the contribution
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of the mining industry to the economy of Tanzania. You will also learn about the
effects of mining on the environment, oil production in the Middle East, and natural
gas production in Tanzania.
The concept of mining industry
se includes extraction of any non-renewable

resource such as petroleum, natural gas,
Mining
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Mining is a process of extracting
valuable geological substances from the There are two main types of mining,
crust of the earth. The extracted materials namely, surface and underground
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may be minerals, fossil fuels, and other mining. Minerals such as salts are found
geological materials. However, not all close to the earth surface; as such, open
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geological substances are categorised cast method of mining is used to exploit

as minerals. In science, a mineral has them. Other minerals like gold and
specific characteristics such as being
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diamond are found deep in the ground,

solid, inorganic, naturally occurring, hence underground mining methods are
has definite chemical composition and used to obtain them.
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ordered internal structure. Although oil,

coal and natural gas do not possess most The world is full of different types of
of these characteristics, they may be minerals. Minerals can be classified into
categorised as minerals. From a non- five main groups, that is, rocks used as
scientific view, a mineral refers to a building stones, and for brick making;
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non-living naturally occurring resource non–metallic minerals such as salt,

from the earth. As such, oil, coal, and sulphur, nitrates, and asbestos; metals
natural gas also qualify to be called like gold, iron, and silver; mineral fuels
mineral resources. Thus, petroleum including coal, petroleum and gas; and
and natural gas which are discussed as water. The whole of the earth, therefore,
case studies in this chapter are treated is full of minerals which are of great
as minerals. Mining in a wider sense value to human beings.

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Mining industry Non-metallic mineral mining industry:

Mining is the branch of manufacturing This industry is the one established
industries and trade based on the primarily to engage in mining or
extraction of ores, fossil fuels, quarrying, developing mines, or
minerals, stone, clay, gravel, and similar exploring for non-metallic minerals.
commodities. This does not include the The majority of the industry produces
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refinement of these commodities. The crushed stone, sand, and gravel for use in
mining industry contains five categories, the construction of roads and buildings.
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which are defined by the resources they Other important minerals produced are
produce: oil and gas extraction, coal clays, primarily for ceramics, water
filtration, and cement making; gypsum,
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mining, metal ore mining, non-metallic
mineral mining and quarrying, and the primary material used in wallboards;
support activities for mining. salt, used in foodstuffs and as an ice
remover; phosphate, for use in fertilisers;
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Coal mining industry: The coal mining and sulfur, the main component of
industry covers all industries established sulfuric acid, a major industrial input.
to produce bituminous coal, anthracite,
and lignite, a fossil fuel that is used Oil and gas extraction industry: This
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primarily for electric power generation industry is established to produce crude
and in the production of steel. Many coal petroleum and natural gas; extract oil
seams are located close to the surface, from sands and oil shale; produce natural
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however, which makes the extraction of gasoline and cycle condensate, and
this resource easier. produce gas and hydrocarbon liquids
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from coal at the mine site. The petroleum

Metal mining industry: The metal and natural gas are used to heat homes,
mining industry covers all industries fuel cars, and power factories. Petroleum
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established to engage in mining, products are also raw materials for

developing mines, or exploring for plastics, chemicals, medicines, fertilisers,
metallic minerals (ores) primarily gold, and synthetic fibers.
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silver, iron, lead, and zinc. The extracted

minerals have a variety of industrial The occurrence of minerals: The
purposes: gold and silver are primarily occurrence of minerals falls into one
used in jewelry and high-end electronics, of the four main types of modes of
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iron is used to produce steel, copper is formation. These are veins and lodes,
the main component of electrical wiring, bed and seams, weathering products
lead is used in batteries, and zinc is used and alluvial or place deposits. Veins and
to coat iron and steel to reduce corrosion lodes are formed when molten materials
and as an alloy in the making of bronze containing minerals intrude and solidify
and brass. into cracks and crevices. These are
mainly associated with igneous and

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metamorphic intrusions. Examples of within the same country. Tanzania is

minerals formed in veins and lodes are one of the countries in the world that
tin, copper, silver, lead, manganese and are rich in minerals. It is established
zinc. that Tanzania has almost all types of
minerals which are found in other parts
Bed and seams constitute another type of the world.
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of mineral formation. Coal, iron ore,
gypsum, potash, salts and common salts Diamond, gold, iron, coal, gypsum,
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are formed as a direct result of deposition, copper, uranium, mica, graphite, tin
accumulation and concentration in the and tanzanite are some of the minerals
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horizontal strata of the earth’s crust. found in Tanzania. Figure 5.1 shows
Gypsum, potash and salts, for example, the distribution of various minerals in
are formed by the evaporation of lakes Tanzania. Tanzanite is a gemstone only
in desert areas and later are covered by found in Tanzania. Other minerals found
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other deposits so that they appear as in Tanzania are nickel, salt, asbestos,
seams. silver, titanium, lead, zinc, platinum,
bauxite, soda ash, lime phosphate, sand
Bauxite, the ore of aluminium is formed and natural gas.
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by the deep weathering of a variety of
rocks. Leaching by underground water, Minerals are also found in other countries
produces red lateric deposits which on all continents of the world. For
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are iron concentrations found in many example, copper is found in Zambia,
tropical soils. Many minerals such as Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
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gold, tin and platinum are found as South Africa, Uganda, United States of
alluvial deposits in mud, gravel and America (USA) and Canada. Diamond
sands of alluvial fans at the base of hills is found in Botswana, Ghana, DRC,
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or bottoms of valleys. Canada, Brazil, Russia and Australia.

Iron is found in Mauritania, Liberia and
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Distribution of minerals in the world Canada. Coal is found in Russia, South

Minerals are unevenly distributed in Africa and Zambia. Gold is found in
the world. Some countries are rich Russia, Ghana and Zimbabwe.
in minerals while others are not. The
distribution of minerals depends on Tin is found in South Africa, Nigeria,
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geological processes which have taken Rwanda, DRC, China, Indonesia,

place over a long period of time. The Peru and Bolivia. Figure 5.2 shows
processes may lead to variation in the the distribution of some of the major
amount and types of minerals in different minerals in the world. Major factors
parts of the world. The availability of affecting exploitation of mineral
minerals may resemble or differ from resources in the world include: quality
country to country or region to region, of the ore (richness or grade), size of
deposits, methods of mining, deposits,
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se
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Figure 5.1 Distribution of minerals in Tanzania

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methods of mining, accessibility, Tanzanite: Tanzanite is the blue and

transport facilities (cost), stage of violet of the mineral ziosite caused by
industrial development of the country, small amounts of vanadium, belonging
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technology, and other factors such to the epidote group. Tanzanite is only
as cheap labour, competition from found in Tanzania in a very small mining
other sources, political influence, and area approximately 7 km near Mererani
economic system and tariff policies of Hills in Arusha. It was discovered
a country. in1967.
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Uses of some minerals Tanzanite is noted for its remarkably

Minerals are used for different purposes. strong trichoism, appearing alternately as
This part explains the uses of eight blue, violet and burgundy depending
minerals. These minerals are tanzanite, on crystal orientation. Tanzanite can
copper, diamond, gold, iron, coal, also appear differently when viewed
petroleum and natural gas. under different lighting conditions.
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Arctic Ocean
Antlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
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Southern Ocean
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Figure 5.2 Distribution of some major minerals in the world
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The gemstone was named ‘tanzanite’ of mobile phones. These appliances
by Tiffany and Company, after Tanzania, are useful in industries and homes.
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the country in which it was discovered. In addition, copper is used in making
It is used in making bracelets, necklaces corrosion-resistant materials for roofing,
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and earrings. tubes, pipes, radiators and boilers.
Copper: Copper is one of the most Diamond: Diamond is a rare and the
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widely used industrial metals because hardest naturally occurring mineral

it is a good conductor of heat and composed of pure carbon. It occurs
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electricity. Copper is also very resistant commonly in rocks called kimberlite.

to atmospheric corrosion; therefore, it is It is used in glass cutting. Glass dealers
useful in the transmission of electricity. use it to cut and sharpen glass into
Copper is used in making alloys since different shapes and sizes. Besides, the
it combines easily with other metals dust diamond is used for polishing other
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to produce new compounds. For gemstone minerals such as tanzanite.

example, copper combines with zinc
to produce bronze which is used in Moreover, diamond is used in making
making coins, ornaments and utensils. jewels and ornaments which are used
It is also used in making electronic and as decorations in homes, offices, hotels
telecommunication appliances such as and other public places. It is also used
sockets, holders, connectors and parts in making bits for drilling purposes and
during oil and gas extraction.
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Gold: Gold is one of the most valuable of physical structures such as houses,
minerals in the world. Gold is able railways, bridges and roads. Iron is also
to conduct both electricity and heat useful in designing fencing materials for
easily. It does not lose its colour and security purposes. For example, people
brilliancy. It is useful in making jewels use iron-made fences to demarcate
and ornaments. Gold is also used to houses and plots and for providing
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make necklaces, and ear, arm and finger security. Apart from that, iron is used
rings. Jewels and ornaments made of for making tools that are useful in cutting
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gold are usually expensive compared and grinding other metals.
to most of the jewels and ornaments
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made from other minerals. The mineral Coal: Coal is a black or brownish-black
is used in making valuable decorations rock made of organic substances that
for households, offices, hotels, places have been deposited for a long period.
of worship such as churches, temples, The most significant uses of coal are in
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synagogues and mosques. It is also used electricity generation, steel production,
in making electronic appliances such as cement manufacturing and as a liquid
connectors and switches. Sometimes, fuel. A number of manufacturing
gold is used in making gold coins. Some industries use coal to run machines.
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precious coins made of gold are used For example, in Tanzania, coal from
as currency. Other uses include making Mbinga and Kiwira is used as a source of
gold alloys for filling teeth gaps as well energy in cement production industries.
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as medals, placards and trophies. Famous In addition, the carbon present in coal
people in the world receive gold medals is an important element when mixed
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as recognition for their outstanding with other chemicals in paper, ink and
performance. pencil-making. The carbon in coal is
also an ingredient used in drugs and
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Iron: Iron is a basic raw material for iron chemical production. For example,
and steel industries. When iron ore is aspirin contains some percentages of
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smelt, iron metal is formed. Iron is used in carbon from coal. Coal is also used in
making roofing maerials and hardboards the production of valuable fertilisers
for vehicles, ferries and boats. It is also that are used in agriculture. Some coal
used in making machines, especially for products are useful in making soap,
heavy industries. Most of the parts in solvents and plastic fibres such as rayon
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cars, vehicles and milling machines are and nylon used for making clothes. Other
made of iron. Furthermore, iron is used uses of coal include making construction
in making agricultural equipment such materials, particularly when it is mixed
as hand-hoes, oxen ploughs, power with cement, gravel and water to form
tillers and tractors. Other uses of iron concrete which is a basic building
include the production of building and element in various infrastructures. China
construction materials. Iron-bars are is the leading coal producer in the world.
useful in the construction and building
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Petroleum and natural gas: Petroleum use petroleum or gas to operate. Crude
and natural gas are in most cases related petroleum is a raw material for producing
in occurrence. They are both products various products such as kerosene,
of animal and plant remains that have diesel, petrol, oil and bitumen. Some
decomposed for a long time, usually by-products of petroleum are useful in
billions of years. chemical industries for manufacturing
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They appear naturally below the earth’s several products such as jelly, synthetic
surface and are both fossil fuels. Whereas fibres, grease and other lubricants.
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petroleum is a liquid substance, natural In addition, petroleum wastes from
gas is a non-liquid substance. Petroleum refineries are used for road surfacing
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and natural gas are in high demand in the and wood treatment against damage and
world because of their large contribution attack by insects. Natural gas is used for
to power and energy generation for domestic purposes such as heating and
domestic, automobile and industrial use. cooking. For example, in recent years,
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In Tanzania, natural gas is found in the Tanzanians have been good users of
southern parts of the country, particularly natural gas for cooking using gas stoves
in Mtwara, Lindi and Ruvuma regions. and gas cookers.
Specifically, natural gas is produced at
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Songosongo, Mnazi Bay, Msimbati, Other important minerals: Other
Kiliwani North and Ntorya. Futhermore important minerals include mineral
exploration of natural gas and petroleum salt produced in Tanzania and China;
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is going on in Tanzania and there are phosphate mined in Tanzania, Uganda,
signs of their availability in other Togo and South Africa; tin mined in DRC,
in
coastal regions and islands of Tanzania. Nigeria, Rwanda, Burundi and Niger;
In recent years, the exploration has bauxite in Guinea, Ghana, Jamaica and
indicated the availability of petroleum USA; and manganese mined in Gabon,
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and natural gas in Pemba – Zanzibar. Ghana, DRC, Ivory Coast, Angola and
The major producers of petroleum and Zambia. Minerals such as stones, gravel
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natural gas in the world include USA, and sand are found almost everywhere
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Russia, Nigeria, around the globe. These minerals have
Gabon, Libya, Kuwait, Algeria, Angola, various uses in different sectors. For
Gabon, Venezuela, Mexico and Egypt. example, stones, gravel and sand are
used in the construction industry.
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Petroleum and natural gas are used for

different purposes in different sectors. Methods of mining
Both minerals are sources of power Methods of mining depend on the
generation. The power generated is location of the mineral in the earth’s
used to run machines and engines. For crust. There are four methods of mining
example, most industrial machines, which are surface, underground, alluvial
motor-vehicle engines and generators and in-situ mining.

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Surface mining: Surface mining is

done by removing (stripping) surface
vegetation, dirt, and, if necessary,
layers of bedrock in order to reach
buried ore deposits. Techniques of
surface mining include: open-pit
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mining or open cast mining, which
is the recovery of materials from an
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open pit in the ground; and quarrying,
identical to open-pit mining except that
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it refers to sand, stone and clay. Open
cast mining is the cheapest method of
extracting minerals. This method is
used to extract minerals which usually
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occur close to the earth’s surface. This
method involves removing the top Figure 5.3 An open gold pit mine in Buzwagi,
layers of the earth and other overlying Shinyanga.
materials above the mineral ores.
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Figure 5.3 shows an open cast mine.
The extraction involves the use of earth Under this method, a vertical shaft is
moving machines and bulldozers, and sunk into the earth’s crust to reach the
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electric shovels. Sometimes explosion layer with mineral ores. Passages and
is used to blow overlying materials in horizontal tunnels are then made to
in
order to reach the ore beneath. This reach mineral deposits. Steel or concrete
method is cheaper because the output beams are erected to support tunnels and
is bigger than the costs of running. The
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galleries from collapsing. Then, light

open cast method is used to extract railway trucks may be laid to carry the
quarrying limestone, coal, and other mineral ores to the foot of the shaft for
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surface minerals. lifting the ore to the surface.
Underground or shaft mining: This Alluvial/Placer mining: This method

method is used to excavate hard rocks is employed where minerals occur in
to get valuable minerals which lay very alluvial deposits. The alluvial mining
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deep below the earth’s surface. The or placer mining method involves
method is usually used to dig rocks mixing of the alluvial deposits with
that contain gold, copper, silver, zinc, water in a container. This is a simple
tin, lead and diamond. method used in collecting gold and
other alluvial minerals using a pan in
a river valley. It is known as panning
or placer mining. It involves digging

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the sand and gravel from the river bed. dust, which makes gold particles to
The mineral is obtained by mixing the solidify. The particles are then melted
alluvial sand with water and swirling and moulded into different shapes.
the pan around. Sometimes, it requires
rotating the pan physically with force Separation: Minerals that are magnetic
until the lighter particles are washed such as magnetite can be separated from
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away and the heavier particles non-magnetic particles using strong
are left. Salt mining is an example of the magnets because the minerals are
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alluvial mining method. attracted to the magnet (ferromagnetic).
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In-situ mining: In-situ mining is a Sizing: Sizing is the separation of
mining process used to recover minerals particles according to size. The method
such as copper and uranium through involves screening or passing the
boreholes drilled into a deposit, in-situ. It particles to be separated, through a
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involves dissolving the existing mineral screen.
resource and then processing it on the
surface without moving rock from the Floatation: Floatation makes possible
ground. the processing of complex intergrown
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ores containing copper, lead, zinc and
Methods of mineral processing pyrite into separate concentrates and
Mineral processing involves separating tailings. In the floatation the ores are
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valuable minerals from other materials. crushed and the particles separated based
There are different methods through on how they float on water or other liquids
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which minerals can be processed as that allow unwanted materials to remain.

described below. For example, processing of copper ore
into small particles involves mixing the
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Crushing and grinding: Crushing and ore with water. Then chemicals are added
grinding intend to reduce the size of to the mixture and put into a floatation
machine. The floating copper particles
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ores to extract the valuable minerals

from the rock. At the low level, the ore are then removed. The particles are dried
is crushed and dissolved in water but and smelted into copper blisters. Copper
at the advanced level water and other blisters contain 97% - 98% copper. The
chemicals are mixed together to obtain blisters can be refined even further to
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the minerals. For example, in gold remove other minerals or impurities.

processing, sodium cyanide is added to
the solution. The chemical dissolves the
gold particles, leaving behind stones and
other mineral wastes. A sodium cyanide
solution containing gold particles is
drained off and mixed up with zinc

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Exercise 5.1
Contribution of the mining industry to
the economy of Tanzania: Minerals are
A. Short answer questions
useful in the growth of any country’s
1. Mention any five types of
economy. Some minerals have more
minerals found in the world.
demand than others due to their high
2. Explain the term ‘mining’.
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value. Minerals are used in countries
3. Briefly explain types of
where they are produced and also they
minerals basing on their
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are exported to various countries to
location.
obtain foreign currency. The contribution
4. Briefly describe three methods
of mining industries to the Tanzanian
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of mining.
economy include the following:
5. Explain why diamonds,
petroleum and natural gas are
Government revenue: The mining
important.
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industry contributes to government
6. Assume you are a mining
revenue in terms of taxes and royalties.
expert, explain the methods
This is crucial for finacing developmental
you will use to extract minerals
plans of the country.
located at different depths.
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Employment: The mining industry
contributes direct and indirect
following statements:
employment opportunities within the
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1. Gold and copper are examples
country. Some people get employed
of non-metallic minerals.
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directly in the industry while others

2. The major producers of gold
provide services related to mining in
in Africa are Tanzania, Ghana
mining centers.
and South Africa.
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3. USA is the leading country in

National gross domestic product:
the production of coal in the
The mining industry contributes to the
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world.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP). For
4. Alluvial mining is the same as
example, mining and quarrying activities
drift mining.
in Tanzania contributed about 4% to its
5. In Tanzania natural gas energy
GDP in 2015.
is mostly used for domestic
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heating and cooking.

Raw materials: Minerals provide raw
materials for various industries. For
example, gypsum is used as a raw
material in cement industries.
Social services: Mining stimulates

the development of settlements. The
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establishment of settlements in or near

mining centers forces the government Land degradation: Mining causes pits
to provide social services such as on the earth’s surface. When mining is
health, and education. In addition, the done on a large-scale, the destruction of
development of settlements around the surrounding land is higher. Open cast
mining centers has contributed to the mines produce much larger quantities of
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growth of some towns such as Mwadui, waste than underground mines. These
Kahama, Geita, and Mererani. open-pit mines produce 8 to 10 times as
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much waste as underground mines. In
Infrastructure: Mining stimulates some areas, breaking of rocks may cause
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the construction of roads to and from landslides on nearby land. Landslides
mining centers. For example, Kahama can damage transport routes and nearby
road networks were constructed due to property.
gold mining. Similarly, Mwadui roads
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were built because of diamond mining. Destruction of land surface appearance:
This may happens in areas where there
Effects of the mining industry on the are no more minerals and mining
environment activities have stopped, and land left
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Mining and processing activities have without being reclaimed. In case of
negative effects on the environment if the open cast method of mining, land
not done carefully. The sections below appearance is destroyed, deep holes
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describe some of the effects of mining are left on the earth’s surface, creating
on the environment. problems related to soil erosion, health
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and death. If the holes are filled with

Pollution: Mining activities can lead to water, they become breeding grounds for
water, air and noise pollution. To begin mosquitoes, which may spread malaria.
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with, mining produces waste materials

which pollute water bodies. For example, Deforestation and loss of biodiversity:
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chemicals used in processing minerals Large-scale mining involves clearing of

such as mercury and sodium cyanide can forests and any other vegetation cover.
pollute rivers, lakes and underground The clearance of vegetation causes loss
water. This may cause loss of life of of different plant and animal species.
living organisms, which depend on Mining causes direct and indirect damage
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water. Large amounts of dust released to wild animals by altering their habitats.
into the air affects people, plants and This may lead to the disappearance of
animals found in nearby areas. Also, various wildlife species such as birds
the blasting process causes noise and and other animals.
vibration which affect people and their
properties in nearby areas. Loss of soil productivity: Rocky soils
left behind after mining cannot support

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crop production because they have low

fertility. In fact, the soil structure and Safety education: Mining companies
texture is destroyed when it mixes with are required to provide safety education
particles of rocks. to workers and the communities
surrounding the mining areas. Such
Effects on the water table: Deep mining education may include wearing of
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that reaches the water table may cause protective gear (helmets, gloves, overalls,
underground water to flood the mines. As glasses and masks). This protects the
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a result, the water has to be pumped out workers from accidents associated with
to allow mining to continue. Continued mining activities. The community has
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pumping of this underground water to be educated on the importance of
lowers the water table of the area. reporting any environmental problem
they experience as a result of mining
Ways of minimising the effects of activities.
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mining on the environment: The
following are ways to minimise the Mining regulations: The government
effects of mining on the enviroment: should onforce mining and environmental
laws and regulations that guide mining
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Land rehabilitation: Holes produced and mineral processing activities, to
during mining should be covered with reduce the negative effects of mining.
the removed soils. Planting trees and
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other vegetation cover helps to repair Exercise 5.2
the damaged land.
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Answer the following questions:

Proper storage and use of chemicals: It 1. Explain the meaning of each of the
is advisable to store chemicals in a strong following terms:
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room so that no leakage occurs into the (a) Alluvial mining

soil and water. Moreover, chemicals are (b) Opencast mining
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to be used with care to avoid polluting (c) Shaft mining

soil and water resources. 2. Mention any four mining centers
found in Tanzania.
Waste management: There must be 3. Explain ways to minimise
a proper waste disposal from mineral the effects of mining on the
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processing industries. This organised environment and people.

disposal includes treatment of the 4. Explain the importance of mining
chemicals that flow from the industries to the economy of Tanzania.
into rivers and streams. In addition, there
should be dust management programmes
to avoid air pollution.

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Focal studies These countries contribute one-third of the

total oil production in the world. These
Oil production in the Middle East countries are members of the Organisation
The Middle East is one of the leading of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
oil producing areas in the world. The They play a big role in deciding world oil
major oil producing countries in the area prices. The main consumers of oil from the
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include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Middle East are Western Europe, Japan,
Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. USA, Canada and Australia. The Middle
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Figure 5.4 shows major oil fields in the East exports about 70 percent of crude oil
Middle East. in the world.
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Figure 5.4 Distribution of major oil fields in the Middle East

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Crude oil from oil fields is transported Oil production in the Middle East
via pipelines and tankers to refineries has stimulated the improvement of
or to coastal shipping terminals. the transport sector. The export of
Transportation by pipeline is very petroleum and petroleum products has
expensive because the initial capital enabled Middle East countries to develop
for construction of a pipeline is very good transport networks. In addition,
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high. Once constructed, pipelines are petroleum is a resource which provides
very cheap to operate. An example of energy and power for domestic and
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a major pipeline is the Trans-Arabian industrial purposes.
Pipelinen(TAP) which runs from
inland fields on the Persian Gulf to the
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Challenges associated with oil
Mediterranean Coast. Transportation by production in the Middle East: Oil
tankers is a cheap means of conveyance. production in the Middle East faces many
challenges. With rising global demand,
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Importance of oil production to highly volatile prices are increasingly
Middle East countries: The Middle becoming stringe. The oil and gas
East is located in an arid region. Oil industry faces three major challenges
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production has contributed to economic involving how to reduce costs, optimise
and social development of the Middle the performance of its industrial base
East countries. The countries depend assets, and address its environmental
footprint. Environmental pollution is
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greatly on the exportation of petroleum
and petroleum products to earn foreign one of these challenges. Oil refinery
and production of petroleum products
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currency. Companies involved in oil

production in most of the Middle East produce carbon dioxide and other gases
countries are mostly state-owned. such as methane which are harmful. As
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However, there are also some oil countries in the Middle East have large
fields run by private companies. These oil production industries, the emission of
companies pay taxes to the government. harmful gases is also high. These gases
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The revenue from oil refining and contribute to the pollution of water, air
support industries is used to provide and land. Burning fossil fuels produces
social services such as education and sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
health. The revenue is also used in When they move into the atmosphere
they produce acid rain, which damages
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the construction and improvement of

infrastructure such as roads, railways buildings and vegetation in addition to
and airports. Jobs are also created in affecting fish and other organisms that
areas that produce oil as many people in live in water. Another challenge facing
the Middle East work in the petroleum oil production in the Middle East has to
refineries and petrochemical industries. do with civil wars and social violence.
Producing crude oil and refined products

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at a lower cost to stay competitive on the improve the lives of its people. Natural
market is one of the major challenges. gas has contributed to the improvement
of infrastructure. Transport and
Natural gas production in Tanzania communication systems to and from
Natural gas has been discovered at source of natural gas areas have been
Songosongo in Kilwa and Mnazi Bay improved. For example, the discovery
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in Mtwara. The estimated natural gas and extraction of gas in Mtwara Region
reserve for Tanzania is 52 trillion has stimulated improvement of the airport
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cubic feet. The natural gas is mined and the harbour in the region. As a result,
and transported through pipelines to air transport to and from Mtwara Region
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Dar es Salaam where it is used to has also improved. Natural gas has also
generate electricity. Private companies created the demand for labour, goods and
such as Songas, Pan African Energy services. There has been an increase in
Tanzania (PAET), Maurel and Prom the demand for both skilled and unskilled
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(MOP) in co-operation with the Tanzania labour to work in the mines and carry
Petroleum Development Corporation out mining-related activities. Moreover,
(TPDC) produce natural gas. Songas natural gas extraction has added a source
generates electricity using gas from the of income for the people. Companies
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Songosongo Island gas fields. Figure 5.5 involved in natural gas extraction
shows a gas plant at Songosongo. usually pay taxes and other dues to
the government. People living nearby
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natural gas extraction fields also benefit
by selling goods, especially agricultural
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products to the mining community.

People surrounding the mining areas
also benefit from the social services such
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as schools, water and hospitals built to

support the mining community. Natural
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gas may reduce environmental pollution

as its use does not produce harmful gas
substances compared to other sources of
energy such as petroleum. Similarly, the
use of natural gas at the domestic level
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Figure. 5.5 Songosongo gas plant may reduce fuel-wood consumption.

Source: Ipp media.com This may, in turn, reduce deforestation.
Advantages of natural gas in Tanzania Challenges of natural gas production

Tanzania benefits a lot from its natural in Tanzania: Natural gas production
gas resources. The resources benefit faces numerous challenges in different
the economy of the country but also aspects. Natural gas is a non-renewable

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resource. Therefore, care has to be taken Exercise 5.3

when extracting this resource. Natural
gas production is new in Tanzania and, A. Write True or False for each of the
thus, it faces a shortage of skilled labour, following statements:
especially in exploration and extraction 1. Middle East countries produce
activities. As a result, the government is over one-third of the world’s
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often forced to employ foreign experts petroleum.
who are paid high salaries. Regarding 2. Transportation of petroleum by
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the capacity to produce the natural gas, tankers is more expensive than
Tanzania has not been able to allocate transportation by pipelines.
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enough funds for exploration, extraction, 3. Oil used in the Middle East is
processing and distribution. always imported.
4. Exploitation of natural gases
Tanzania’s efforts in addressing the in Tanzania is only done by
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challenges of natural gas production public companies.
Tanzania has been trying to overcome the 5. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, USA
challenges associated with the production and Western Europe are main
of its natural gas. The government has consumers of oil from the
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been emphasising the use of revenue Middle East.
from natural gas to benefit the people
in the areas producing the gas and the B. Briefly answer the following
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nation as a whole. The revenue from questions:
natural gas is used to improve social 1. Outline the importance of oil
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services in education and health. There production to the Middle East

have been various public programmes countries.
aimed to educate the public on natural 2. Explain the challenges facing
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gas benefits. The ministries responsible oil production in the Middle

for energy and mineral resources in East.
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Tanzania conduct awareness creation 3. Explain how Tanzanians

programmes through various ways benefit from the extraction of
such as meetings and the media. The natural gas.
government also provides opportunities 4. Outline the challenges facing
for training to Tanzanians in oil and natural gas extraction in
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natural gas. These training opportunities Tanzania.

aim to build the country’s capacity for 5. Explain how the effects of
exploration, extraction, processing and mining on the environment can
supplying of natural gas. be minimised.

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Chapter Six
Tourism
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of tourism, factors contributing
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to the development and growth of tourism in the world, the importance of tourism
and its impact in the world. You will also learn about ways to address the negative
impacts of tourism, factors for the development of tourism in Switzerland, Namibia
and Tanzania. You will also learn about the problems facing the tourism industry
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in Tanzania. Finally, you will draw lessons from Switzerland and Namibia to help
promote Tanzania's tourism industry. U
The concept of tourism Factors for the development and
Tourism is a temporary movement of growth of tourism in the world
people to places of interest for leisure, The following are factors for the
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pleasure, studies and trade or business, development and growth of tourism.
outside their normal working stations These factors are features that encourage
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or home. A tourist is a person who tourists to visit places for leisure,

travels to different places for leisure. pleasure or education.
Tourism can be classified as either Tourist attractions: Tourist attractions
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domestic or international. Domestic include places with pleasant climate,

tourism comprises of tourists who travel beautiful and varied sceneries, different
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within their own country. For example, cultures, historical sites and monuments.
if a Tanzanian living in Iringa visits Also, some features in Tanzania such as
Serengeti National Park he or she is a Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest free-
domestic tourist. International tourism, standing mountain in the world, attract
on the other hand, comprises of tourists tourists.
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who travel from their country to another

country. For example, people from Advancement in communication and
Switzerland can travel to Tanzania to transportation network: Reliable
visit national parks such as the Serengeti, communication network and advanced
Mikumi or Ruaha. technology encourage the development
of tourism in a country. For example,
the use of the internet, television

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programmes, and social media, tourism Marketing: Countries with good

trade fair and exhibitions has facilitated marketing strategies also have the
availability of information on tourism, potential of attracting a great number of
hence it has led to an influx of tourists. tourists. Marketing the tourism industry
helps to communicate information about
Good infrastructure: Presence of good various attraction centers, hence calling
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infrastructure that makes a place easily for more visitors. Some of the marketing
accessible at affordable rates by car, strategies include the use of diplomatic
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train, bus, water and air helps to attract missions abroad such as embassies,
tourists. For example, air transport has high commissions and consulates, the
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shortened the time that a tourist spends mass media, special tourism envoys
for travelling to and from Tanzania and and advertisements during international
other parts of the world. exhibitions.
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Good accommodation: Presence of Importance of tourism in the world:
adequate, comfortable and affordable Tourism contributes to the socio-
hotels, camp sites and resorts attracts economic development of the country.
tourists. For example, in Tanzania, the The tourism industry employs many
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presence of accommodation facilities people directly and indirectly, for
which cater for tourists of varied example, hotel staff, tour guides, porters,
economic status is one of the factors drivers and airline staff. Others include
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that attract tourists. those employed in the manufacturing
of goods such as postcards, souvenirs
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Peace and stability: Peace and stability and local handicrafts.

in any country encourage the growth
of the tourism sector. Tourists prefer Tourists prefer and are encouraged to
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to visit places with assured peace and visit countries with which they have
security. Moreover, countries with diplomatic relationship because this is
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political instability discourage tourism one way of promoting cultural exchange

due to fear of war, violence and terrorist to enhance international understanding
attacks, for example, Sudan, Democratic and foster collective solving of global
Republic of Congo (DRC) and Somalia. problems. People from different
nationalities also learn to appreciate
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Good hospitality: Tourists prefer to visit other cultures, hence promote cultural
places where people are honest, generous tolerance.
and with hospitality. In fact, the tourism
industry is more developed in various Generally, governments are committed
parts of the world where emphasis has to conserving tourist attractions
been placed on training personnel to because tourists are attracted by the
master hospitality skills. presence of historical and cultural sites,

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and wildlife. In Tanzania, the government As a result, both skilled and unskilled
also promotes sustainable conservation personnel find employment in the sector
of the sites and national parks to ensure as well as the hospitality industry; hence
the growth of the tourism sector. they improve their standards of living.
Tourism services also generate the Also, roads, railways, airports and
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much-needed foreign currency. Tourists hotels, are attractively constructed
arrive in the country with convertible and maintained to sustain the tourism
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currencies which boost the country’s industry. For example, transport means
foreign currency. Moreover, taxes from to tourist attraction centers in Tanzania
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this sector contribute to the growth of such as the Serengeti, Mikumi, and
the national economy. This, in turn, lead Mount Kilimanjaro national parks
to the development of other sectors such as well as Bagamoyo historical sites
as health, education, infrastructure and are well developed. Tourism has also
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water. Furthermore, existing roads are encouraged increase in production
improved and new ones are built to in other sectors to meet the tourist
connect tourist attraction sites. Airports needs. For example, other sectors
are also developed and improved. such as transport, agriculture, trade
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Communication infrastructure is also and commerce are highly favoured.
improved to serve these areas.
Negative impact of tourism: The
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Impact of tourism in the world negative impact of tourism includes the
The tourism industry has both positive following:
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and negative impact in the world. Tourism has sometimes led to cultural
interference and conflicts. Sometimes
Positive impact of tourism: The tourism tourists bring with them practises that
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sector has the following positive are unacceptable to the people in the host
impact on society. The development country, for example, ways of dressing,
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and expansion of international tourism food style and language.

has led to the creation of various job
opportunities. Similarly, the tourism Moral decay has occurred in places that
industry has led to job creation in are visited by tourists. For example, cases
rural areas, thereby reducing levels of of prostitution, same sex relationships
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rural-urban migration. An example can (homosexuality) and

be cited from the area around Mount drug abuse have become common in
Kilimanjaro and Arusha in Tanzania areas with tourist attractions such as
where people secure jobs as porters, beaches and night clubs.
translators and guides on a sustainable
basis. In addition, tourist activities in national
parks and other protected areas may lead

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to environmental degradation such as Kilimanjaro and Mikumi. For

off road driving and dumping of waste example, the government through
such as paper and plastics. the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Tourism is currently promoting
Moreover, the continued presence of tourism in the southern circuit
people and vehicles in the tourists sites attractions through a dedicated Safari
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may lead to change in animal behaviours. Channel in Tanzania Broadcasting
Corporation (TBC) television.
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Ways of addressing the negative
impact of tourism (e) Integrating tourist activities with
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The following ways can be taken to the promotion of environmental
minimise the negative impact of tourism: conservation, to reduce negative
(a) Enforcing policies, laws and impact on the environment.
regulations by the Tanzania
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Government to provide guidance
on the best ways of managing tourist Exercise 6.1
activities to maximise benefits and
minimise the negative effects. Answer the following questions:
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1. Define the term ‘tourism’.
(b) Encouraging eco-tourism to conserve 2. Describe five benefits of tourism to
vulnerable natural ecosystems and Tanzania.
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create a conducive environment to 3. With examples, differentiate between
enable local people share economic domestic and international tourism.
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and social benefits. 4. Mention five factors for the

development and growth of tourism
(c) Educating the local communities in the world.
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on cultural differences and the 5. Mention any four positive and four
associated risk of copying cultural negative impacts of tourism.
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practises from the tourists (awareness 6. Mention any four ways of minimising
creation and appreciation of other negative outcomes of tourism in
people’s culture). Tanzania.

(d) Promoting new tourism areas as
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alternative attractions, for example, Focal studies on the tourism industry

Gombe Stream National Park, Katavi In this section, you will study the tourism
National Park, Selous Game Reserve industry in selected countries, namely,
(the lower part of Selous) and Ruaha Switzerland, Namibia and Tanzania. The
National Park, to reduce congestion purpose of focal studies is to enable you
in the more popular ones such as to understand how different countries
the Serengeti, Ngorongoro, Mount practise tourism and learn best practises
from them.
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Tourism in Switzerland waterfalls. Winter months are decorated

Switzerland is a small land-locked by abundant snow on mountain slopes
country, located in Central Europe, east for skiing and ice-skating.
of France and north of Italy. It has a total The most frequently visited areas during
area of 41,290 square kilometres. The the summer are the Swiss Plateau of
country is mountainous with a physical Lausanne, Geneva, Bern, Zurich and
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landscape of plateaus of rolled hills, lake shores. Other places are Tucino
plains, glaciers and large lakes. For Mountain with towns like Lucerne and
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example, the Alps Mountains occupy Lugano. Switzerland is referred to as
about 60% of the total land. This offers the playground of the world because
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a variety of scenery which comprises most of its fame comes from its tourism
snow peaks, lakes, forested areas and industry. Figure 6.1 shows tourist
glaciers. Switzerland is bordered by centers in Switzerland.
Austria, France, Germany, Italy, and Pyramidal shaped mountains of the
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Liechtenstein. Tourism in Switzerland Alps and the U-shaped valleys are
takes place in the summer months unique glaciated features that attract
of July - September when it is easy most of the tourists. Figure 6.2 shows
to view the snow-caped mountain the pyramidal peak and valleys of the
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peaks, clear blue skies and cascading Swiss Alps.
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Figure 6.1 Tourist centers in Switzerland

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On one hand, the alpine climate and

landscapes are favourable for tourists
as they consist of cold snowy winters
and warm sunny summers. The snow
during winter attracts winter sports such
as skiing and ice-skating whereas warm
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and sunny summers attract tourists to
view the beautiful sceneries, and engage
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in swimming and sunbathing.
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The Swiss people are hospitable, and
Figure. 6.2 Pyramidal peaks and valleys the personnel handling tourists are well
of the Swiss Alps trained. The Swiss speak a variety of
Source: independent.co.uk/topic/swiss-alps languages, namely, German, French and
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Italian. With these languages, the Swiss
Other features such as lakes Geneva and can easily communicate with tourists
Constance also add to the beauty of the from various countries. Switzerland
country. Most of the tourists come from has a well-connected transport network
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the United States of America, Western which ensures easy and cheap movement
Europe and China. of tourists within and outside the country.
A variety of means of transport such as
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Factors for development of tourism buses, electric trains, cable cars or aerial
in Switzerland: Several factors lifts and airways help to access various
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contribute to the development of tourist attractions in the country. The

Tourism in Switzerland. Switzerland is country has a great number of high class
located in the center of Europe, making hotels to suit the needs of the tourists.
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it accessible from various countries Also, there are cottages, camping sites,
of Europe, America, and Asia. These taverns and guest houses.
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countries include France, Germany, Italy,

Britain, United States of America and Switzerland has been and continues to
China. tolerate different political ideologies.
Thus, tourists from various countries
Switzerland has abundant beautiful of the world find it comfortable to visit
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sceneries, including the Alps Mountains Switzerland. Many towns in Switzerland

with a large variety of peaks and valleys such as Geneva, Bern and Zurich are
which attract many tourists. Also, its headquarters of most international
slopes have abundant snow which meetings by different organisations and
attracts tourists interested in skiing and associations such as the World Health
ice-skating. Others are hills, plateaux, Organisation (WHO), International
plains, large lakes and rivers. Labour Organisation (ILO) and Federal
International Football Association
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(FIFA). Therefore, people attending Challenges facing the tourism industry

these meetings also take time off to visit in Switzerland: Heavy snow during
tourist attractions, hence contributing to winter hinders movement on roads, rails
the country’s tourism industry. and runways which lowers the influx of
tourists. In some cases, the number of
Importance of tourism in Switzerland: tourists fluctuate due to other competitive
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Tourism contributes to the economic countries such as the United States of
development of Switzerland. America. Tourist attraction centers also
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Tourism promotes Switzerland’s experience environmental pollution
international relations and co-operation through littering and noise from transport
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with other nations through tourist means such as trains and cars.
activities. Tourism also stimulates other
related sectors of the economy such as Tourism in Namibia
agriculture, market and transportation Namibia is bordered by South Africa
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since they all strive to help the provision to the south, Botswana to the east and
of services in the tourism sector. Angola to the north. It is also bordered
Moreover, tourism is the major industry in by rivers Kunene and Okavango in
Switzerland. It is the third largest export the north and the Orange River in the
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earner and contributes significantly to south. From the coast, there is the Namib
the national economy. Tourism promotes Desert with huge attractive sand-dunes
employment opportunities both within and the largest canyon in the southern
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and outside the industry, therefore, hemisphere. The Namib Desert is also
it helps to improve people’s living known as the “living desert” because a
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standards. Tourism promotes the large number of species live there. In

spirit of appreciating other people’s the eastern part, Namibia is occupied by
cultures which, in turn, brings about the Kalahari Desert. The land between
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cultural tolerance. Furthermore, the Namib and the Kalahari deserts is

tourism contributes to the expansion of a rolling plain of 1,200m above sea
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infrastructure throughout the country. level. Namibia has an area of 825, 419
Revenue collected from the tourism square kilometres with a population of
industry finances the expansion of about 2,610,954 by 2018. Namibia’s
roads and other related sectors such general climate is desert with scarce
as education and health. Tourism also and unreliable rainfall. The country’s
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contributes to the earnings of foreign attractive landscape makes it naturally

currency which facilitate the country’s attractive to tourism activities. It has
economic growth. Both domestic and rivers such as the Kwando that cuts
international tourism are sources of through the Caprivi Strip, and Zambezi
foreign currency. which flows along the north-eastern
border. Namibia’s landscape is mostly
dominated by a high plateau which also

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impresses visitors. This country is a Generally, the major tourist attractions

home to a variety of wildlife including (honey pots) in Namibia include the
antelopes, rhinos, giraffes, lions, Skeleton Coast, Seal Reserve, Caprivi
elephants and cheetahs which make it one Game Park and Daan Viljoen Game
of the leading countries in wild animal Reserve. The Etosha National Park, Fish
population in the world. Windhoek, the River Canyon and the Gross-Barmen Hot
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capital city of Namibia and the coastal Springs Resort add to the list of tourist
town of Swakopmund have German attractions. Other tourist attractions in the
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buildings built during the colonial era. country include the Hardap Recreation
The Windhoek’s Christukirche (Christ Resort, Khaudum National Park and
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Church) built from quartz sandstone Naukluft Mountain Zebra Park. Figure
by the Germans in 1907 is one of the 6.3 is a map of Namibia showing tourist
important structures that attract tourists. attraction sites.
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Figure 6.3 Major tourist sites in Namibia

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The Namib Desert is one of tourist is protected. The large number of parks
attractions in Namibia that possesses and protected areas with flourishing
unique and the largest sand dunes of the wildlife populations is a significant
world. Figure 6.4 shows sand dunes in ongoing attraction for international and
the Namib Desert, Namibia. domestic visitors.
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Improving the tourist environment:
Namibia has several advantages
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compared to its competitors in the
region. It has attractive and unique
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tourism attractions such as the landscape,
wildlife and indigenous culture. It is also
a peaceful country. It has also a safe and
extensive road network and sufficient
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lodging options. There are also abundant
Figure 6.4 Sand dunes in Namib Desert, opportunities for adventure tourism
Namibia which includes hiking, sky-diving, dune
boarding, and game and trophy hunting.
Source: touropia.com/tourist attraction
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Adventure travel is one of the fastest
Tourism ranks third in Namibia’s growing sectors of the long-haul travel
economy after mining and agriculture. market.
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The importance of the tourism sector
in Namibia has forced the government Factors for the development of tourism
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to incorporate it in the National in Namibia: Numerous attractions

Development Plan. Under this plan, the including the climate with plenty of
government is committed to enhancing sunshine, abundant wildlife, rivers and
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tourism development through several desert landscapes have contributed to

initiatives, as explained in the following the development of the tourism industry
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sections. in Namibia. Other tourist attractions are

the diverse cultural attractions such as
Promoting access to tourist attraction baskets, shells, jewels, embroidery, bead
centers: The distances between tourism works and traditional dances.
sites in Namibia are large. This has forced
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the country to have a strong strategic Improved infrastructure: The

upgrading of tourism infrastructure government has also invested in the
to promote the growth of the tourism improvement of infrastructure to
industry. facilitate access to tourist attractions.
For example, there is a luxury train
Protecting the biodiversity: More than that runs between Swakopmund and
17 percent of the land area in Namibia Windhoek. Also, Air Namibia offers

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several scheduled domestic flights to Community (SADC) which helps its

enhance tourist movements. The private members to promote tourism through
sector is also working closely with the the Regional Tourism Organisation of
government to improve accommodation the Southern African Countries. This
facilities. country has benefitted through this
strategy.
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Strong tourism policy: Namibia’s
national tourism policy aims to provide Importance of tourism to Namibia
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a framework for mobilising tourism Many people have secured jobs in the
resources to realise long-term national tourism industry, for example, hotel
staff, tour guides and drivers. Others
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goals as defined in the country’s
Vision 2030. The policy ensures that are employed in the local handicrafts
tourism is developed in a sustainable, industry such as wood carving from
equitable and responsible manner. The Okavango and Caprivi and basketry
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policy also insists on eco-tourism as from Himba. The tourist industry
an integrated approach which involves also contributes to the earning of a
carrying out tourist activities with lot of foreign currency; for example,
minimum negative impact on the natural earnings from travel agencies, hotels and
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environment. This has, in turn, made a restaurants, entertainment groups and
significant contribution to the economic shops, as well as the National Reserve.
development of Namibia that benefits The transport and communication
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all the people. network around tourist attractions
have also been improved. This has
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Namibia Tourism Board: The Namibia benefited both the tourism industry
Tourism Board (NTB) is charged with and local communities. The provision
the responsibility of regulating and of education, health services, water
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marketing tourism activities. This board supply and electricity have improved as a
is also responsible for training people result of the development of the tourism
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engaged in the tourism industry. For industry. This has, in turn, contributed to
example, the NTB has established offices improvement of the standard of living
abroad to market and promote tourism in of the people. Furthermore, tourism
Namibia. These offices are in different contributes to the growth of GDP, hence
parts of the world such as Johannesburg, making it a valuable sector within the
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Cape Town, Germany, New York, country. Tourism is a major industry

England and Spain. As a result, this contributing Namibian dollars (N$) 7.2
aggressive promotion increases the billion to the country’s GDP per year.
number of tourists in the country.
Challenges facing tourism in
Regional cooperation: Namibia is a Namibia: The tourism industry in
member of Southern Africa Development Namibia is facing strong competition

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for tourists from other neighbouring Burundi and the Democratic Republic of
countries especially Botswana and Congo (DRC) to the west, and Zambia,
South Africa. In addition, tourism Malawi and Mozambique to the south.
industry in Namibia suffers from a The country is gifted with unique and
shortage of a well-trained personnel diverse natural and cultural tourist
who can offer standard services to attractions such as national parks, game
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tourists. Also, tourist opportunities are reserves with many species of wildlife,
in the rural areas where the majority conserved areas, lakes, large plateaux,
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of the people are not well educated. several marine parks, cultural heritage
The industry also suffers from high sites and several historical sites. Some
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cost of investment, especially in the of the National Parks include Serengeti,
construction of infrastructure such as Ruaha, Mikumi, Lake Manyara, Katavi,
roads and hotels. Running costs such Tarangire, Bugiri-Chato, Udzungwa
as maintaining the rural feeder roads Mountains and Saadani. Some of the
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to make them passable throughout the game reserves include the lower part
year also needs a lot of funds. of Selous, Rukwa, Maswa, Mpanga-
Kipengere and SwagaSwaga. Figure 6.6
Furthermore, Namibia has a restrictive is a map of Tanzania showing major
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regime for business visas and work tourist sites. Tourism in Tanzania is also
permits which lowers business in the marked by Mount Kilimanjaro (Figure
tourism industry. As a result, skilled 6.5) which is a National Park.
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people from abroad who could serve
the industry efficiently cannot easily get
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work permits. Other challenges facing

tourism in Namibia include the growing
rate of crime, corruption, poaching,
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poor water crisis management and high

commodity prices.
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Tourism in Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is the
largest country in East Africa located in
the eastern coast part of Africa. The
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country has an Indian Ocean coastline

of about 1,424 kilometers long. It covers
an area of 947,300 square kilometers
between latitude 100 and 120 S, and Figure 6.5 Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
longitudes 290 and 410 E. It borders Source:https://www.tanzaniatourism.go.tz
Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda,

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se
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Figure 6.6 Major tourist sites in Tanzania
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Management of national parks and area). National parks, game reserves

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game reserves in Tanzania: National and the NCAA have the responsibility
parks in Tanzania are managed by the of ensuring that conservation benefits are
Tanzania National Parks Authority shared with surrounding communities.
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(TANAPA). This authority is responsible This is done through provision of social

for the management and regulation services such as schools, water and health
facilities, and provision of employment
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of the use of all areas designated as

national parks. The Tanzania Wildlife opportunities to local communities.
Authority (TAWA) is responsible for
the management and regulation of the
use of all the areas designated as game
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reserves and all wildlife outside national

parks and the Ngorongoro Conservation
Area (NCA). The NCA is managed by
the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Authority (NCAA). This is the only
conservation area in Tanzania where Figure. 6.7 Wild beasts in Serengeti National
humans, livestock and wildlife share Park
the same environment (multiple use Source: https://depositphotos.com

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Factors for the development of tourism The improvement of transport and

in Tanzania: Tanzania has a stable communication contributes to easy
government, with peace and security movement of tourists from one place
which promote the tourism industry. In to another. Tanzania is investing in
Tanzania, there are varieties of attractive improving airline transport to strengthen
sceneries including Mount Kilimanjaro, the tourism industry.
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Ngorongoro Crater, Great Rift Valley
and Amboni Caves. These landmarks In addition, Tanzania has adequate and
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contribute much to the development comfortable accommodation to cater
of tourism in the country. Others are for tourists with different economic
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Oldonyo Lengai and Mount Meru. status, hence attracting a large number of
tourists. Tanzania also has friendly and
The country also has several national hospitable people. The country is also
parks, game reserves and zoos which rich in cultural diversity with more than
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play a significant role in attracting 120 ethnic groups. Each of these ethnic
different tourists. Examples of zoos groups has its unique culture which
include, the Dar es Salaam Zoo and presents a wide range of cultural tourist
Ifisi Zoo in Mbeya. The Indian Ocean attractions. Tanzania is also well known
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also has good beaches and conditions and respected for its unique language,
favourable for aquatic sports such as Kiswahili which is ever expanding in
swimming. Fine sand beaches in Mafia Africa and worldwide.
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and Zanzibar, clear warm waters of
the Indian Ocean and the inland lakes
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Importance of tourism in Tanzania

are attractions for both domestic and
international tourists. Whereas national (a) The tourism industry contributes to
parks include Serengeti, Ruaha, Mikumi the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
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and Kilimanjaro, game reserves include Currently, tourism contributes about

the lower part of Selous, Ibanda, 17.5 % of the GDP. For example,
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Mpanga Kipengere, Moyowosi, Ugalla Table 6.1 shows revenue collected by

and Mkomazi. Tanzania has moderate national parks in Tanzania Mainland
temperature and abundant sunshine in the years 2017 and 2018.
which attract many tourists.
Table 6.1 Revenue collected by national
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parks in Tanzania Mainland in US$

Tanzania has a national museum and
several historical sites such as Olduvai Year Revenues (US$
Gorge, Isimila and Kalenga, Stone in millions)
Town in Zanzibar and the meteorites 2017 2,019.00
in Ndolezi, Mbozi in Songwe Region.
Other tourist attractions include local 2018 2,043.00
paintings in Kondoa-Irangi in Dodoma.
Source: Standard Digital April 2019

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(b) The money obtained from tourism (h) Tourism is the source of foreign
helps to improve and develop other currency. Tourists pay for services
sectors such as health, education, they are provided with in foreign
water supply, agriculture and currency.
transport.
(i) Tourism facilitates the creation of
different recreational centers to
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(c) Tourism also creates employment
opportunities among Tanzanians. attract even more tourists. Such
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Both skilled and unskilled workers attractions include night clubs,
can secure jobs in national parks and swimming pools and beaches.
game reserves, hotels and lodges,
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transport and tour companies. Challenges facing tourism in
Tanzania: The tourism industry in
(d) Tourism contributes to the
Tanzania is faced with problems of
development of local handicraft
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transport and communication, which are
industries. Tourists buy large
not that well-developed, hence limiting
quantities of handicrafts, especially
tourist movement. For example, some
wood carvings such as Makonde
of the roads are rough and, therefore,
carvings, and wooden materials
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it is impossible to use them during
which attract more people to engage
the rainy season. Internet services are
in such artistic productions.
also expensive and not reliable. The
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(e) Tourism promotes international country also faces a problem of poor
relations through co-operation and co-ordination between the government
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cultural tolerance among people, to and other players in the industry. In

foster cultural diversity. addition, there is a shortage of funds
for the development of the tourism
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(f) Tourism facilitates the development industry. Moreover, Tanzania does not
of infrastructure and services such have adequate and sustainable marketing
as roads, airports, communication strategies to advertise and promote the
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networks, water supply, electricity, unique attraction sites available in the

hotels and proper sanitation. As a country.
result, better services and standards
of life are ensured for both tourists Increase in population for settlement
and natives.
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and agriculture expansion has led

(g) Tourism promotes the spirit of to encroachment on national parks
environmental conservation and and game reserves. This has led to
preservation of historical sites. degradation of wildlife areas, threatening
This, in turn, leads to sustainable their existence. In addition, crime and
use of tourist attractions for national violent activities in some areas will
development. discourage tourists from visiting such
areas.
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Promoting tourism in Tanzania: The game reserves needs the commitment

following are the ways that can be used of the people living near the parks and
to promote tourism in Tanzania: game reserves. Moreover, communities
should enjoy the benefits obtained from
Marketing strategies and publicity: the use of protected areas by tourists.
Marketing of the tourism sector both
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domestically and internationally Promotion of domestic tourism:
should be enhanced. There is a need Domestic tourism is not well-developed
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for the government and other players in Tanzania because of the high costs and
in the industry to market aggressively lack of touring interest among natives.
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the country’s tourist attractions in Therefore, domestic tourism should be
international media and forums. promoted by offering affordable rates
to natives. Also, eco-tourism should be
Provision of training: Tourism is a established.
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service industry that demands quality
services for its sustainability. It is, Lessons drawn to promote the tourism
therefore, important to have trained industry in Tanzania: The following are
personnel who can offer quality services some of the lessons that can be drawn
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to meet international standards. This, from focal studies discussed in relation
in turn, will lead to increased influx of to promoting the tourism industry in
tourists. Tanzania.
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Development of tourist attractions: The Marketing: The Government of Tanzania

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government should invest in expanding as well as private players in the tourism

the tourist attractions in the country. This industry should invest in marketing the
can be done by opening up new areas and country’s tourism attractions all over
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diversifying tourist activities but also by the world. By doing so, the number of
promoting them as viable alternatives. tourists will increase, thus contributing
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to the national economy.

Improvement of infrastructure: There
is a need to improve the existing Strong tourism policy: The government
accommodation, transport and should formulate and enforce a strong
communication infrastructure. This will tourism policy that is geared towards
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improve the provision of services needed promoting culture-based tourism and

by tourists in the hospitality industry. eco-tourism.
Involving the local communities: Package tours: The government should

Involvement of local communities will promote package tours that allow for
promote a sustainable tourism industry. tour arrangements, including hotel
Indeed, protection of national parks and reservations and travels to be done by a

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company. This will increase the number 3. Explain how tourism is important
of tourists visiting the country. in Tanzania, Namibia and
Switzerland.
Regional co-operation: Tanzania,
4. List and explain any three negative
as a member of Southern Africa
impacts of tourism in the world.
Development Community (SADC), has
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to fully utilise opportunities aimed to 5. Explain the challenges facing the
promote the tourism industry especially tourism industry in Tanzania.
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through the use of the Regional Tourism 6. Briefly, explain any five factors
Organisation of the Southern Africa for the growth and development of
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Countries (RETOSA). tourism in Switzerland.
7. List any three lessons that Tanzania
can learn from the tourism industry
Exercise 6.2 in Switzerland and Namibia.
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8. Suggest any four ways:
(i) In which the tourism sector
1. Name any three tourist attractive sites
for each of the following countries: can be used to generate more
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income in Tanzania.
(i) Tanzania
(ii) To promote tourism in
(ii) Switzerland
Tanzania.
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(iii) Namibia
9. In a group of ten students, pair and
2. Draw a map of Tanzania and indicate share three major tourist attractions
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five tourist attractions. of a selected region in Tanzania.

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Chapter Seven
Manufacturing
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industry
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of manufacturing industry, the
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importance of the manufacturing industry, types of manufacturing industries and
the products of each type. You will also learn about factors necessary for locating
an industry, and pollutants from manufacturing industries. Besides, you will learn
about the production of cars in Japan, electronic devices in South Korea and
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textiles in Tanzania.
The concept of manufacturing they earn. The income they earn caters
industry
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The manufacturing industry involves the clothes and education.
processing and changing of raw materials
(b) Manufacturing industries also lead
into different semi-finished or finished
to the diversification of the country’s
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products using tools and machines. It
economy due to their potentials for
plays a major role in bringing about
in
promoting other sectors of the economy.

the development of a country. The ever
This reduces over-dependence on one
growing population with increased
or two economic sectors, which can be
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demands for goods and services is

affected by fluctuation of prices in the
accommodated by the establishment of
world market.
manufacturing industries. Such increased
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population demands more food, shelter, (c) Manufacturing industries enable

clothes and other services. The following countries to process locally produced
section explains the importance of raw materials before they are exported.
manufacturing industries in the world. This process helps to add value to the
exports.
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Importance of manufacturing
industries (d) Manufacturing industries stimulate
the development of infrastructure such
(a) Manufacturing industries are sources as railways and roads. These means
of employment for both skilled and of transport are useful in carrying raw
unskilled labour. These employees materials to manufacturing centers and
can raise their standards of living and the finished or unfinished goods to the
improve quality of life with the income markets.
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(e) Industries also help to create a Types of manufacturing industries

large internal market as workers get Manufacturing industries can be grouped
wages and salaries from industries into two main types, namely, processing
which enable them to buy goods and and fabrication industries.
services. In fact, the more the workers,
the larger the market for manufacturing Processing industries: Processing
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industries. industries use raw materials from the
primary industries. They produce goods
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(f) Manufacturing industries also lead
which can be used as raw materials
to increased agricultural production.
for other industries or can be directly
For example, the textile industry
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consumed. These industries are also
requires cotton as raw material. Thus,
concerned with the processing of bulk
it can stimulate the expansion of cotton
raw materials into other products. Some
growing.
of these are described below.
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(g) Manufacturing industries are (a) Textile processing industries:These
sources of foreign currency. The industries deal with spinning and
products manufactured in a country weaving of textile materials from
cotton, wool and silk. Artificial
are exported to other countries for sale
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which, in turn, attract foreign currency. fibres such as rayon, nylon and
dacron are used in textile industries.
(h) Manufacturing industries reduce Textile industries in Tanzania include
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the country’s dependence on imported Musoma Textile (MUTEX), Mwanza
goods because a country with well- Textile (MWATEX), Karibu Textile
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developed manufacturing industries Mills (KTM) and Morogoro Polytex.

can meet the needs of the people.
(i) Manufacturing industries also Leather processing industry
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stimulate the development of science includes hides, and skins. Despite

and technology. Indeed, for a country its potential to contribute to the
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to develop well in manufacturing economy in terms of employment

industries, it needs to invest in science creation, income generation, foreign
and technology to increase production. earnings and poverty reduction, its
current contribution to development
(j) Manufacturing industries improve is still low. The comprehensive
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international relations through trade leather sector development strategy

transactions with different countries. of Tanzania endeavours to generate
These trade transactions improve the conditions for a favourable
relations between the importing and expansion of the industry so as to
exporting countries. contribute to overall socio-economic
development. Such development will
require the coordination of various

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activities such as the ability of (d) M e t a l l u rg i c a l industries:

stakeholders to plan and coordinate Metallurgical industries deal with the
actions in results. The plants include production of iron and steel as raw
Moshi industries, Tanzania leather materials in engineering industries,
industry, Afro leather, Kibaha for example, Aluminium Africa
Tannery, Himo Tanners and Salex Limited (ALAF), the Motisun Group
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Tanners. in Dar es Salaam and AIM Steel Ltd
in Arusha that deal with steel and
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(b) Chemical industries: These are pre-coated sheets.
industries which produce highly
specialised products such as acids, (e) Craft industries: These are industries
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gases, medicine, paints, pestecides, which deal with spinning, weaving,
alkalis, soaps and fertilisers. Good dyeing of cotton cloth, tanning and
examples are the Mansoor Daya leather making, wool carving, basket
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Chemicals, Zenufa Laboratories making, pottery and gold, and silver
and Unilever Tanzania which deal smelting. Examples include MIKONO
with detergents, soaps and other Craft Industry, Kwanza Collections,
products. Their raw materials include Maznat Designs, Makonde Handicraft
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acids, dyes and fertilisers. Zoom Village, Nyumba ya Sanaa in Dar es
Tanzania manufactures chemicals salaam.
for households and for industrial
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purposes, such as Pine disinfectact, Fabrication industries: Fabrication
A1 liquid soap, clorite bleach, and industries produce new products from
in
kioo glass cleaner. processed raw materials. Such fabrication

industries can be heavy or light. Heavy
(c) Food and beverage processing fabrication industries produce bulky
nl
industries: These industries deal and heavy products such as iron and
with the preparation of food stuffs steel. Other heavy fabrication industries
and drinks such as meat packaging, include car assembly and ship building.
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fruit canning, flour milling, bottling Light fabrication industries produce light
and brewing, sugar refining, meat products such as plastics, textiles, shoes
processing and packaging, Coca Cola, and electronics.
Pepsi Cola, Azam Cola and brewing
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industries. Examples include Cool Types of manufacturing industries

Blue Tanzania (producing mineral in East Africa: There are different types
water), Chai Bora (Tea leaves), Said of manufacturing industries in East
Salim Bakhresa & Co. Ltd (Mzizima Africa. They can be grouped as follows:
Flour Mill). i. Food and beverage industries
ii. Chemical industries
iii. Textile industries
iv. Mineral extraction industries
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v. Iron and steel industries: They make

iron and steel bars, wires, and other
iron and steel products.
vi. Lumbering industries: These
industries deal with the production of
timber, wood pulp and other products
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from wood. Paper industries rely on
softwood which grows fast.
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vii. Fuel and power industries: These Figure 7.1 Lorries carrying cement at Twiga
industries deal with the extraction Cement factory, Tanzania
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of oil, petroleum, coal, natural gas,
and refining and generation of power Power supply: Industries need reliable
from various sources such as steam and adequate power supply to run
and coal. machines. The availability of this power
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supply ensures constant production of
Factors for the location of goods in the industries. The common
manufacturing industries: The sources of power used in manufacturing
establishment of an industry in a certain industries are hydro-electrical power,
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area depends on many factors, some of coal, natural gas, solar and nuclear
which are described below. power. Industries located close to sources
of power are more profitable than those
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Availability of raw materials: Closeness located far away.
to the sources of raw materials reduces
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transport costs and time for the materials Transport and communication
to reach the industry. In most industries, networks: Transport is an essential
transportation of raw materials from component in movement of raw
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the source to the industries is part of materials to the industrial areas and the
the production cost. Industries which manufactured goods to the markets. A
good transport network helps to reduce
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use heavy and bulky raw materials are

usually located near the source of raw costs and facilitates the movement of raw
materials. For example, Twiga Cement materials and manufactured products.
Industry in Dar es Salaam is located near The commonly used means of transport
limestone deposits (Figure 7.1). Other are roads, railways, waterways and
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cement industries are Dangote (Mtwara), airways.

Tanga Cement and Mbeya Cement in
Tanga and Mbeya respectively. Market: The availability of a reliable
market for the manufactured goods is
one of the essential factors that account
for the development of manufacturing
industries. Availability of the markets
can determine production efficiency.
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Industrial production depends on the example, iron and steel industries

demand for goods, which also determines require water for cooling purposes,
the location of such industries. textile industries for washing fibres,
chemical, pulping and timber industries
Labour: The labour force required by for proper functioning. Water may be
an industry depends on the type of the required either in the processing of raw
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manufacturing industry. Both skilled materials or for cooling machines.
and unskilled labour is required for
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the development of manufacturing
industries. Thus, the development of Activity 7.1
manufacturing industries tend to flourish
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in areas where labour is available and With the guidance of your Geography
stable. Teacher visit a nearby manufacturing
plant and find out the reasons for its
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Capital: Availability of capital is a very location, the source of power used in that
important factor for the development of industry and identify the manufactured
manufacturing industries. This is money products and their market. Then in
invested in starting a business. Money groups, discuss the importance of that
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is required to buy the site, build offices, industry.
purchase raw materials, pay workers and
market products.
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Pollutants from manufacturing
Government policy: Government industries: Industrial pollutants are
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policies may encourage or discourage substances that make air, water and
the location of industries in certain areas soil harmful to living organisms. The
due to social (population or market), manufacturing industries produce
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economic (introduction of protective different pollutants which are dangerous

tariffs), political (civil wars, political to human health and the environment.
influence) or environmental (climate) These pollutants are categorised as gas,
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reasons. Supportive policies attract solids, liquids and noise.

both internal and external investors.
Supportive policies provide possibilities Industrial pollution: The manufacturing
for financial support through loans and process turns raw materials into useful
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friendly conditions to investors. goods. But some of the by-products

of manufacturing waste materials
Water: Availability of regular and left over or substances produced by
abundant supply of water is essential the manufacturing process itself,
for the development of industries since may be harmful to the environment.
most industries require large quantities Manufacturing contributes to air and
of water for their operations. For water pollution for example the Wazo
Hill Cement industry in Dar es Salaam.
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Air pollution: Pollution can easily be liquid pollutants is used for irrigation, it
observed from oil refining industries. may harm the crops and people’s health.
These manufacturing industries use heat These pollutants may also alter the soil
from coal or diesel furnaces to provide composition and texture, hence making
steam power to run the plants. Burning it unproductive.
this fuel can also release pollutants into
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the air. Noise pollution: The operation of
machines may produce loud noises that
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Gases: Industrial activities produce disturb people working in the industries.
harmful gases that pollute the The noises can also affect hearing in
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environment. Such gases are sulphur human beings, and may also disturb
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, people living near the industries, by
methane and other hydrocarbons. The disrupting their sleep and rest.
gases emitted may cause respiratory
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and skin diseases. Sulphur dioxide can Major ways of reducing industrial
form sulphuric acid when it comes into pollution
contact with water in the atmosphere to There are several ways of reducing
form acid rain. Such rain corrodes rocks, pollution from industries. These ways
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iron sheets and pollute soils, lakes and include the following:
rivers. Carbon dioxide is produced due
to incomplete combustion of gases, oil, (a) Locating industries away from
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coal and wood. The high concentration residential areas. There should be a
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere proper policy on locating industries.
in
causes global warming. (b) Laws and by-laws should be enacted

to protect the environment against
Industrial solid waste: Solid waste such
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pollution.
as paper and plastic products, bottles
(c) Encouraging the use of alternative
and cans, food and garden wastes from
sources of energy which are
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industries pollutes the environment.

environmental by friendly, for
Waste is harmful as it may contribute
example, the use of solar energy and
to the transmission of diseases to human
hydro-electric power.
beings and plants.
(d) Complete combustion of fuels in
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Liquid pollutants: Dirty water from industrial machines should be

industries may contain heavy metals ensured as it reduces air pollution.
such as lead and mercury, harmful (e) Liquid waste from industries should
chemicals, radioactive waste or organic be treated before it is discharged as
sludge. This waste pollutes water when waste, to reduce the effects on the
discharged into rivers, oceans or lakes environment.
and destroys aquatic life. If water with

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(f) Industrial waste can be reduced Focal studies

through re-use and recycling of
plastic materials, bottles and cans Car manufacturing industries in
to produce other materials. Japan
(g) Routine inspection and maintenance of Japan is a chain of islands in the
industrial machines should be carried eastern part of Asia. It has an area of
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out on a regular basis. about 377,972 square kilometers. The
population of Japan was about 126.8
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million people in 2018 (Population,
Exercise 7.1 2019). It is located between North
Pacific and the Sea of Japan. It is one
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Answer the following questions: of the leading car producers in the
1. Define the following terms: world ahead of other producers such
(a) Manufacturing industries as Germany, United States of America,
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France, United Kingdom, South Korea,
(b) Processing industries
China, India and South Africa. The major
2. Mention two types of manufacturing industrial centers in Japan are located
industries and give two examples for in the coastal cities of Tokyo, Osaka,
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each type. Kobe and Yawata. Other cities include
3. Describe five types of processing Nagoya, Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu and
industries in Tanzania and give two Hokkaido. Japan produces various types
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examples for each type. of vehicles such as Mitsubishi, Isuzu,
4. Describe any three factors affecting Suzuki and Toyota. Cars from Japan
in
the location of industries. are more marketable because they are

5. Define industrial pollution. durable and of high quality. Spare parts
are also easily available and affordable.
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6. Mention any three industrial

pollutants and explain their effects
Factors contributing to the
to people and environment.
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development of industries in Japan

7. Outline five ways of reducing The growth of car manufacturing
industrial pollution. industries in Japan has been facilitated
by the following factors:
Power supply: Japan has a good supply
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of reliable power to support industrial

development. The country has well-
developed hydroelectric power and
nuclear energy to provide power for
industries.

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Harbours: Japan has natural harbours Capital: Japan’s economy is one of

for large ships that enhance the the biggest in the world, hence the
importation and exportation of both country has adequate capital to support
raw materials and manufactured industrial development. This has
products in large quantities. enabled it to finance the development of
its giant car manufacturing industries.
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Reliable market: Car manufacturing
industries in Japan have a reliable Technology: Japan is highly developed in
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market both within and outside technology useful in car manufacturing
the country. The growing Japanese industries. The use of computer and
population offers market for the
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robot technology in manufacturing has
manufactured cars. Moreover, the increased production. Research in Japan
quality and availability of spare-parts is also an ongoing practise that ensures
from Japan guarantee the ever growing better methods of industrial production.
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market almost all over the world.
Hard working: The Japanese are well
Labour: The educated population known all over the world for their spirit
of Japan provides reliable source of of hard-work. They are committed in
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skilled labour able to work in various their work and to the development of
industrial fields. The government has their country. This spirit has improved
invested much in science subjects their car manufacturing industries.
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in schools and universities to create
highly skilled labourforce to work in
in
Electronic equipment industry in

industries.
South Korea

South Korea is located in Eastern
Good transport and communication
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Asia south of the Korean Peninsula.

network: Japan has a well-developed
It occupies the southern half of the
transport and communication network
peninsula. It has an area of about 98,000
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including roads, modern railway

square kilometers. The population of
systems, seaports and airports.
South Korea was about 51.5 million
These promote development of car
people in 2017. It is one of the highly
manufacturing industries. Transport
industrialised countries of the world
and communication network facilitates
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in electronic manufacturing. Its

the movement of raw materials to the
economy is growing very fast due to
industries and manufactured goods to
foreign investments in many electronic
the markets.
equipment such as televisions, radios,
calculators, watches, magnetic discs
for computers, computer software, cell
phones, computer terminals and radar.

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The major electronic production centers companies in South Korea are Samsung,
include Busan, Daegu, Gwangju, Jeju LG electronics, Daewoo and Hyundai.
and Seoul (Figure 7.2). Daegu alone Other competitors in the electronic
has more than 150 electronic factories. manufacturing industry include Hong
The major electronic manufacturing Kong, Singapore, Malaysia and Taiwan.
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Figure 7.2 Electronic production centers in South Korea

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Factors contributing to the development Market: The electronic industries

of electronic manufacturing industries produce goods of high quality which
in South Korea are also in high demand both within and
The following are factors that contribute outside the country. The products have a
to the development of electronic ready market all over the world which,
manufacturing industries in South Korea: in turn, promotes production.
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Capital: South Korea has capital which
Science and technology: South Korea
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is available through bank loans and
government assistance. This capital has has invested heavily in science and
enabled the growth and diversification of technology and, as a result, it sets
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industries. Also, the capital has facilitated high standards of new technology. The
the development of infrastructure and country puts emphasis on scientific
factories in addition to funding scientific innovation, investigation and research.
research for the development of such This focus has given the country’s
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industries. electronic industry an edge over other
electronic manufacturers in the world.
Policies: South Korea’s government
Energy: South Korea has available
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has supportive policies that promote
the development of electronic industries and affordable energy that is generated
by providing financial support through from different sources, including nuclear
loans and research. The policies are also power that contributes to about 45 percent
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supportive in attracting foreign investors of the total power production. Other
from Japan and the USA to invest in sources include solar energy and hydro-
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electronic manufacturing industries electric power, which are reliable and

through friendly policies. affordable, thus enhancing production.
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Labour: South Korea has a skilled Research and development: Electronic

labourforce since the country has invested manufacturing industries in South Korea
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heavily in education and technological rely much on research and development

innovations. For example, the literacy to attract and widen the market. A lot of
level is estimated to be over 98 percent government funds are directed towards
with emphasis on science subjects in the improvement of the existing products
schools and colleges. and developing new ones.
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Transport and communication:

There is efficient means of transport
and communication that facilitate the
transportation of raw materials and
manufactured goods.

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Activity 7.2 Textile industries in Tanzania

Textile industries deal with the
In groups, note down the similarities
manufacturing of clothes from cotton,
in the factors contributing to the
wool, silk, nylon, rayon or linen as
development of car manufacturing
raw materials. Textile manufacturing
industries in Japan and electronics
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involves the design, production and
manufacturing industries in South
distribution of textiles, fabrics and
Korea and then present to the class.
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clothes. Examples of textile industries in
Tanzania include Urafiki Textile Mills,
Kilimanjaro Textile Mills (KILTEX),
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Karibu Textile Mills (KTM), Mwanza
Textile Mills (MWATEX), Musoma
Textile Mills (MUTEX) (Figure 7.3).
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Figure 7.3 Location of some textile industries in Tanzania

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Importance of textile industries in also promote international relations

Tanzania: The textile industry provides through trade. There is so much trading
employment opportunities to both skilled in the world because of differences in
and unskilled labourers. Skilled labour resource endowment and climate. For
is required in the textile industry for example, there are countries producing
designing, spinning, cotton weaving, cars (Japan) while others produce textile
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bleaching, dyeing and printing of cotton materials (Tanzania). This distribution
fabrics. These workers are specialised in of manufactures justifies the need for
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one section. Unskilled labour is equally trading of the products among nations,
needed to support skilled workers, for which also helps build healthy and good
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example, by clearing and providing relations.
security.
Challenges facing textile industries
The textile industry also stimulates in Tanzania: Many of the textile
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production in other sectors of industries have been operating for a long
the economy such as agriculture, time in such a way that their machines
transportation, commerce and trade. The have become out of date. With the
industry operates because raw materials advancement of technology, the old
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are readily available. In Tanzania, cotton machines in textile industries need to
is the main raw material for the textile be replaced by new ones for efficiency
industry. Farmers will continue to purposes. There is also lack of adequate
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produce cotton when they are assured skilled labour. This leads to the need to
of ready markets for their cotton. import labour from outside the country,
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resulting in increased production costs.

Another important contribution is the Lack of adequate capital and inadequate
development of transport infrastructure supply of raw materials limit the ability
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such as roads and railways. Good transport of the industries to increase productivity.
enables cotton to reach the factory
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and products to reach the market at a Poor transport and communication

minimum cost, and in time. In addition, system also hinders timely transportation
textile industries are sources of foreign of raw materials to industries and
currency. The development of the textile manufactured goods to the markets.
industry depends on the availability of High costs and unreliable power supply
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both internal and international markets. constitute other challenges because they
Since there is no country that can meet reduce profit from industrial production.
the demands of its people by only The chemicals used in textile industries
using locally produced goods, there is are also expensive. This also leads to
a need to produce more for export to reduced profit from textile industries.
get foreign currency. Textile industries

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Lessons from Japanese and South Training and development of workers:

Korean industries for Tanzania Japan and Korea have been allocating
Japan and South Korea are industrialised adequate funds for training to enhance
countries. They produce electronic workers’ productivity. This is something
equipment and cars of good quality that Tanzania should also do to improve
which are sold all over the world. the industrial sector.
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The following are some of the lessons
Tanzania can learn from Japan and South Spirit of commitment and hard work:
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Korean: The workers in Japan and South Korea
are committed to accomplishing the
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Management of industries: Various duties and responsibilities assigned
industries in Japan and South Korea to them. This practise has led to
are properly managed. For example, increased efficiency in their industrial
industries employ skilled workers with production. Therefore,workers in
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the required qualifications. Workers Tanzania’s industries should develop
use time and other industry’s resources the same spirit.
effectively. As a result, they produce
efficiently for profit. The industrial Production of high quality products:
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managers work on a set of objectives Industrial products from Japan and
and are not involved in any type of South Korea are of high quality and
corruption. The same practises should can compete with similar products from
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be adopted in Tanzania’s industries. other competitors. Therefore, Tanzania
has the duty to ensure that its industrial
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Improved transport and communication products meet international standards.

network: Well-developed transport and
communication in Japan and Korea play a Reliable source of power and energy:
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big role in the development of industries Japan and South Korea exploit different
as the transportation of raw materials sources of energy, hence making power
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tends to be easy and at low costs. Similar cheap and available all the time. They
conditions should be created to increase have hydro-electric power and nuclear
productivity in Tanzania’s industries. power which make the availability of
power very reliable. Tanzania should
Investment in research: Both Japan follow this example by exploiting
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and Korea have heavily invested in various sources of energy rather than
research and development particularly on depending only on hydro-electric power.
better, efficient and effective production
methods. This has continually improved
their production methods and made the
costs manageable. Therefore, Tanzania
needs to invest in research.

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Exercise 7.2
5. Mention any five factors contributing
to the development of electronic
equipment industries in South Korea.
1. Mention the regions in Tanzania
6. List major electronic equipment
where textile industries are located.
produced in South Korea.
2. Explain the following terms:
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7. Mention two major industrial areas
(a) Fabrication industries in South Korea.
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(b) Processing industries 8. Explain any five factors
(c) Manufacturing industries contributing to the development of
(d) Industrial pollution industries in Japan.
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3. Mention any five ways in which 9. List down four lessons that
textile industries are important in Tanzania can learn from Japan’s
Tanzania. and South Korea’s industries.
10. Name and explain any five
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4. Describe any four factors contributing
to the development of manufacturing problems facing textile industries
industries. in Tanzania.
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Chapter Eight
Sustainable use of power
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and energy resources
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Introduction
Power and energy are important for every aspect of human life. They may be
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generated from waves, winds, waterfalls, solar, natural gases, geothermo, oil
and coal. In this chapter, you will learn about the major sources of power, the
methods of acquiring and extracting power and energy, and the uses of power
and energy resources. You will also learn about the problems facing power and
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energy production, specifically solar and wind power production in the USA,
hydroelectric and biogas production in Tanzania. Finally, you will learn about
problems related to power and energy extraction in the USA and Tanzania.
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The concept of Power and Energy movements can be utilized to drive
Power: Power is the flow of energy machines, or generate electricity. In our
at any one time, and can be generated daily lives, power is needed to cook
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from renewable energy resources food, to drive machinery in industrial
through solar conversion (solar, thermal plants , to provide light and heat, and to
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electricity, solar heating); harnessing propel vehicles of different types.

water (hydropower for electricity, wave
and tidal generation through turbines); Energy: Energy can be defined as the
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harnessing the wind (wind pumps for capacity for, or equivalent of, doing
water, wind turbines for electricity); work. Energy is the ability to work so
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and a variety of other energy sources. as to produce motion. For example,

The main power sources are petroleum when water turns a turbine, electricity
(oil), natural gas, water, coal and nuclear. is produced. Also energy is used to drive
Other sources include the earth’s interior machines and provide heat and light.
(hot springs), wind, sun, tides, and
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waves, wood, peat and cattle or cow The society requires energy for
dung (biogas). transportation, heating and cooling
Power is found within our bodies, of buildings, powering production
machines, in plants and bodies of processes in industry, and various
animals, insects and birds. Power is also household needs. Energy can be grouped
inherently present in natural forces like into various types as explained below.
wind, tides, waves, and water whose

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Primary and secondary energy: Primary generation, drying grain, fish and fruits;
energy sources are those that are either animal power for transport, threshing,
found or stored in nature. This type of lifting water for irrigation, crushing
energy is captured directly from natural sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water
resources. Common primary energy and generation of electricity.
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and
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biomass (such as wood). Other primary Renewable and non-renewable energy:
energy sources include available nuclear Renewable energy is energy generated
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energy from radioactive substances, from sources that are essentially
thermal energy stored in the earth’s inexhaustible. Examples of renewable
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interior, and potential energy due to energy sources include wind power, solar
earth’s gravity. The primary energy power, geothermal energy, tidal power,
sources are converted into secondary and hydroelectric power. Non-renewable
energy sources; for example coal, oil energy includes conventional fossil fuels
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or gas are converted into steam and such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely
electricity. Also, heat is a primary energy, to get depleted with use.
which can be transformed into secondary
geothermal or solar electricity. Conventional and non-conventional
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energy: Conventional energy is an
Commercial and non-commercial energy source which is fixed in nature
energy: Energy sources are regarded like oil, gas, and coal, and hydropower
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as commercial if they are available generation. It is also termed as non-
in the market for a definite price. renewable energy or thermal energy. The
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The most common examples of these conventional energy resources are being
energy sources are electricity, coal, used extensively; as a result, their known
and refined petroleum products. These reserves have been depleted to a great
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sources are the basis for industrial, extent. The use of conventional energy
agricultural, transport and commercial has emerging effects on the environment.
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development in the contemporary

The non-conventional energy involves
world. Likewise, they are predominant
energy generated by wind, tides, solar
sources of household energy especially
and biomass. These are renewable
in developed countries. Likewise, the
sources of energy and not exhaustible.
non-commercial energy sources are
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not available in the commercial market

for a price. They include fuels such as Major sources of power and energy
firewood, cattle dung, and agricultural The primary source of energy is the Sun.
waste used by households. These are Other sources of power and energy are
traditionally gathered and not bought fuelwood, water, coal, natural gas, oil, hot
at any price especially in rural areas. springs, wind, biomass and tidal waves.
Examples include firewood, agro-waste, The sources of energy are categorised as
solar energy for water heating, electricity renewable and non-renewable.
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Renewable energy sources: Renewable Wind energy:Wind energy refers to the

energy is any energy source that is energy that is generated from wind. Wind
naturally replaced. The energy can mills have been used for hundreds of
be derived from sunlight, tides, wind, years to pump water from the ground.
water, geothemal, or hydroelectric Currently, wind turbines are used to
action. Likewise, energy produced from generate electricity. Wind is the second
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the refining of various forms of biomass most frequently applied energy source in
is often classified as renewable. The the world with a total installed capacity
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renewable energy sources are usually of 539.123 Gigawatt (GW) in 2017.
regarded as enviromentally friendly, Before harnessing wind energy, research
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because they release few chemicals that on variables such as speed, direction
can harm the environment. These are and persistency is necessary. Thereafter,
energy resources that are naturally re- wind turbines have to be set. A wind
used. Renewable sources are sustainable turbine operates on the following simple
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if they are carefully managed and principles:
maintained. They have minimal (i) The power from the wind turns
negative effects on the environment. the windmill that has two or three
Renewable energy sources include propeller-like blades around a rotor.
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sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides,
water and various forms of biomass. (ii) The motor is connected to a main
Some of these energy sources are shaft that spins a generator to
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described in the following sub-sections. generate energy. Figure 8.1 shows
a windmill farm.
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Biogas energy: Biogas is a mixture

of gases produced by decomposition In Tanzania the utilisation of wind
of organic matter such as waste from energy is encouraged by factors such
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manure, plant materials, sewage, as the increase in the costs of oil along
green waste, or food waste. The main frequent hydro power cuts, and increased
demand of power which is influenced by
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components of biogas are methane and

carbon dioxide. Biogas may be used to high population growth. Tanzania has
reduce high cost associated with other areas of high wind potential that cover
sources of energy and reduce over- more than 10% of its land.
dependence on fuelwood as the only
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source of energy. Biogas is less costly Research works indicate that Tanzania
than other sources of energy and does has a lot of wind enegy resources in the
not require specialised knowledge to areas of Great Lakes, the plains, and
operate. the highland plateua regions of the Rift
Valley. Also areas such as Makambako
(Njombe) and Kititimo (Singida) have
sufficient wind speed for grid scale
electricity generation.
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The advantage of using wind energy is that convert sunrays into electric currents.
that it does not pollute the environment. This method is commonly used in many
Also, it occupies a small ground space. places for lighting homes and traffic
The limitation of using wind energy is roads as well as street lights.
that wind turbines can disturb, or kill The PV cells are combined to form
flying creatures like birds. solar panels (Figure 8.2). The panels
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usually differ in size depending on the
purpose of their installation. The series
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of combined PV cells are usually placed
on roofs of houses or on top of traffic
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lights to form the panels, which capture
solar energy. For adequate energy to be
obtained, solar panels should face the
sun so that more sunrays are converted
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into electrical energy.
China, Germany, Italy, the USA,

and Japan possess the biggest solar
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photovoltanic (PV) technology capacity
in the world.
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In Tanzania, solar energy is used
as a source of power by 24.7% of
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the households that have access to

electricity. High potentials of solar
Figure 8.1 Windmill farm energy resources are found in the central
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Source: https://www.desertsun.com/story/tech/science/energy parts of the country.

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Solar energy: Solar energy is generated Currently, solar energy is used in

from the Sun using collector panels. The different parts of Tanzania. Solar
collected energy can be used to provide thermal is used for heating and drying;
heat, light, or other forms of electricity. It and photovoltaic is used for lighting,
is used in Tanzania though in small-scale. water pumps, refrigeration purposes
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The distribution of solar energy depends and telecommunication. Solar energy is

on the overhead sun of a particular place. used mostly in rural areas by about 64%
It is harnessed by using two methods: of its people compared to urban areas
(i) through plates which are used to collect with only 3.4%. The regions of Lindi,
and reflect heat to power generators; Njombe, Mtwara, Katavi, and Ruvuma
(ii) by using Photovoltaic Cells (PV) lead in the use of solar power electricity
composed of semi-conducting materials in Tanzania. The advantages of using

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solar energy is that it is friendly to the

environment. However, the technology
for utilising and harnessing solar energy
is expensive.
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Figure 8.3 Geothermal Plant
Source: Free photoon.pixabay.com
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Hydro-electric power energy: Hydro-
electric power is created by the force of
Figure 8.2 Solar panels
flowing water from mountains or high
Source: shuttersstock.com
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landform streams. Thus hydro-electric
power is a result of water in motion.
Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy
Moving water possesses energy which
refers to the heat energy generated and
can be converted into electric energy if
stored in the earth. Tapping this energy
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the following conditions are met:
involves pumping cold water into hot
(i) There should be a constant supply
rock boreholes and extracting the steam
of water. This is possible if the
through another borehole. Due to the
sources of water are areas where
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force by which the hot water comes
there is heavy rainfall, natural lake
out, it has the ability to drive turbines to
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or melting water from mountain

generate electricity. Geothermal power
glaciers. It is also possible where
production is mostly found in volcanic
there is a reservoir that could be a
areas. Geothermal evidence in Tanzania
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lake or dam to store the water needed.

is found in Mara, Manyara, Mbeya and
Rukwa. In these areas, water naturally
(ii) There must be a ready market for
flows out as hot fountains. Geothermal
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the power generated. The aim is to

evidence is also found in Kenya, South-
minimise the cost of transmitting
Eastern Nigeria, Madagascar, USA, New
electricity.
Zealand and Iceland. Figure 8.3 shows a
geothermal plant generating electricity.
(iii) The ground has to be steep to allow
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Geothermal energy can be used for

fast flow of water. For example,
domestic purposes or on large-scale by
a waterfall that can drive hydro
industries. It was used during earliest
turbines.
times for bathing and space heating. The
biggest disadvantage with geothermal
A dam can be constructed across a river
energy is that it can only be produced
or along the coastal strip where tidal
at selected sites.
waves are common. The power house is
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constructed adjacent to the dam. Then, HEP is primarily advantageous because

water at very high speed (from streams, it does not discharge pollutants into the
glaciers, natural water falls or man-made environment. In addition, if people
dams) is directed to the turbine chamber. turn to using hydroelectric power,
deforestation caused by use of fuelwood
As the turbine rotates, the generator or may be reduced. The problems faced
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dynamo also rotates to produce electric with hydropower have to do with
power. The power generated is then the aging of the dams. It is costly to
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transmitted to the transformer where it maintain them for their functionality and
is transmitted for industrial and domestic safety. Globally, China has the biggest
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uses, as shown in Figure 8.4. hydroelectric generation capacity in
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Figure 8.4 Hydro-electric power/energy
Figure 8.4 A model of a hydro-electric power plant

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the world, followed by Brazil, Canada, utilisation. The raw materials available
and Russia. Currently, hydropower such as municipal solid waste, forest
constitutes over 45% of the total power residues, sugar bagasse, rice husk, sisal,
generated in Tanzania. and coffee can be used to generate power.
Fuelwood: Wood energy is energy Non-renewable energy sources: These
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generated from wood extracted products refer to sources of energy that cannot
through combustion processes. The be re-used. They are non-renewable
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energy is used for cooking, heating, because their formation takes a long
and generation for electricity. Likewise, time, usually millions of years. Fossil
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the term “wood energy” is used to fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
refer to wood and materials developed are non-renewable sources of energy.
from wood used for energy purposes They originate from remains of plants
(“woodfuel”). Woodfuel can be in solid, and animals which have decomposed
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liquid or gaseous form. Examples of for a long time under high pressure and
solid woodfuel include firewood, heat. These energy sources are described
charcoal, and wood pellets produced in the following sub-sections.
from wood or wood residues. Liquid
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woodfuel include Bio–oil, Bioethano and Nuclear energy: Nuclear energy is
gaseous woodfuel including wood gas. derived from atoms by altering or
breaking their structure. Alteration of the
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Fuelwood comprises unprocessed structure of the atom leads to a release
wood biomass harvested from stems, of energy in the form of heat. Released
in
branches or other parts of trees. energy is used to generate electricity. An

Likewise, sometimes it is generated important raw material for this process
from wood residues such as sawdust is uranium. Although nuclear energy
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and wood shavings generated from itself is a renewable energy source, the
timber harvesting, or wood processing material used in nuclear plants is not
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industries. Globally, roughly 2500 renewable. Nuclear power is mostly

million people rely on wood fuel for generated in USA, France, Russia,
heating and cooking. In USA, the China, India, Canada, Israel and UK.
community uses about 85% of all the Nuclear power plants do not produce or
wood collected from forests as fuel or emit greenhouse gases. They can be built
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charcol for heating and cooking. in both rural and urban areas, and do not
destroy the surrounding environment.
In Tanzania, biomass/bio-power (wood) However, nuclear energy is difficult to
is the largest energy source. More than harvest and nuclear plants are very
1 million people engage in charcol complicated to build and run. Likewise,
production and supply. Currently, in many communities there is limited
there is an upsurge in modern biomass capacity to develop a safe and reliable

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nuclear energy programme. Nuclear Petroleum: Petroleum is organic in origin.

energy also produces radioactive It occurs in the pore spaces between
materials, which increase health risks sedimentary rocks. Once a drilling site
in the communities where the plants is decided upon, a steel derrick about
are located. 30 metres or more depending on the
location of the petroleum bearing rock
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Coal energy: Coal occurs in sedimentary is fixed upright and the equipment for
rocks in layers or seams of varying drilling is used. Steel tubes are inserted
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thickness. It is available in different into the boreholes. Once the drill reaches
countries such as Tanzania, China, USA the oil bearing rock layer, oil flows out
and South Africa. If the coal seams are through the boreholes and keeps flowing
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near the earth’s surface, coal is extracted as shown in Figure 8.5. The oil is then
through strip mining. Under this method, transported through pipelines to the
coal is exposed via an open-pit into coal refinery.
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deposits. If coal is found in a mountain
peak, extraction involves the removal Natural gas energy: Natural gas is often
of the highest part of that mountain to found together with petroleum. It is found
recover the coal. Burned coal produces concentrated in the uppermost part of the
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heat energy, which is used for purposes trap. Sometimes, natural gas occurrence
such as domestic heating, smelting of is independent of petroleum. Natural
iron and steel, boiling of water and steam gas is mainly composed of hydrogen,
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production. carbons and methane. Other ingredients
of natural gas include butane, propane,
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Figure 8.5 A derrick at an oil well

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ethane, helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide Raw materials: Some sources of energy
and hydrogen sulphide. Natural gas is are raw materials of some industries.
extracted by drilling a borehole in the For example, oil is a raw material for
ground before inserting steel tubes into petrochemical and refinery industries
the borehole. Once the drill has reached in the making of plastics, medicines,
the gas-bearing rock layer, gas flows out clothes and ropes.
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through the borehole and keeps flowing
through special pipes up to the power Transport enhancement: Energy
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generating plant where the refining plays an important role in improving
takes place. Figure 8.6 is an example the transport sector because vehicles,
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of a natural gas plant. locomotives, aircraft and vessels use
petrol or diesel.
Economic development: Energy is
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a source of foreign currency. Some
countries export electricity to other
countries. Other sources such as oil, coal
and natural gas are exported to other
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countries and earn foreign currency,
which is used to develop other sectors
such as agriculture, education and health.
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Also the generated electricity can be
sold to other countries and earn foreign
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Figure 8.6 Natural gas plant at Kinyerezi 1, currency.

Dar es Salaam
Tourist attraction: Places with energy
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Source: http://csi.energy/project/kinyerezi-1-power-plant-
150-mw/ installations tend to attract tourists, for
example, geothermal, HEP stations, and
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Importance of power and energy windmill plants.

The following section explains why
power and energy are important to Fishing and irrigation areas: The
human life. dams constructed to produce HEP
become useful in fishing and irrigation.
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Running machines: Power and energy For example, Mtera Dam has become
are used to run machines in industries a source of fish for commercial and
and provide light at homes, schools, domestic use.
hospitals and other institutions. In the
agricultural sector, energy is used to run Employment: Power and energy
farm machinery and equipment such as generation employs so many people who
tractors and combine harvesters. work in the power plants.

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Challenges facing power and energy Dam siltation: Siltation of dams

production constructed for HEP reduces the capacity
Power and energy production is facing of reservoirs. This affects the generation
many challenges. Some of these are of hydro-electric power, and sometimes
described below. causes flooding.
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Drought: Prolonged droughts decrease Disposal of nuclear waste: Nuclear
the volume of water, which in turn waste is highly radioactive. It needs
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reduces the ability of hydro-electric to be safely disposed off or stored for
power plants to produce electricity. many years. But the process is extremely
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expensive.
Inadequate capital: The construction
of dams and hydro-electric power Environmental disaster: Nuclear power
stations requires heavy capital generation if not well-handled can be
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outlays. Capital is also essential in the disastrous due to leakage at nuclear
production and transportation of natural plants. For example, Fukushima in
gas. Unfortunately, many developing Japan in 2011 and Chernobyl in Russia
countries lack capital to harness fossil in 1986 had nuclear leakage, which
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fuel and hydropower potentials. led to environmental disaster including
air and land pollution, and loss of
Transport and communication networks: biodiversity.
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These are inadequate in many developing
countries, which hinders the extraction Forest degradation and loss:
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or transmission of energy and power. Establishment of hydro-electric power

stations leads to clearance of vegetation
Poor technology and lack of skilled or submerges large tracts of land
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personnel: Some energy and power which destroys wild life habitats and,
production systems such as nuclear, tidal sometimes, reduces land for agriculture.
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and geothermal energy require advanced

technology, which is lacking in most Price fluctuation: Fluctuations of
developing countries. prices of fossil fuel affect production.
Sometimes, oil producing countries
Environmental pollution: Energy have to reduce oil production to control
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and power production may lead to the price in the world market. This
environmental pollution. This happens calculated reduction affects economies
when fossil fuel produces pollutants, of supplying and buying countries.
including greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen Addressing the challenges of energy
oxide due to burning. This contributes to and power production: Different
water and air pollution, global warming, measures can be taken to address power
and climate change.
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and energy production challenges, they Technology: Environmentally friendly

include the following: technologies for power and energy
production should be developed.
Desilting of dams: Regular removal
of silt (desilting) from the dams is
recommended to maintain the necessary Activity
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depth for power generation. If desilting
is ignored, the decreased depth of dams Visit a nearby HEP station and
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may affect the production of HEP since study the processes involved in the
the storage capacity of the dam is production of power and then:
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severely reduced. (i) Identify and list the favourable
conditions that determine the
Alternative energy sources: Alternative location of the HEP station.
sources of energy such as solar energy (ii) In groups of five, discuss and
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should be used to reduce the effect of list the challenges that face HEP
pollution caused by the use of fossil production in that HEP station.
fuels and fuelwood.
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Environmental conservation projects:
The establishment of power and energy
production projects should go hand in Focal study
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hand with environmental conservation
projects such as afforestation, Hydro-electric power and biogas
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reforestation and proper waste in Tanzania: Hydro-electric power,

management. as discussed earlier, is produced by
utilising the power of fast moving water
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Community awareness creation: such as a waterfall. HEP is one of the

Environmental conservation education main sources of power in Tanzania. In
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should be provided to the people. Such Tanzania, electricity generation depends

education will encourage community heavily on HEP. However, this type of
members to report and take permanent or energy cannot be relied upon in times
temporary measures in the utilisation of of drought. The government through
power and energy to avoid endangering the Tanzania Electric Supply Company
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the environment. (TANESCO), a parastatal organisation,

manages the HEP across the country.
Research on power and energy: There The company produces hydro-electricity
is a need for governments to invest from natural waterfalls or man-made
comprehensively in research on power dams and supplies it to the users in the
and energy resources to identify different country.
sources of power and efficient use of the The main hydro-electric power stations
existing energy resources. are Mtera and Kidatu on Ruaha River,
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Kihansi on Kihansi River, Nyumba ya dung. Mwanza, Tabora, Shinyanga,

Mungu and Hale on Pangani River. Mara, Rukwa, Iringa, Mbeya, Tanga,
Biogas is a renewable source of energy Kagera, Morogoro and Singida are
generated from the decay of plants cattle rearing regions and, hence, have
and animal waste. The gases include high potential for producing biogas.
methane and ethane. Biogas requires Yet, biogas in Tanzania is not well
high initial capital in construction of developed.
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a biogas plant. The major components
include trench silo for storage of solid In most cases, individuals and groups
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raw material; digester (decomposer) carry out biogas projects at a local
reservoir for completing biogas level, for example, the Hamasa biogas
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production; liquid manure tank for project in Marimba and Majabimu in
keeping fresh liquid manure; solid Muheza. There are also few national
manure tank for keeping and adding programmes dealing with biogas, for
solid manure; pipes for distribution of example, the Tanzania Domestic Biogas
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biogas; and power station for provision Programme. It is estimated that Tanzania
of power (Figure 8.7). Notably, has 4,633 verified biogas plants and
production of biogas is possible in 9,990 unverified plants. Overall, the
cattle rearing regions because the major
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raw material for the production is cow institutional plants.
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Underground
digester tank
Figure 8.7 Biogas power plant

Source: Acrosystech.com

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Importance of HEP and biogas energy Improvement of standards of

resources in Tanzania living: The availability of biogas and
Tanzania’s major electrical energy is hydro-electric power in rural areas has
obtained primarily from HEP followed improved people’s standards of living.
by natural gas. These energy sources are With power, people have managed to
important to the economy of the country. start small projects such as welding,
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HEP and biogas energy are important in carpentry, and milling. Such projects
many ways. have become sources of income for
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the people and have improved their
Use at the local level: Production of standards of living.
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biogas requires simple technology, which
can be handled by any interested person. Reduction of health risks: It is medically
Based on technological simplicity, biogas proven that soot breathed from household
is prominent at local levels in Tanzania. air pollution causes respiratory diseases
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among children. Thus, by using HEP and
Waste management: Use of biogas biogas, such kind of respiratory diseases
enhances management of wastes mainly are reduced or eradicated.
animal dung. All animal dung around
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people’s homes is collected and ferried Establishment and growth of industries:
to the processing area to produce power. The availability of energy, especially
People with many livestock find biogas HEP promotes the establishment and
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production as an effective way of keeping growth of industries that, in turn, creates
their areas clean. employment opportunities.
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Reduced over-dependence on Employment opportunities: HEP

fuelwood: The use of biogas reduces and biogas energy resources create
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over-dependence on fuelwood as a employment opportunities especially

source of energy. In areas where biogas during production, transmission and
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is used, people have reduced the use of distribution of electricity from HEP
fuelwood for heating and cooking. This stations.
may in turn reduce deforestation and
emission of greenhouse gases. Challenges to harnessing power and
energy in Tanzania: Power and energy
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Major source of electricity: HEP is harnessing in Tanzania faces various

a major source of electricity, which challenges ranging from naturally
is widely used in Tanzania. As the occurring to human-made ones. The
government centrally manages HEP following are some of the challenges
by 98 percent, all the regions access facing power and energy harnessing in
it through TANESCO, a public utility Tanzania.
company, and puts it into various uses,
lighting being the main use.
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Fluctuation of river volume: In the residents over the construction of natural

dry season, rain may be scarce or gas pipeline.
completely absent which reduces water
in dams and, consequently, lowers High initial investment costs: High costs
the generation of HEP. Tanzania has of transmission of power from its source
been experiencing periods of power- has affected the government’s efforts
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cut particularly during the dry season in transmitting power to different parts
because of over-dependence on HEP. of the country. A large percentage of
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Tanzania is not electrified. By year 2012
Inadequate capital for exploration: statistics indicated that only 14 percent
of the country was electrified, of which
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Exploration of sources of power and their
harnessing is supposed to be a continuous 12 percent was urban and two percent
activity. However, exploration demands was rural. Access to electricity was only
large injection of capital, which is 18.4 percent in the same period.
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not readily available particularly in
developing countries. Inadequate funds Water-borne diseases: Construction of
for the exploration of power sources and reservoirs and dams may lead to
their harnessing has been a recurrent the occurrence of water-borne and
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problem in Tanzania. There is generally waterrelated diseases such as cholera,
little or no establishment of new sources typhoid and bilharzia. For example,
of energy. As a result, there has been statistics indicate that about 15 million
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over-dependence on the same sources people in sub-Saharan Africa live within
of power and energy, mainly HEP and five kilometres of large dams and more
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natural gas. than 1.1 million cases of malaria annually

are associated with these dams.
Human activities: Human activities such
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as construction and cultivation expose Addressing challenges to power and

soil to running water. This water carries energy harnessing in Tanzania: Despite
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silt which is deposited in the dam causing the challenges to harnessing power and
siltation. Siltation usually reduces the energy, the following are some of the
capacity of dams to store water, which solutions to the challenges facing power
in turn affects production of HEP. and energy harnessing in Tanzania.
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Conflicts and sabotage: Construction of Alternative sources of power: Alternative

dams, roads and pipelines can lead to the sources of power to support the existing
displacement of people. When people are sources should be explored to meet the
displaced without being compensated increasing power demand in Tanzania.
for their houses and farms, conflicts and By 2013, the annual power demand
sabotage may arise. An example of such increase was between 10 percent and
scenario is the 2013 protest by Mtwara 15 percent. The demand for power and

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energy is expected to increase because based forest governance. When forests

of the new industries that are to be are protected there would be less erosion
constructed. and, hence, less siltation.
Funds allocation for exploration: The Solar and wind energy harnessing in
government is required to allocate USA
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adequate funds for exploring other USA is one of the leading countries
sources of power. Tanzania is endowed in the world harnessing energy from
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with many power and energy sources, the Sun. Before 2008, much of the
which have not been yet harnessed due electricity was generated from other
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to lack of capital. sources such as fossil fuel and HEP. By
2018, solar power accounted for 1.44
Training of skilled personnel: More percent of the total USA electricity,
young Tanzanians should be trained generating about 58.9 terawatt-hours
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on HEP and biogas exploration and (TWH).
production.
USA needs energy that is secure, reliable,
Improvement of infrastructure: In protective of the environment, and able
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making energy more accessible to all, to address climate change, create jobs
infrastructure should be improved. and improve public health. USA reduced
Inland roads in remote areas should be the use of fossil fuel as a source of
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rehabilitated to easen transportation of energy because it is expensive and not
poles for the supply of electricity. Pipeline renewable. The American Government
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networks for natural gas distribution reduces the cost of solar power and
should also be built in various parts of increases the cost of fossil fuel to
the country for electricity generation. encourage use of the former. USA, as
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a highly developed country in terms of

Community awareness creation: The technology and economy, has a very
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society should be educated on the need high demand for power and energy for
to conserve the environment by using industrial and domestic use.
environmentally-friendly sources of
power. Solar energy is harnessed on a large-
scale in the states of California, Nevada,
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Environmental conservation campaign: Arizona, North Carolina, New Jersey

Various campaigns towards environmental and Massachusetts. These areas are
conservation have been launched in more conducive for harnessing solar
Tanzania. Examples include the Mama power because of the sunny climate,
Misitu campaign which was launched in clear skies and plenty of land. The
Tanzania. This five-year (2011 - 2016) electricity generated is integrated into
campaign aimed to improve community the US National Grid.

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Wind energy is also used more in USA feasible sources of alternative energy
compared to solar energy. The country for industrial development. The energy
has a big potential of onshore and generated is considered cheaper than
offshore winds. Wind energy is used in other available sources of energy such
running large farms and industries. The as fossil energy, HEP, natural gas and
leading wind energy producing centers nuclear energy.
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are California, Oklahoma, Illinois and
Kansas. Wind power generation and Expansion of agriculture: Large-scale
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use in USA is expanding quickly. It agriculture has been made possible by
experiences an annual growth of 25.6 the availability of electricity from this
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percent. For example, in 2017, wind source. The power is used in irrigation
power generated 6.3 percent of electricity and processing of agricultural products.
in the USA.
Affordability: Solar and wind energy are
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Importance of solar and wind relatively cheaper for many people in
energy in USA: USA finds it more USA especially those who are unable to
economical to use solar and wind energy use other sources of electricity because
than other sources of energy as they have it is subsidised by the government. This
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minimal environmental effects. Solar and has improved their living standards.
wind energy in USA is important in so
many ways. Challenges facing solar and wind
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energy in USA: Although USA has
Environmentally-friendly: The a large and strong economy, it faces
in
production of solar and wind energy challenges related to the wind and solar
involves activities which produce less energy sector. The following are some
waste in the environment compared of the challenges.
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to other sources of energy. These

energies, therefore, are considered to be Solar panel efficiency: Most solar power
environmentally-friendly. For example, panels are 10 – 20 percent efficient, as
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their production reduces the emission they are stationary and cannot move to
of carbon-dioxide and other pollutants. capture the sun’s rays. That being the
case, a large percentage of the energy
Creation of employment opportunities: from the sun remains largely untapped,
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Installation and management of solar although the cost of solar power has
panels and wind mills require many decreased.
employees. This industry generates jobs
for thousands of people. Reliability: Solar and wind energy are
not reliable sources of energy because
Industrial development: In USA, solar sunrays and wind happen naturally and
and wind energy have been found to be human beings can hardly control their

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occurrence. The extent of solar and wind Addressing challenges facing solar and
energy production will largely depend wind energy in USA: The challenges
on the intensity of wind and sunrays and facing solar and wind energy production
the technology available to tap them. may hinder the expected harnessing of
this potential energy if deliberate efforts
Cost of installation: The initial are not made to address them.
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installation cost of solar infrastructures
sis high. US government subsidises solar Installation of wind turbines and solar
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installation. This enables many people panels: Solar and wind energy depends
interested in this energy to afford the very much on the number and quality
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cost. of wind turbines and solar panels. The
higher the quality of gadgets available,
Transmission costs: Although a certain the more the amount of energy produced.
amount of wind may be available It is, therefore, advisable to install
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everywhere, not all wind speeds are enough wind turbines and solar panels
favourable to produce wind energy. over a wide area to increase the amount
There are specific sites with the potential of energy harnessed.
for wind energy production. These sites
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are often located in remote locations far Research: Research on solar and wind
from cities, hence making transmission energy is likely to find some solutions to
of energy for use expensive. many challenges facing the production of
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energy from wind and the sun. Research
Land use: Harnessing wind power tends may involve studying the behaviour of
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to compete with alternative uses of land. wind and new technologies for tapping
For example, a place with strong winds, solar energy day and night.
which may be considered to have the
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potential for harnessing wind energy Information dissemination: Information

may also be important for industrial dissemination to the public and
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development. Both are important uses companies on the possibilities of

of the land, hence deciding on the best combining multiple energy sources to
use of the site might not be easy. enhance efficiency should be undertaken.
Noise and aesthetic pollution: Wind

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power plants may produce unwanted

noise from turbine blades. They may
also disturb the visual aspect of the
landscape. However, compared to other
conventional power plants, they have
relatively less negative impact on the
environment.

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Exercise 8
A. Answer the following questions: B. Write True or False for each of the
1. In four points, explain the following statements:
advantages of using natural gas. 1. The generation and distribution
2. Briefly, explain four uses of of electric power in Tanzania is
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power and energy from different done by the Tanzania Petroleum
sources. Development Corporation
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3. With examples, distinguish between (TPDC).
renewable and non-renewable 2. Kidatu and Kihansi are the only
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sources of power. hydro-electric power stations in
4. State five challenges facing solar Tanzania.
and wind energy production in 3. Fossil fuel is more expensive to
USA. harness than biogas.
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5. List the advantages that Tanzania 4. The use of solar energy in
can get by using solar energy. Tanzania may help to address the
6. Explain why wind is a renewable problem of deforestation.
energy source. 5. The major source of power and
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7. List and locate on a map major energy in the USA is the Sun.
6. Human activities around rivers
hydro-electric power stations in
Tanzania. affect HEP production through
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siltation.
8. Describe how biogas energy is
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produced.
9. Mention the challenges facing
power and energy harnessing in
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Tanzania.
10. Explain how challenges facing
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power and energy production in

Tanzania can be addressed.
11. Explain why electricity is
preferable to the use of fuelwood.
12. Describe the lessons Tanzania can
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draw from solar energy production

in USA.

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Chapter Nine
Transport
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Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about types of transport systems used in different
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parts of the world, including East Africa, the importance of transport in Tanzania
and East Africa; and the problems facing transportation in East Africa. You
will also learn about measures to address the problems facing transportation in
Tanzania.
The concept of transport

Transport refers to the physical movement
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transport
of people, goods and services from one

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place to another. It is an important link
between different parts of the world.
Transport is one of the key sectors that
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play a crucial role in efforts aimed to
Land Water Air
achieve sustainable economic growth.
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transport transport transport

The transport system ensures a balanced
distribution of goods and services in Figure 9.1 Types of transport
different parts of the world. Transport
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is an important sector that enhances the Land transport: Land transport involves
socio-economic development of the the movement of people, goods and
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world. For the transport sector to play services from one location to another,
its important role, it has to be developed on land. It is the most commonly used
and co-ordinated with the ultimate aim of mode of transportation in the world.
bringing about a reliable, efficient, safe Land transport may further be divided
and environmentally-sound system of into road transport, rail transport, cable
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moving passengers and goods. transport and pipeline transport. The

description of each mode of transport
Main types of transport is provided in the sections that follow.
Transport is categorised into land, air and
water systems as illustrated in Figure 9.1: Road transport: Road transport is a
means of transport that connects one
place to another on the surface of the
earth. It is the most common means
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of transport used all over the world.

Transport on roads can be grouped
into the transport of goods and people.
Movement along roads may be done
by bike or automobile, truck, or by
animals such as horses, donkeys or
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oxen. Cargo may be transported by
trucking companies, while passengers
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may be transported via mass transit. Figure 9.2 Transportation by trucks
Road transport is the most frequently Source: ajot.com
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used mode of transport in the world.
It involves the use of various types
of animals, vehicles, motorcycles and
bicycles. Roads play a great role in
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socio-economic development. In most
cases, the delivery of goods between
cities, towns and villages is facilitated
by road transport. The advantage of road
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transport over other modes of transport is Figure 9.3 Transportation by animals
that it even operates where other means Source: spana.org
of transport are not available.
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Animal transport involves carts drawn

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by donkeys, camels, horses and oxen.

This type of transport is common
especially in places where other means
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of transport are not available. Animal \

transport is mostly used in mountainous
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regions and deserts to carry crops, straw, Figure 9.4 Transportation by a donkey driven
fodder and people. Luggage is packed cart
into carts pulled by horses, donkeys and
bullocks. For camels, goods are fastened Rail transport: Railway transport is
to the animal. Transport of goods by road the second most important mode of
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depends on the degree of development of transport after road transport. Rail

the local infrastructure, distance, type of transport involves the movement of
goods, weight and volume of the shipment. goods and passengers on rail lines by
Figure 9.2 shows trucks that exemplify trains. It is an important land transport
motor-driven transport, Figure 9.3 shows mode and the most appropriate means
a donkey with luggage strapped onto its of transportation for bulky goods over
back and Figure 9.4 shows a man riding long distances. Railway transport
a cart pulled by a donkey. carries many people and goods at
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once compared to other means of Pipeline transport: Pipeline transport

land transport. Trains are of two main refers to the carrying of liquid and
categories: passenger trains and cargo gaseous products such as petroleum,
train. natural gas, water and milk over long
distances. For example, water supply
Passenger trains carry both people and to residential and commercial areas is
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a limited quantity of goods, cargo trains distributed through a system of pipes.
are exclusively used for carrying goods Pipeline transport is the most convenient
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or cargo from one place to another. and economical means of land transport
Figure 9.5 shows a passenger train. especially for petroleum and natural gas,
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compared to road and rail transport.
A good example of pipeline transport

in Tanzania is the Tanzania-Zambia
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Mafuta (TAZAMA) pipeline that runs
from the port of Dar es Salaam to Ndola
in Zambia. Another pipeline transports
natural gas from Mnazi Bay in Mtwara
Figure 9.5 TAZARA passenger train
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Source: www.zambianpolitics.com to Kinyerezi in Dar es Salaam. Also,
Tanzania and Uganda are currently
In East Africa, there are several railway constructing a trans-border pipeline
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lines. These include the Tanzania- known as the East African Crude Oil
Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA) Pipeline that will run from Hoima in
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covering 1,067 km, connecting Dar es Uganda to Tanga in Tanzania covering

Salaam to Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia; 1,444 km. In Kenya, there is a Kenya-
Tanzania Railway Corporation (TRC) Uganda- Rwanda petroleum products
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covering 2,600 km from Dar es Salaam pipeline from Mombasa to Nairobi

to Kigoma and Mwanza; and the Kenya- and Eldoret. The plan is to extend it
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Uganda line that runs from Mombasa to to Kampala in Uganda and Kigali in
Kasese in Uganda covering 1,507.23 km. Rwanda. Figure 9.6 shows a TAZAMA
Also, there is a standard gauge railway oil pumping station in Tanzania.
under construction in Tanzania which
will run from Dar es Salaam-Morogoro
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(300 km), Morogoro-Dodoma (426 km),

Dodoma-Isaka (435 km), Isaka-Mwanza
(220 km) to Isaka-Rusumo (371 km).
Another railway line under construction
is from Mombasa in Kenya to Kigali in
Rwanda about 1500 kilometers long.
Figure 9.6 TAZAMA oil pumping station
Source: tazama.co.zom-pumping station

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Other types of land transport include Air transport: Air transport is a means
the use of cables and conveyor belts. of transport that carries passengers and
Cable transport uses cable cars and ski goods through airways. Air transport
lifts to convey passengers and goods. facilitates integration of the global
The run way is made up of cables or economy and provides ripe connectivity
ropes. This means of transport is most on a national, regional and international
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appropriate in difficult terrain especially scale. It uses different aircrafts such as
mountainous areas such as Switzerland, passenger aircraft, cargo aircrafts and
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Poland, Austria and South Africa. Figure helicopters. Air transport is the fastest
9.7 shows cable transport. means of transport in the world, that
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covers long distances within a short
time. It is the most appropriate means
of transportation for perishable goods.
However, it is also one of the most
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expensive means of transport. Some of
the international airports in East Africa
Figure 9.7 Cable transport in Cape Town, South include the Julius Nyerere International
Africa Airport and Kenyatta International
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Source: https://img.theculturetrip.com
Airport in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi,
A conveyor-belt is a continuous moving respectively.
strip of rubber or metal mostly used in Air transport is categorised into domestic
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industries, airports, harbours and in and international. Domestic air transport
mines to move objects along. It can is mainly for movement within the same
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also be called a flexible endless strip of country whereas an international air

fabric or linked plates driven by rollers transport is used for carrying goods and
passengers between countries. Figure 9.9
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to transport goods. The conveyor-belt

facilitates the transportation of materials shows an air Tanzania plane.
and goods over short distances. Figure
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9.8 shows a conveyor-belt transporting

coal in a mining industry.
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Figure 9.9 An Air Tanzania passenger plane

Source: airtanzania.com
Figure 9.8 A conveyor-belt transporting coal

Source: http://www.iconsteel.net/pages/online/applications
coal.coke.fuel
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Water transport: Water transport refers a number of navigable sections, for

to the movement of goods and passengers example, the Congo River.
on waterways through various means
such as boats, steamers, dhows and ships. Short, shallow or too swift rivers
This type of transport takes place on waters: Many rivers are too short,
dams, canals, rivers, lakes, seas and too shallow or too swift to be useful
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oceans. It is usually the cheapest of for navigation. The narrowness of
all modes of transport. This mode of the country or the size of the islands
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transport is appropriate for bulky goods. makes rivers of little navigation value;
There are two forms of water transport: for example, rivers of Japan, Korea;
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inland and ocean water ways. Indonesia, the Philippines and New
Zealand, have limited navigation
Inland transport is facilitated by ships value.
via inland waterways such as canals,
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rivers and lakes between inland ports. Canals: A canal is a long narrow
stretch of water artificially made to
Rivers: The navigable rivers in East enable boats and ships to travel along.
Africa include Rufiji, Ruvuma, Mara Examples of canals include the Suez in
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and Ruvu in Tanzania; Tana, Sondu Egypt, the Panama and Great Lakes of
Mirio and Athi in Kenya; and the Nile North America joined by canals with
in Uganda. Other rivers include Rhone, Saint Lawrence Seaway, Amsterdam
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Elbe, Danube and Rhine in Europe; - Rhine and North Sea in Netherlands
Ganges, Indus, Hwang-Ho Yangtze and the Caledonian in England.
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Kiang and Si-Kiang in Asia; Congo, Nile,

Limpopo and Senegal in Africa; and the Lakes: A lake is a hollow or depression
Mississippi, Ohio and Tennessee in the in the Earth’s surface that contains fresh
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United States of America. Unfortunately, or salty water. Many lakes are artificial as
most of the rivers are of limited use for they have been constructed to store water
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navigation for the following reasons. for HEP generation using a dam. Other
Seasonal fluctuations: The level of lakes have been created for aesthetic,
water in many rivers varies from one recreational, industrial, agricultural and
season to another. After heavy rains, domestic purposes. Examples of lakes in
these rivers tend to flood. However, East Africa are Tanganyika, Nyasa, Kivu,
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during the dry season the water volume Edward, Albert, Rudolf and Victoria.
decreases, and some rivers almost Others are Michigan, Erie, Ontario,
disappear. Huron and Superior in North America.
Figure 9.10 shows a cargo ship carrying
Rapids or waterfalls: Many rivers have containers whereas, Figure 9.11 shows
rapids and waterfalls. These rapids and a passenger boat.
waterfalls may divide the river into

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route links North Eastern USA, and

North Western Europe, the two most
developed regions of the world. The
major ports on this route are London,
Hamburg, Liverpool, Glasgow,
Rotterdam, Southampton, Copenhagen,
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Lisbon, Stockholm and Oslo.
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Figure 9.10 A container ship The English Channel
Source: http://www.imoveintl.com/container-shipping.htm This separates England from France,
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connecting the North Sea and Atlantic
Ocean. It is today one of the busiest
shipping routes on the planet. It is
approximately 350 miles long. About
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500 ships travel via the channel daily,
hence making it a critical route in the
European shipping network.
Figure 9.11 A passenger boat
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Source: azammarine.com Strait of Malacca
This is the shortest route between the
Oceans: Major ocean shipping routes Pacific and Indian oceans. It links
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in the world ocean shipping services major Asian economies such as India,
transport more than 80 percent of all Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Japan,
in
globally traded products. Marine trade China, South Korea and Taiwan. The
contributes greatly to international trade. Strait of Malacca is the world’s second
For example, vehicles, clothes, fuel, busiest water way with more than 83,000
nl
electronic equipment such as TV sets vessels taking this route each year.
are carried from various manufacturing Goods transported through this strait
include coal, palm oil, Indonesian coffee
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industries of the world to the market

using ships. There are several shipping and liquefied natural gas. The Malacca
routes for ocean vessels to ensure a quick water ways connect the Indian Ocean
and safe delivery of the goods. Some of and the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean).
these world shiping routes are described
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below. Suez Canal

The Suez Canal is commonly known
North Atlantic route as the Highway to India. Suez Canal
This is the busiest sea route in the is a manually constructed canal which
world connecting the major ports of creates the shortest maritime route
Amsterdam, London, Rotterdam, Lisbon between the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
and Oslo. These are the popular heavily The route stretches from the Port of Sea
industrialised parts of the world. The in Egypt, through the Mediterranean
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Sea to the Port of Suez at the Red Sea, and manufactured products pass through
connecting Europe and Asia without this route.
navigating around Africa. It is one of the
world’s most heavily used shipping lanes The Panama Canal
with more than 100 vessels traversing it This is an artificial passage way designed
every day. More than 900,000 tonnes of to reduce transit time between the Pacific
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cargo travell through the canal. Major and Atlantic oceans. The Panama Canal
commodities transported are petroleum, connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
nl
coal, metals, wood, oil seeds, cement across the Isthmus of Panama. The Canal
and fertilisers. is about 80 km long. More than 14,000
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ships navigate the Panama Canal each
Saint Lawrence Seaway year, carrying vegetable oil and fats,
This is the most important shipping lane canned and refrigerated foods, chemicals
in North America which connects the and petroleum chemicals, lumber
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Atlantic Ocean with the Great Lakes. machinery parts and grains.
The Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River
form the longest deep-draft navigation The Cape of Good Hope
system in the world. It extends about This route connects Europe and Africa
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2,300 miles into North America and passing by the Cape of Good Hope and
directly serves Ontario and Quebec Cape Agulhas at the Southern edge of
(in Canada), Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Africa. It is also known as the sea route
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Indiana, Wisconsin, New York and to India. It is important to the east and
Pennsylvania (in the United States of far west as it facilitates the transportation
in
America). The Sea way is named after of tropical raw materials from Africa
Saint Lawrence River which flows from to Europe and the rest of the world and
Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. manufactured goods from Europe to
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Yearly, more than 350,000 tonnes of Africa. Figure 9.12 presents major ocean
raw materials, agricultural commodities shipping routes of the world.
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Figure 9.12 Major ocean shipping routes of the world

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Activity for people indirectly in the industries
that make various parts or machines
1. Observe the various modes of
and other transport equipment as well
transport near your residence
as those involved in construction and
and list their advantages and
maintenance.
disadvantages.
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2. Visit the nearest market of your
Enhancing the standard of living: Easy
area and ask the retailers and
nl
means of transport facilitates large-scale
wholesalers which mode of
production of goods at a low cost. It gives
transport they use to transport their
consumers opportunity to choose from
goods and why.
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a variety of goods. As such, transport
3. What modes of transport do you
helps to raise the standards of living for
use in your family for different
the people.
occassions?
se
Facilitating movement during
Importance of the transport industry
emergencies and natural calamities:
in East Africa: The transport industry
During crises, such as war or internal
is important for the socio-economic
disturbances such as earthquakes, floods
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development of East African countries.
and fire outbreaks, transport helps to
The following sections explains the
quicken the movement of troops and
importance of transport in East Africa.
relief supplies needed in the rescure
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operation.
Facilitating the availability of goods to
customers: Transport makes it possible
in
Helping labour mobility: Transport

for the easy and quick movement of
helps in providing mobility to workers.
goods from one place to another. Thus,
It facilitates movement of workers from
consumers spread in different parts of the
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one country to another country, to work

country have the benefit of consuming
in different economic sectors.
goods produced at various distant places.
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Promotion of international relations:

Making available raw materials to
Transport facilitates the movement of
manufacturers or producers: Transport
people from one country to another. It
makes it possible to carry raw materials
helps promote the exchange of cultures,
from places where they are available, to
views and practises between people of
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places where they can be processed and

different nationalities. This exchange
assembled into finished goods.
brings about greater understanding
among the people and awareness about
Creation of employment opportunities:
different countries and their cultures.
The transport sector generates
Thus, it helps to promote a feeling of
employment opportunities for drivers,
international brotherhood. Figure 9.13
conductors, pilots, cabin crew and ship
shows main roads and railway lines in
captains. In addition, it creates jobs
East Africa.
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nl
O
se
U
e
in
nl
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Town
Capital City
Boundary
Main Road
Railway
Figure 9.13 Road and Railway line transport network in East Africa

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Advantage and disadvantages of the the rainy season when many roads in the
transport sector: All means of transport rural areas become impassable.
have advantages and disadvantages Challenges facing the transport
depending on the needs at a given time. industry in East Africa: The East
Road transport is flexible and quick, and African governments have made efforts
it can connect many places. Likewise, to develop an adequate, safe, secure and
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construction and maintenance of roads affordable transport system that is aimed
is cheaper than railways. to eradicate poverty and bring about
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sustainable development.
Railway transport has the capacity to
carry both heavy and bulky goods as Despite these concerted efforts, the
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well as passengers. The standard gauge transport sector experiences several
railway train is faster and saves time too. challenges and constraints as dicussed
in the subsequent sections.
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Air transport is fast and suitable to use,
and it cannot be affected by physical Inappropriate national policies and their
barriers. limited implementation: The transport
industry suffers from inappropriate and
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Apart from having advantages the badly-formulated policies which in turn
transport sector also faces disadvantages. slow down the implementation of sub-
For example, air transport is very regional and regional agreements. In
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expensive and it needs trained and skilled addition, these countries lack policies
personnel. In addition, it depends a lot on that allow and promote private sector
in
the weather of the day; if the weather is participation in transport infrastructure

bad the journey can be postponed. development and operation.
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Pipelines are expensive to develop and Liberalisation and privatisation in rail,

they are selective in transporting goods. air and maritime transport are still in
Only fluid materials and natural gases their infancy: Efforts to harmonise
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are transported via pipelines. policies and regulations pertaining

to cross-border movement of goods,
Railway transport is not flexible and it services and people have yet to become
takes long to reach the destination. For effective. Therefore, the East African
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example it takes almost three days to countries have not fully implemented
reach Kigoma from Dar es Salaam. agreements aimed to facilitate cross-
border movement of goods and
Vehicles emit gases which are harmful passengers.
to living organisms and the atmosphere.
Their mobility can also be easily affected Lack or poor transport network
by weather conditions, especially during connectivity: The transport sector in
East Africa suffers from a poor transport
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network which is characterised by Poor transport information systems:

several missing transport networks in Statistical information is a key input
each country and between countries. As at every stage of the development
a result, the majority of rural population process, including planning and
live without access to markets and implementation of programmes and
essential economic and social services. projects. Adequate and well-organised
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In addition, a large propotion of the statistical information provides tools
transport network is also in poor state. for making informed decisions in
nl
identifying gaps, formulating policies
Inadequate human and institutional and strategies, developing effective
investment programmes and in effective
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capacity: Although the number of
workers in East African public transport monitoring and evaluation. However, in
enterprises and agencies is relatively East Africa, the availability of such data is
high, the availability of skilled personnel limited and poorly organised. Likewise,
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is limited in most transport organisations. despite the importance of Information
In addition to lack of adequate skilled and Communication Technology (ICT)
human resources, institutions also lack the transport sector has not taken full
people with appropriate knowledge and advantage of the technology due to lack
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skills to plan, and manage infrastructural of a proper policy for ICT development
development and services. and integration in transport.
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High transport costs: East Africa is one Limited financial resources: Despite
of the regions with the highest transport efforts made by East African
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costs in the world. Transport services are governments and international and
unaffordable to many African citizens. domestic development partners to
mobilise financial resources for
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Poor transport safety and security: investing in transport infrastructure and

The prevailing poor road safety remains maintenance of the existing facilities,
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a serious challenge in East Africa. huge gaps remain between the demand
Accidents and the resulting loss of and supply of resources. Sustainable
life and destruction of property have transport development requires huge
assumed intolerable proportions. A financial outlays to build infrastructure,
major weakness in this area is associated and provide energy-efficient and
Fo
with lack of responsible personnel for environmental-friendly transport

road safety. In many cases, the major equipment, among others.
constraint common to all the weaknesses
identified in the management of road Measures to address transport
safety is the lack of adequate financial challenges in Tanzania: Tanzania
resources. The poor safety record of needs to take several initiatives in a bid
many East African airlines is another to address the transport challenges facing
area of major concern in Africa. the country. Such initiatives should focus
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on policy, strategy, resource mobilisation Environmental Impact Assessment

and capacity-building. The initiatives (EIA): The development of a sustainable
aim at translating policies and strategies transport system, requires carrying out
into action. The following sections an environmental impact assessment.
present some of the measures aimed to This assessment should be incorporated
address the identified challenges. into the infrastructure development plans
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of the country. In this regard, any plan
National policies and sub-regional for transport construction should undergo
nl
and regional agreements: Tanzania EIA processes before approval.
has to demonstrate its commitment in
Energy efficiency and transport cost:
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improving the domestic investment
environment by taking necessary Transport services in Tanzania are
steps. The actions need to target full associated with high costs due to
liberalisation of the transport sector to inadequate and poor infrastructure, poor
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attract investors, and strengthening the transport facilities as well as limited
regulatory and enforcement mechanisms. competition.
In addition, improving co-ordination in
developing and implementing regional Transport safety and security: The
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and sub-regional agreements on transport government of Tanzania needs to plan
facilitation and air transport liberalisation for initiatives aimed to improve safety in
should be seriously considered. all modes of transport. This can be done
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by establishing effective institutional
Human and institutional capacity frameworks and strengthening the
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building: Efforts should be directed existing frameworks to manage traffic

towards institutions to ensure that and ensure safety. Moreover, there
they have appropriate mandates and is a need to ensure compliance with
nl
are staffed with highly motivated and safety and security regulations and
skilled human resources. These measures standards established by relevant local,
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should involve key elements in the international and regional authorities.

development of a safe, secure, affordable
and environmentally-sound transport Transport information systems:
system. Also, responsible authorities Given the high demand for the use of
need to develop and implement capacity information in the transport sector and
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building programmes to upgrade the inadequacy of necessary information

knowledge and skills of staff involved in the country, Information and
in policy formulation, planning and Communication Technology (ICT) offers
implementation as well as those engaged a powerful tool for accessing, processing
in regulatory and enforcement functions. and disseminating large volumes of
information in the shortest time possible.

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Financial resources: Despite the efforts Exercise

made by the government to allocate
A. Answer the following questions:
funds for transport development, the
amount is far below what is actually 1. Explain what you understand
required to finance and maintain the by the term ‘transport’.
2. Identify the main types of
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existing transport network. Thus,
transport in the world.
there is a need to engage the private
3. Describe types of land
nl
sector in infrastructure development.
transport.
The involvement of the private sector 4. Mention any five major ocean
in infrastructural development and routes in the world.
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operations can help ease public resource 5. Mention three railway lines
constraints. The private sector has the found in East Africa.
potential of enhancing the productivity 6. List any five benefits of
and efficiency of infrastructure services.
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transport systems in East
This calls for improving the investment Africa
climate by updating institutional and 7. Mention any five challenges
regulatory frameworks and reducing facing transport systems in
U East Africa.
bureaucratic procedures and practises.
8. Suggest what should be done
to address the challenges
facing the transport sector in
e
Tanzania.

in

following statements:
1. Air transport is the fastest
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mode of transport.
2. Air transport is not affected by
adverse weather conditions.
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3. Air transport is not suitable for

short distances.
4. Helicopters are generally used
for international flights.
5. Air transport does not provide
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any support to national

security.
6. Railway transport is well
connected to all regions of
Tanzania.
7. Water transport is mostly used
to transport goods.

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Glossary
Afforestation The process of planting Desertification A process through
trees, or sowing seeds in a which fertile land becomes
barren land devoid of any desert, as a result of
trees, to creat a forest. drought, deforestation, or
inappropriate method of
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Agriculture Cultivation of crops farming.
and rearing of livestock.
nl
Distributaries Streams which split
Aquifer An underground layer of away from the main
water-bearing permiable channel and never re-join
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rock, rock fractures or the channel.
unconsolidated materials.
Ecology A study of the ecosystem
Biofuel Fuel that is derived from with particular reference
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biological materials, such to the relationship between
as plants and animals. plants and animals and the
environment.
Biogas Form of biofuel energy
whereby methane gas is Ecosystem Group of plants and
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obtained from decomposing animals that work together
biomass. to remain healthy.

Biomass Total amount of organic Eco-tourism Tourism directed towards
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material. exotic, often of threatened
natural environment,
in
Bush fallowing Letting the land intended to support

idle from time to time to conservation efforts and
maintain the fertility of the save wildlife.
nl
soil.
Energy The capacity to do work.
Dairy farming The rearing of livestock
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for the production of milk. Footloose Are industries whose

location does not rely
Deforestation Removal of forest cover on the location of raw
due to cutting or burning of materials or the cost of
trees. transporting them.
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Delta Triangular tract of sediment Fossil Fuel formed by a

deposited at the mouth of a natural proccess, such as
river, where it diverges into anaerobic decomposition of
several outlets. buried dead organisms that
lived a million years of age.
Desert Dry, barren area of land,
that is characteristically Fossilisation The process by which a
desolate, waterless, and fossil is formed.
without vegetation.
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Forest Large area dominated by Irrigation The artificial application of

trees. water to the land or soil for
agricultural production.
Forestry The science or practise of
planting and managing Land degradation A process in which
forests. the value of the biophysical
environment is degraded
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Geothermal energy Heat energy through a combination of
generated from the interior human- induced processes
nl
of the earth. acting upon the land.
Glacier A mass of ice formed Land reclamation A process of
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through the accumulation improving or recovering of
of snow for a long period new land for human use.
of time.
Livestock Domestic animals, such as
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Global warming A gradual increase cattle or horses, raised for
in the overall temperature home use or for sale.
of the earth’s atmosphere
generally attributed to the Lumbering A process of cutting trees
greenhouse effect. for making timber for
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transport and sale.
Habitat A particular environment
in which one species of a Mining The extraction of minerals
plant or animal lives. from the earth’s crust.
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Herbicides Chemicals used to control Monoculture An agricultural system

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or prevent weed growth. in which the cultivation of

a single crop dominates.
Human activity Anything done (either
nl
economic or social), as a Nomadic pastolarism Livestock-

way of life. keeping in which the farmer
keeps on moving from
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Industrialisation The move from an place to place in search of

economy dominated by pasture and water.
agricultural production
to one dominated by Overgrasing Keeping large herds of
manufacturing. animals on the land or for
a long time, which degrates
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Infrastructure A set of the land.

interconnected structural
elements that provide a Pervious rocks Rocks that allow water
framework for supporting to flow along cracks or
development processes. joints.
Intercropping The practise involving Pesticides Chemicals used to prevent

growing of two or more diseases or kill pests which
crops in the same field. attack plants and crops.
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Pasture Land covered with grass and Slash and burn agriculture
other low plants suitable for A farming method that
grazing animals. involves the cutting and
burning of plants in a forest
Pollutant A substance that or woodland to create a
contaminates something farm.
especially water or the
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atmosphere. Soil erosion The washing or blowing
away (by water or wind
nl
Power The flow of energy at respectively) of the top
any one time, and can be layer of soil.
generated from renewable
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energy resources. Soil fertility The ability of soil to
provide nutrients for plant
Population growth The increase in growth.
the number of people in an
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area due to in-migration and Tidal wave An exceptionally large
natural increase. ocean wave, especially
one caused by underwater
Radiation The process of sending off earthquake or volcanic
energy in the form of light, eruption.
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heat, x-rays or nuclear
particles. Tributary A small stream in the upper
course of a river that joins
Ranching Vast, extensive livestock another stream to form the
e
farms usually found in main river.
remote, marginal areas.
in
Vegetation Assemblage of plants in a

Reforestation The replanting of trees particular area.
in depleted forests and
nl
woodlands. Water management The process of

effective supply, utilisation
Renewable resources Resources and conservation of water
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which can be recovered or resources.

replaced after being used;
they include hydro-electric Water table The upper boundary of
power, tidal power, wind a saturated portion of soil
energy, geothermal power, or rock.
solar power and biogas.
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River basin Land that is drained by a

river and its tributaries.
Sedimentary rock Any rock formed

through compaction and
cementation of sediments.

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Bibliography
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Fo


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Tanzania Institute of Education

© Tanzania Institute of Education, 2019

Tanzania Institute of Education.

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Tanzania Institute of Education

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Figure 1.1 Rice paddy.........................................................................................2

Figure 3.4 Heavy clouds in the air....................................................................46

Figure 3.7 Sections of a river basin...................................................................52

Figure 3.9 Tennessee Valley Authority..............................................................58

Figure 3.14 Fishing by trawling.......................................................................68

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Figure 4.6 Coniferous forest............................................................................75

Figure 8.5 A derrick at an oil well.................................................................. 139

Figure 9.1 Types of transport......................................................................... 150

Figure 9.3 Transportation by animals............................................................ 151

Figure 9.8 A conveyor-belt transporting coal............................................... .153

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Table 2.1 Major cash crops grown in Tanzania .........................................21

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

in providing services in education, infrastructure, technology and conditions

Types of human activities Agriculture can be done by individual

of land to produce crops. Crop farming

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Food crops include rice, beans, cassava,

skins and hides. These domesticated

Livestock-keeping is widely practised

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

include the Eastern Arc (Usambara)

Kikongoro and Minziro (Misenyi) and

Other examples of natural forests

are also found in other countries such as

a source of employment for timber Tertiary activities: Tertiary activities

the forestry industry is also a source of activities involve the provision of

Secondary activities: Secondary insurance.

Likewise, communication is the Tourism industry creates employment

habitat. Examples of National Parks in countries. It takes place between

Lake Manyara, Ruaha, Gombe, Mahale,

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

Importance of human activities

Answer the following questions: (c) The distribution of different

are influenced by the weather of a on primary and tertiary

3. List four benefits of human (e) Types of human activities is

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

and supply to industries. Factors Individuals engaging in small-scale crop

Crop cultivation As noted earlier, the agricultural system

small area is exposed which support

areas with dense population.

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

This technique is known as inhabitants who are too few to develop

maize and millet. under-population.

organic manure to improve soil Population pressure is caused by rapid

Relationship between population increases, shortage of land in the

PROPERTY OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA GOBVERNMENT

become a serious problem. In fact, the Advantages of small-scale crop

apply fertilisers properly. In addition, cultivation: Small-scale crop cultivation