Muinde

ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF
LAND TENURE ON URBAN

DEVELOPMENTS IN KAMPALA
DAMARIS KATHINI MUINDE

MARCH, 2013
SUPERVISORS:
Dr. R. V. Sliuzas
Prof. Dr. J. A. Zevenbergen
ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF
LAND TENURE ON URBAN
DEVELOPMENTS IN KAMPALA
DAMARIS KATHINI MUINDE

Enschede, The Netherlands, MARCH, 2013
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth

Observation of the University of Twente in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geo-information Science
and Earth Observation.
Specialization: [Name course (e.g. Applied Earth Sciences)]
SUPERVISORS:
Dr. R. V. Sliuzas
Prof. Dr. J. A. Zevenbergen
THESIS ASSESSMENT BOARD:

Prof .dr .ir .M.FA.M. van Maarseveen : Chairman
Ms.Ir.Saskia Ruijsink, MSc : External Examiner (IHS)
Dr. R. V. Sliuzas : 1st Supervisor
Prof. Dr. J. A. Zevenbergen : 2nd Supervisor
DISCLAIMER
This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the Faculty of Geo-Information Science and
Earth Observation of the University of Twente. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the
author, and do not necessarily represent those of the Faculty.
ABSTRACT
Kampala exhibits informal urban expansion typical of cities in Sub Saharan Africa. Of note about
Kampala‘s urbanization process is the extent of informality estimated to comprise about 60% of all urban
developments. Though there exists a diversity of circumstances and factors that contribute to informal
urban developments, this study focused on land tenure considered key in land development because being
the rules underlying a people‘s relation to land, rules of tenure define rights to land, how these rights are
accessed and even influence developments put on land depending on the security accorded to land rights.
This study assessed the effect rules of tenure have on urban developments in Kampala by examining land
access, land subdivision and land development processes (considered the three stages where informality
can occur) in the land and property development process.
Qualitative and quantitative methods including key informant interviews, household interviews, literature
review, observation, in-depth interviews and case studies were applied in data collection. Research findings
show that land in Kampala is held under the Mailo, Leasehold, Freehold and Customary tenure systems
with Mailo being the dominant land tenure system and Customary tenure being negligible. A defining
characteristic of land holding in Kampala is the separation of land ownership from the ownership of
developments on land, designed to accommodate rights of occupants (called Kibanja occupants) who own
developments on land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems. Rights ascribed to occupants and
processes proposed to administer these rights by The Land Act 1998 have never been realised because
they are contested by the registered land owners. This emerged as the cause of informal land access under
the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems. Informality in land access is perpetuated in land subdivision and
land development processes as the KCCA only approves subdivisions and developments on land with
formal land ownership documents, in Kampala comprised of land under Leasehold tenure but which
constitutes less than 30% of overall land holding.
To address informality in land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the Mailo
and Freehold tenure systems, the study identified positive aspects of the current informal structure applied
in administering Kibanja rights especially the role played by Local Councils in registering, demarcating and
adjudicating Kibanja rights which could form the basis on which the KCCA could build on (through
formulation of subdivision and development regulations responsive to Kibanja rights and incremental
implementation of planning standards on land under Kibanja occupancy) to achieve planned urban
developments in spite of persisting conflicting tenure relations. These proposals made in view of the
considerable time and financial resources it would take to resolve the disagreements over occupant
registered owner rights as currently constituted and in light of the rising demand for land in Kampala
caused by high population growth.
Keywords: land tenure; land access; land subdivision; land development
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My gratitude goes to the many organizations and individuals who assisted me in the course of this study.
To the ITC for offering me an opportunity to study at the faculty, to NUFFIC for funding my study and
stay in The Netherlands and to my supervisors Dr. Richard V. Sliuzas and Prof. Dr. J.A. Zevenbergen for
their guidance, support and very insightful comments that helped in shaping this study. I am also grateful
to the staff of the Urban Planning Department for introducing me to various aspects of urban planning
and management.
I thank Dr. Richard V. Sliuzas for the key role he played in successful completion of the field work done
towards this study especially organizing accommodation and key contacts in Kampala. I thank Mr.
Godwin Othieno (Physical Planner at the Kampala Capital City Authority), Grace Abenaitwe (Lands
Officer at the Kampala District Land Board), Rehema Nanvuma (Physical Planner at the Buganda Land
Board) and Mr. Eddie Nsamba Gayiiya (Independent land expert) for their contribution towards the
findings of this study. Many thanks go to Farouq Kiryowa and John Musisi (Chairman Local Council 1,
Kalimali Zone), for assisting in data collection in Bwaise III and to Mr. Leonard Okokes (Principal
Outspan School) for providing working space in Bwaise III during field work.
Many thanks to my UPM classmates who encouraged me and with whom I found laughter amidst the
challenges of studying at ITC, to my brothers Fredrick and Haguma who introduced me to Land
Administration, to Jane and Vincent for the very sound advice they gave me on research writing, to
Francis for caring enough to check on me, to Kenyans in ITC and the ICF community for making me feel
at home when far from home.
Special thanks go to my mom, dad and brothers for their constant support and encouragement, to Pastor
Caleb and family for their support, prayers and sharing in my journey, but most specially i thank God who
made all things possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Background and justification .....................................................................................................................................1
1.3. Research Problem ........................................................................................................................................................2
1.4. Research Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................3
1.5. Definition of terms .....................................................................................................................................................4
1.6. Thesis Outline ..............................................................................................................................................................4
2. Literature Review ..................................................................................................................................................6
2.1. Urban development ....................................................................................................................................................6
2.2. The link between land tenure and urban development .......................................................................................6
3. Background to the study area .............................................................................................................................9
3.1. Location of Kampala ..................................................................................................................................................9
3.2. Origin and growth of Kampala city .........................................................................................................................9
3.3. Administrative structure .......................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4. Research Methodology...................................................................................................................................... 12
4.1. Data collection approach ........................................................................................................................................ 12
4.2. Quality control .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.3. Limitations of data collection ................................................................................................................................. 17
4.4. Data analysis .............................................................................................................................................................. 17
5. Land tenure systems in kampala ...................................................................................................................... 19
5.1. Land tenure systems ................................................................................................................................................. 19
5.2. Key Observations ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
6. Land access, Land subdivision and Land development processes ........................................................... 25
6.1. Land access processes .............................................................................................................................................. 25
6.2. Land subdivision processes .................................................................................................................................... 29
6.3. Land development Processes ................................................................................................................................. 31
6.4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................... 32
7. The effect of land tenure on urban developments ....................................................................................... 33
7.1. Case I: Bwaise III Parish ......................................................................................................................................... 33
7.2. Case II: Mailo Land access by a real estate company ......................................................................................... 35
7.3. Case III: Ntinda Parish ............................................................................................................................................ 37
7.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
8. Land tenure related challenges......................................................................................................................... 40
8.1. Land tenure related challenges encountered by actors in land access, land subdivision and land
development processes ............................................................................................................................................ 40
8.2. Measures which can be taken by actors to improve land access, land subdivision and land development
processes .................................................................................................................................................................... 42
8.3. Measures which can be taken by actors at a higher level to improve land access, land subdivision and
land development processes ................................................................................................................................... 43
8.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................. 46
9. Summary of findings Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................................... 47
9.1. Summary of findings ................................................................................................................................................ 47
9.2. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................... 49
9.3. Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................... 49
List of references ........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Appendices .................................................................................................................................................................. 53
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: An illustration of the bundle of rights concept (Jacobus 2003) ............................................................ 7
Figure 2: Negative externalities of land use (Wai Chung Lai, 1997) ..................................................................... 8
Figure 3: An illustration of the continuum of rights concept (UN-Habitat, 2008) ............................................ 8
Figure 4: Location of Kampala within the national context ( Source UN- Habitat (2009, p. 5) ...................... 9
Figure 5: Kampala city .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 6: Hills that made up the Kibuga and Kampala Municipality (Source: Van Nostrand (1994) .......... 10
Figure 7: 2010 orthophoto of Kampala; hills that made up the Kibuga and Kampala Municipality. ........... 10
Figure 8: Selected case study areas............................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 9: Sampled households in Bwaise III Parish .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 10: Research design......................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 11: Land rights under the Mailo land tenure system ................................................................................. 20
Figure 12: Land rights under the leasehold land tenure system ........................................................................... 21
Figure 13: Land rights under the freehold land tenure system ............................................................................ 22
Figure 14: Land tenure systems in Kampala ........................................................................................................... 23
Figure 15: Land transfer process; private Mailo land ............................................................................................ 25
Figure 16: Lease application procedure for land managed by the BLB ............................................................. 26
Figure 17: Lease application process for land under the Leasehold tenure system .......................................... 27
Figure 18: Lease application procedure for land under Freehold land tenure system ..................................... 28
Figure 19: Land subdivision process for private Mailo land ................................................................................ 29
Figure 20: Subdivision process for land under Leasehold tenure........................................................................ 30
Figure 21: Development application procedure for land falling under the jurisdiction of KCCA ................ 31
Figure 22: Spatial patterns of developments in Bwaise III ................................................................................... 33
Figure 23: A comparison of documentary evidence of occupancy and means of accessing land and years of
occupancy ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 24: Comparison of development approval status and documentary evidence of occupancy ............ 35
Figure 25: Proposed developments on the land discussed under Case II.......................................................... 36
Figure 26: Spatial pattern of developments in Ntinda Parish .............................................................................. 38
Figure 27: The link between land tenure, land access, land subdivision and land development processes in
Kampala. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 39
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Research sub objectives and questions .......................................................................................................3
Table 2: Kampala city administrative structure...................................................................................................... 11
Table 3: Key informants interviewed ...................................................................................................................... 13
Table 4: Key characteristics of land tenure systems in Kampala ........................................................................ 23
Table 5: Documentary evidence of occupancy in Bwaise III Parish.................................................................. 33
v
LIST OF ACRONYMS
BLB Buganda Land Board
GLTN Global Land Tool Network
KCCA Kampala Capital City Authority Act
KDLB Kampala District Land Board
LC1 Local Council 1
MoLHUD Ministry of Lands Housing and Urban Development
NSDFU National Slum Dwellers Federation of Uganda
STDM Social Tenure Domain Model
ULC Uganda Lands Commission
UML Unified Modelling Language
vi
ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF LAND TENURE ON URBAN DEVELOPMENTS IN KAMPALA
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
This chapter covers the introductory elements of this research. Subtopics presented are background and
justification of the research, problem statement, main research objective, research sub objectives and
questions, definition of terms used in the study and a brief outline of the thesis.
1.2. Background and justification

Land is an important resource and one of the key factors of production. It is fundamental in the
development of human shelter, agricultural production and economic activities and is a key basis for
poverty alleviation and achievement of human rights (UN-Habitat, 2008).
Development pressures on land have however been increasing as a result of rapid population growth and
economic development. This pressure is especially high in urban areas which have high population
concentrations because of the key role they play as centres for economic production and consumption
(Cohen, 2006). Projections made by the UN-World Urbanization Prospectus (2008) indicate a doubling of
the world population by 2050, with an anticipated population increase from 3.3 billion people in 2007 to
6.4 billion people in 2050. Majority of this growth is expected to take place in urban areas in developing
countries whose population was projected to increase from 2.4 billion people in 2007 to 5.3 billion in
2050. The UN-Habitat (2008) projected a tripling of urban built-up areas in developing countries from
200,000 Sq Km to 600,000 Sq Km by 2030. This rapid growth has exceeded capacities of most cities in
developing nations to plan for the increased populations. Cities are thus characterised by poor access to
shelter, tenure insecurity, overcrowding and environmental health problems (Cohen, 2006).
Urban growth in Kampala has followed the above trajectory. The city has experienced expansion in its
urban area increasing from an area of 8 Sq Km in 1962 to the current area of 800 Sq Km which extends
beyond the delineated city boundary to include surrounding towns (Vermeiren, Van Rompaey, Loopmans,
Serwajja, & Mukwaya, 2012). This expansion is mainly driven by population growth. Being the capital city
of Uganda, Kampala absorbs 40% of the national urban population and has an annual growth rate of
5.61% (UBOS, 2002). Population in Kampala has grown faster than the pace of planning thus the urban
expansion process has resulted in unplanned settlements with inadequate infrastructure and services
(Mukwaya, Sengendo, & Lwasa, 2010). UN-Habitat (2007) estimates indicate that about 60% of the
population in Kampala lives in informal settlements.
Access to land precedes development. Access to land is governed through land tenure systems which are
―rules invented by societies that define how individuals and groups access rights to use, control or transfer
land and the associated responsibilities and restraints‖ (FAO, 2002b, p. 7). Though land tenure is an
instrument for facilitating access to land it has a direct effect on development which arises out of
perception of security of intended investments on land by occupants (Olima & Obala, 1998). This view is
supported by Lall, Freire, Yuen, Rajack, and Helluin (2009, p. 102) who argue that ―the nature and
content of land rights, the extent to which people have confidence that land rights will be honored and the
1
various degrees of recognition of these rights by public authorities and concerned communities have direct
impact on how land is used‖.
Systems of administering land rights in many developing nations have proofed ineffective in providing
efficient means through which growing urban populations can legally access land resulting in informal
settlements (Sliuzas, 2004). Though illegal tenure results in informality, studies have shown that it is not
the only cause of informal development. Farvacque and McAuslan (1992, p. 39) highlighted ―shades of
informality‖ ranging from ―defective tenure conveyed by an original landowner to a subdivider, defective
tenure conveyed from a subdivider to a purchaser, establishment of subdivision in an area in which it is
not a permitted land use, failure of a subdivider to follow applicable subdivision regulations and failure of
land purchasers to follow building and occupancy codes when putting up buildings on their land‖.
Postiou and Ioannidis (2006) in their study on informal settlements in Greece grouped this range of
informality in to three categories; informal developments occurring as a result of unauthorized occupation
of land, informality occurring as a result of unauthorized subdivision on legally owned land and
informality occurring as a result of buildings put up in contravention to planning regulations. The above
findings indicate the need for an assessment of informal developments that goes beyond the process of
accessing land to include the processes of subdividing and developing land.
Land access, land subdivision and land development processes are however implemented by actors. This
research will therefore examine the roles, interests, strategies and interactions of actors in land access, land
subdivision and land development processes under different land tenure systems to assess their effects on
urban developments in Kampala. This approach borrows from methods applied by agency and structure
models advanced to explain disparities in the built environment. These models are based on the
assumption that (a) The built environment is the output of the land and property development process
(b)The land and property development is a complex multi-disciplinary activity comprised of several
processes and stages implemented by various actors (Williamson, Enemark, Wallace, & Rajabifard, 2009)
(c) To understand disparities in the built environment it is important to ―assess the contribution of actors,
the significance of events and the complexity of relationships that make development happen‖(Adams,
1994, p. 44).
1.3. Research Problem

Research done on urban developments in Kampala shows there is a link between land tenure and physical
and spatial characteristics of developments. The UN-Habitat (2007) in their research on the condition of
informal settlements in Kampala identified land tenure systems as one of the factors contributing to
informal settlements in the city. The report highlighted unclear tenure relations where multiple interests on
one piece of land held by different people as a major hindrance to development control.
Research done by the MoLHUD and UNDP (2008) leading to the formulation of the Uganda National
Slum Upgrading Strategy and Action Plan also identified complexity of land tenure systems as one of the
factors contributing to unplanned settlements in urban areas in Uganda. The plan noted that ―not only are
tenure systems multiple where they are formal, they also have traces of customary ownership, rules and
practices in urban areas" (MoLHUD & UNDP, 2008, p. 21), making development control difficult.
Nkurunziza (2008) investigated informal mechanisms of accessing land in Kamwokya, Mbuya and Busega
informal settlements in Kampala. His study focused on behavior patterns of key actors involved in land
access from obtaining information on plot availability, land transaction negotiations, setting of parcel
2
boundaries to registration of rights. Findings of this research showed that informal processes of accessing
land in Kampala are not disordered but are regulated by informal rules which draw from existing legal and
customary rules.
Although previous research on land tenure and urban developments in Kampala discussed above highlight
uncertainty over existing tenure relations as a hindrance land use planning, they do not illustrate how this
has led to informal urban developments. This research by examining land access, land subdivision and
land development processes under different land tenure systems illuminates the roles, interests, strategies
and interactions of actors in these processes providing insight on the stage (land access, land subdivision,
and land development) of the land and property development process in which informality occurs. The
output of this research would be useful to (a) bodies charged with land management in Kampala (Kampala
District Land Board, Buganda Land Board) (b) bodies charged with management of urban developments
in Kampala (Kampala Capital City Authority) (c) Civil Society Organizations undertaking various
interventions on informal urban developments in Kampala.
1.4. Research Objectives
1.4.1. Main objective

The main objective of this research is to assess the effect of land tenure on urban developments in
Kampala.
1.4.2. Sub objectives and questions

To achieve the main objective of the study sub objectives and questions have been formulated as shown
below.
Table 1: Research sub objectives and questions
Research Sub objectives Research Questions
Sub objective 1 a) What are the land tenure systems in Kampala?
To examine the land tenure b) What rights are defined under the different land tenure
systems in Kampala systems?
Sub objective 2 a) Who are the actors involved in land access, land
subdivision and land development processes under the
To examine the roles and different land tenure systems?
challenges of actors in the land
and property development b) What are the roles of actors in land access, land
processes under different land subdivision and land development processes under the
tenure systems different land tenure systems?
c) What land tenure related challenges do actors encounter

in land access, land subdivision and land development
processes?
Sub objective 3 a) What actions can be taken by actors to improve land

access, land subdivision and land development processes
To propose measures which under the different land tenure systems?
can be taken to improve land
and property development b) What actions can be taken by actors at a higher level to
processes under the different improve land access, land subdivision and land
tenure systems development under the different land tenure systems?
3
1.5. Definition of terms

Below are brief definitions of the terms land access, land subdivision , land development, land and
property development, land and property development processes and urban development as used in this
research.
Land access is viewed not just as the right to enter a defined physical property but includes access to rights
to land.
Land subdivision is understood as a process encompassing both the partitioning of land in to smaller
parcels and the alteration of boundaries to amalgamate small pieces of land in to one (Wickramasuriya,
Chisholm, Puotinen, Gill, & Klepeis, 2011).
Land development is viewed as the process of putting up of buildings on land for various uses.
Land and property development defined as a complex multi-disciplinary activity comprised of several
processes and stages implemented by various actors through which built environments are produced
(Williamson et al., 2009).
Land and property development processes in this research comprised of land access, land subdivision and
land development processes identified as the three stages in which informality can occur.
Urban development is a broad term that covers activities ranging from creation of extensive urban areas to
simply putting up new buildings or making extensions to existing buildings (Williamson et al., 2009). In
this research urban development taken to mean ― the making of any material change in the use of or
density of buildings or land or the subdivision of any land or the erection of buildings or carrying out
associated building operations‖1 as defined in Section 2 (a) and (b) of the Physical Planning Act 2010.
1.6. Thesis Outline

Chapter one of the thesis presents introduction to the research, background to the study, justification,
problem statement, research objectives, sub objectives and questions, definition of key terms and thesis
outline.
Chapter two presents background of the study where literatures on key concepts to this study are
reviewed. Sub headings covered under literature review are on urban development the link between land
tenure and urban developments, land rights, security of tenure, restrictions on land rights and continuum
of rights.
Chapter three gives a background to the study area and addresses the location and administrative structure
of Kampala, the origin and growth of the city encompassing the history of land ownership and
management considered key to understanding the processes being investigated in this study.
Chapter four presents a description of the data collection approach, methods applied in data collection,
analysis and presentation, quality control measures adopted and data collection limitations.
1 Section 2 (a) (b);The Physical Planning Act 2010; (RoU, 2010a, p. 7)

4
Chapter five presents land tenure systems in Kampala, rights under each land tenure system and a
summary of characteristics of land tenure systems in Kampala.
Chapter six presents land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the land tenure
systems in Kampala.
Chapter seven presents the effects of land tenure on urban developments in Kampala by discussing case
study findings.
Chapter eight presents land tenure related challenges encountered by actors in land access, land
subdivision and land development and actions which can be taken by actors and actors at a higher level to
address these challenges.
Conclusions and recommendations of the study are presented in chapter nine of this thesis. Conclusions
are based on research findings and review of relevant literature.
5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents a brief review of the key concepts underlying this research. Concepts reviewed are
urban development, the link between land tenure and urban development, land rights, security of tenure,
restrictions on land rights and continuum of rights.
2.1. Urban development

Guest (2012) citing Tinsdale (1942) describes cities as areas with large numbers of people living in high
concentrations. From the above description Guest (2012, p. 49) defines urbanization as ―the process of
increasing numbers and concentrations at high densities‖. Nsiah-Gyabaah (2005) attribute this
concentration of people and activities to social, economic and political factors which underlie changes in
land use transforming rural areas to urban patterns of organization and governance.
Urbanization results in changes in land use (from rural to urban) and increase in density of developments
to meet shelter, movement, nutrition and income needs of urban residents (Mukoko, 1996). The assertion
that ―urbanization does not take place in thin air but requires enormous amounts of land‖ by Dowall and
Clarke (1996, p. 15) underscores the importance of availability of land as a precondition for urban growth.
This view is upheld by Fekade (2000, p. 127) who maintains that urban growth should be accompanied by
the provision of ―affordable buildable urban land‖. This he argues can be achieved through efficient urban
land management. Urban land management is a system made up of actors and activities which interact to
produce efficient allocation and use of urban space especially land aimed at guiding and controlling
growth of towns and cities to ensure orderly growth and efficient functioning in provision of urban
housing, services and facilities (ibid). Tools used in most cities to guide development include ―master
plans, zoning plans, subdivision plans, planning regulations and building codes‖ (Dowall & Clarke, 1996,
p. 5).
2.2. The link between land tenure and urban development

While the goal of urban land management is to ensure planned growth of urban areas, access to land on
which developments take place and on which planning regulations are applied is governed by rules of
tenure. Land tenure is a social relationship comprised of rules (legal or customary) set up by societies that
regulate how people relate to land (Lall et al., 2009). Dowall and Clarke (1996) identify poor tenure,
cadastral and registration systems as one of the factors hindering efficient growth of cities in developing
countries. This is affirmed by Fekade (2000, p. 127) who highlights ―unreformed tenure relations‖ as one
of the causal factors for insufficient provision of affordable developable land in most cities in sub-Saharan
Africa.
2.2.1. Land Rights

FAO (2002a, p. 7) posit that ―Land tenure rules define how people access rights to land‖ and define
property as the right that a person exercises over an object. Rights over land are thus referred to as
property rights and they define what can be done on land (Dale & Mclaughlin, 1999). Land rights are
perceived as being either formal or informal. Formal land rights have official government recognition and
have their basis on legal rules set up within a county while informal rights do not have government
recognition.
6
Land rights are seldom held by one person, often multiple rights to the same piece of land are held by
different people (FAO, 2002b). This view is consistent with the bundle of rights concept which likens land
rights to sticks in a bundle. The sticks ―vary from time to time in number (representing the number of
rights), in thickness (representing the ‗quantum‘ of each right) and in length (representing the duration of
each right (Simpson, 1984, p. 7). In areas under the common law, freehold is the highest form of land
ownership thus freehold land owners hold the complete bundle of rights (Dale & Mclaughlin, 1999). The
figure below illustrates the bundle of rights concept.
Figure 1: An illustration of the bundle of rights concept (Jacobus 2003)
2.2.2. Security of tenure

―The security that society offers to holders of land rights effects the willingness to make long term
investments on land ‖ (FAO, 2002a, p. 3). ―Security of land tenure exists when individuals perceive that
they have rights to a piece of land on a continuous basis, that land is free from imposition or interference
from outside sources and they have the ability to reap benefits of labour and capital invested in that land
either in use or upon transfer to another holder‖ (van Asperen & Zevenbergen, 2007, p. 3) citing Place et
al., 1994. From the above definition van Asperen and Zevenbergen (2007) highlighted breadth, duration
and assurance of rights held over land as being key in land tenure security. Breadth relates to number of
rights held, duration relates to extent of validity of rights and assurance relates to the confidence with which
rights are held (ibid).
2.2.3. Restrictions on land rights

Land tenure does not just cover land rights but also encompasses the restrictions and
obligations/responsibilities associated with these rights (Dale & Mclaughlin, 1999; FAO, 2002b;
Williamson et al., 2009). Arguments for restrictions on private land rights are associated with the failure of
the free market (where the use to which land is put is the sole discretion of owners) to deal with negative
externalities arising from private land use and provide public goods (Deininger, 2003; Wai Chung Lai,
1997). Examples of negative externalities which could arise out of private land use include pollution and
conflicting land uses which infringe on land rights of others. They are according to Wai Chung Lai (1997)
social costs borne by third parties. Restrictions on private land rights are thus necessary and are applied by
governments thorough ―planning regulations, planning obligations, development bonuses, environmental
performance standards and moratoria to regulate the location, dimension, intensity, time, duration, and
process of the production and reception of externalities (Wai Chung Lai, 1997, p. 172)‖. Public goods
include roads, sewer lines, water lines and open spaces. A defining characteristic of public goods is their
joint consumption. Dowall and Clarke (1996) and Wai Chung Lai (1997) posit that because of their joint
consumption and inability of the private sector to profitably produce and sell public goods, the free
market is unable to provide them necessitating publicly controlled planning.
The figure below illustrates negative externalities on private land use.
7
Figure 2: Negative externalities of land use (Wai Chung Lai, 1997)
2.2.4. Continuum of rights

Payne (2007) in his research on urban land tenure in developing nations demonstrated that that there is no
clear distinction between formal and informal forms of land ownership (land tenure systems) in most
urban areas in developing nations rather land ownership varies depending on level of security from formal
to informal forming a range or continuum of land tenure categories. He attributed the emergence of
tenure sub systems to the failure of conventional land tenure systems to meet land needs of urban
populations within the low income bracket creating room for agents who come up with informal
mechanisms of accessing and developing land tailored to the needs and income levels of the urban poor.
―Each continuum provides different sets of rights, responsibility, degrees of security and
enforcement‖(UN-Habitat, 2008, p. 8). Consequently, urban developments in developing countries exhibit
―varying levels of legality or illegality ranging from squatting; un-authorized subdivisions on legally owned
land, illegal construction to varying forms of rental arrangements consistent with the tenure subsystems
existing within an area‖(Payne, 2001, p. 417). The figure below illustrates the continuum of rights concept.
Figure 3: An illustration of the continuum of rights concept (UN-Habitat, 2008)
8
3. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA

This chapter presents the location of Kampala, a brief description of the origin and growth of the city and
the current administrative structure.
3.1. Location of Kampala

Kampala is located on the northern shores of Lake Victoria at 0 15 32 30E (Figure 4). The city has
grown from an area covering seven hills in 1962 to the current extent covering twenty four hills. Figure 5
below shows the current boundary of Kampala city.
Figure 4: Location of Kampala within the national Figure 5: Kampala city

context ( Source UN- Habitat (2009, p. 5)
3.2. Origin and growth of Kampala city

There is a close link between land ownership and urban land management in Kampala which can be traced
to the origin of the city. Kampala began in the 1600s then serving as the capital (Kibuga) of the king
(Kabaka) of the Buganda Kingdom (Omolo-Okalebo, Haas, Werner, & Sengendo, 2010). The Kibuga was
relocated from hill to hill following change in kingship. The last such capital is located at Mengo, having
been relocated there in 1884 following the death of Kabaka Mutesa I and succession of Kabaka Mwanga
(ibid).
Land in the Buganda Kingdom was owned by the king. Successive kings entered in to agreements which
resulted in allocation of land to religious organizations and colonial interests. The Church Missionary
society was allocated Namirembe hill in 1884, the White fathers allocated Rubaga hill in 1887, the Mill
Hill Fathers allocated Nsambya Hill in 1895, Muslims allocated Kibuli hill while the colonial government
through Captain Lugard was allocated old Kampala hill where he built a fort in 1891 (Omolo-Okalebo et
al., 2010).
9
In 1900 the Kabaka signed an agreement with the colonial government which resulted in the reallocation
of approximately 19,600 square miles of Buganda land between the king , notables, chiefs, church, and
the colonial state (Okuku, 2006). The Kibuga continued as the indigenous capital of the Buganda
Kingdom at Mengo hill administered by the kabaka and expanded to accommodate mainly African city
immigrants who could not afford high rents (Omolo-Okalebo et al., 2010). Urban developments in the
Kibuga were unplanned and had inadequate infrastructure and services (ibid).
The fort set up by Captain Lugard in 1891 grew in to a busy commercial area for Europeans and Asians
prompting the relocation of colonial government offices to Nakasero hill (Omolo-Okalebo et al., 2010).
The new settlement named ―Kampala‖ was subject to planning schemes including the 1912 plan which
covered the old Kampala and Nakasero hills, 1919 Simpsons planning scheme which promoted separation
of African and European quarters through use of green spaces, the 1930 plan which resulted in expansion
of European and Asian residential areas to Kololo hill and Kitante areas and the 1951 plan which made
provision for middle and low income housing for Africans in Naguru and Nakawa areas (ibid). Figure 6
below shows the hills that made up the Kibuga and Kampala Municipality.
Figure 6: Hills that made up the Kibuga and Kampala Municipality (Source: Van Nostrand (1994)
Figure 7: 2010 orthophoto of Kampala; hills that made up the Kibuga and Kampala Municipality.
(Kibuga and municipal boundaries shown in this image have been retraced by the researcher guided by
map of obtained from Van Nostrand (1994) to give a general indication of areas falling under the Kibuga
and Kampala Municipality for the purposes of this research and should not be taken as the exact
boundaries).
10
In 1968 the Kampala Municipality boundary was expanded to cover the current extent of the city
(approximately 195 Km2) encompassing areas previously falling under the Kibuga bringing the whole
town under the management of the Kampala City Council (Omolo-Okalebo et al., 2010). In 1962
Kampala was granted city status by a royal charter (ibid).
Being the administrative and commercial capital of Uganda, Kampala has grown beyond the delineated
city boundary to cover an area of approximately 800 Km2 (Omolo-Okalebo et al., 2010). Lwasa, Koojo,
Mabiriizi, Mukwaya, and Sekimpi (2009) attribute this growth to population increase and economic
growth.
3.3. Administrative structure

In 2010 the Ugandan government passed the Kampala Capital City Authority Act which established the
Kampala Capital City Authority to administer the Kampala on behalf of the central government. The city‘s
administrative structure as defined under the act is comprised of divisions headed by a mayor and town
clerk, the divisions are comprised of parishes with villages / zones being are the lowest administrative
units. The Kampala Capital City Authority Act 2010 retained the administrative units that existed in the
former Kampala City Council. Table 2 below shows administrative structure of Kampala city.
Table 2: Kampala city administrative structure

Division (Local Council 3) Parish (Local Council 2) Zone/ Village(Local Council 1)
Central 20 138
Kawempe 22 122
Makindye 22 132
Nakawa 23 279
Rubaga 13 131
Total 100 802
Source: Kampala District Profile 2002
3.4. Conclusion
This chapter presented the origin and growth of Kampala city. From the foregoing, it emerges that land
ownership and land management are intertwined with the origin of the city, a consequence of the 1900
agreement which guided division of land between the Buganda Kingdom and the colonial government. A
duality in urban land management emerged based on land ownership in which the Kibuga continued to
grow under management of the Buganda Kingdom on whose land it fell and Kampala Township on land
owned and managed by the colonial government. This chapter provides background understanding on
land tenure and urban land management considered key to understanding current tenure relations and
land management practices discussed in the subsequent chapters.
11
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Qualitative and quantitative methods were applied in collecting the data needed to adequately address the
research questions. This chapter presents data collection and analysis methods applied.
4.1. Data collection approach

In light of perspectives drawn at the introduction to this research that the built environment is the result
of various processes implemented by various actors pursuing different strategies to achieve their interests,
a two pronged approach was adopted in data collection. Data on land tenure systems in Kampala, land
access, land subdivision and land development processes, the actors involved in these processes, their
roles, the land tenure related challenges they face and measures that can be taken to address these
challenges was collected at city level. To gain insight on the effect strategies and interactions of actors have
on urban developments, three case areas were selected where land access, land subdivision and land
development processes were investigated in detail. The methods applied in collecting data at the two levels
are explained below.
4.1.1. City level

Methods applied to collect data at city level are documentary reviews and key informant interviews.
Documentary reviews
Secondary data collection involving mainly review of relevant literature including scholarly articles, reports,
Ugandan land laws, policies and strategies was done to gain a preliminary understanding of the research
subject, the study area and to supplement primary data collection. Data relevant to sub objective one was
collected mainly through literature review. Review of relevant literature also aided in the identification of
bodies involved in land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the land tenure
systems in Kampala from which information pertinent to this study was sought though key informant
interviews.
Key informant interviews

Bodies identified from which key informant interviews were conducted are the Buganda Land Board
(BLB), the Kampala District Land Board (KDLB) and the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA). The
BLB was re-introduced in 1994 by the king of the Baganda to manage land returned to the Buganda
Kingdom by Uganda‘s central government under the Traditional Rulers Restitution of Assets and
Properties Act CAP 247 (Okuku, 2006). The BLB issues leases, promotes proper use and development of
land, and undertakes registration of tenants and regularization of occupancy on land under its mandate
(BLB, 2012)
The KDLB is a body whose establishment, operation and mandate is based on provisions for district land
boards made in Sections 57, 60 and 61 of The Land Act 1998 and is responsible for the management of
public land within Kampala District. It does this through the issuance of leases, change of use, subdivision
and transfer consents.(SIDA, 2002).
KCCA is a body established by the central government (through the Kampala Capital City Act 2010) to
administer Kampala city on its behalf. KCCA replaced the former Kampala City Council and has taken
over planning (preparation of physical development plans, development control, and approval of
12
development applications) functions vest in local authorities by Section 11 of the Physical Planning Act
2010.
Key informant interviews were conducted with land management professionals and physical planners at
the BLB, KDLB and KCCA. Key informant interviews provided data on the mandate of these bodies
regarding land tenure and urban developments and supplemented secondary data that had been gathered
on (a) Land tenure systems in Kampala (b) Land access, land subdivision and land development processes
under different land tenure systems (c) Land access, Land subdivision and land development challenges
encountered by actors (d) Identification of actors at a higher level and (d) Measures that can be taken by
actors at a higher level to address the challenges highlighted; data relevant to sub objective 2 and 3 of this
study. Because of uniformity of the information sought, key informant interview schedules though similar
were amended to reflect the functions of each institution. Appendix 1 attached is a schedule for the key
informant interview conducted at the BLB.
An interview was conducted with a knowledgeable independent land expert in Kampala who gave further
insights on the influence of land tenure on urban developments in Kampala, land tenure related challenges
in access, subdivision and development of land and measures that can be taken to address these
challenges. Table 3 below gives a summary of key informants interviewed.
Table 3: Key informants interviewed

Institution Role of key informant No of
interviews
Buganda Land Board Physical Planner 1
Kampala District Land Board Land Officer 1
Kampala Capital City Authority Physical Planner 1
Nakawa Division Urban Council Physical Planner 1
Independent land expert Mr. Eddie Nsamba-Gayiiya (Registered valuation 1
surveyor)
To augment data obtained from key informant interviews on measures which can be taken by actors and
actors at a higher level to improve land access, land subdivision and land development processes under
different land tenure systems (Questions under Sub objective 3) review of various literature on (a) the
efficacy of current land legislations in Uganda (b) measures that have been adopted in other parts of the
world to achieve planned urban developments in spite of unclear tenure relations was undertaken.
4.1.2. Case level

Due to the large size of the Kampala city (approximately 195 Sq Km), cases were selected where detailed
studies on the influence of land tenure on urban developments were done. Yin (1994, p. 23) defines ―the
case study method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life
context; when boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple
sources of evidence are used‖. The method primarily supports the selection of case areas within a wider
study area where in-depth contextual analysis of the study is undertaken. It is based on the assumption
that selected cases typify sections within the wider study area thus providing a basis for generalization of
case study research findings (Kumar, 2005).
Background to case selection

The dual system of land ownership and management which existed in pre-colonial Kampala (Kibuga
versus Kampala Municipality) was drawn upon as the first distinction between the three case areas
13
selected. Other criteria that guided the selection of case study areas are the differences in spatial patterns
of urban development based on visual interpretation of 2010 orthophoto of Kampala, literature review on
urban developments in Kampala and information gathered during key informant interviews. The three
selected case study areas are discussed below.
Case I: Bwaise III Parish

Bwaise III parish is located about 5 kilometres north of Kampala‘s Central Business District and is
accessed via Bombo road which links the area to the northern bypass. The parish is in Kawempe division
and is comprised of five zones namely Kalimali, Bukasa, Bugalani, St. Francis, Katoogo and Kawaala
Road. One of the early occupants of Bwaise III interviewed places origin of the settlement in the 1920s.
Since the settlement is on land owned by the Buganda Kingdom, individuals, subjects of the king (Baganda)
in need of land would contact the village chief (Omutongole) and inform him of the need of an area to settle.
The chief would allocate them land and issue them a letter indicating their occupancy. This letter would be
used for identification, registration of occupancy and obtaining of development permission at the
kingdoms central offices. Bwaise III has since evolved in to a settlement with a population of 15,015
people within a parish boundary measuring approximately 57 Ha (UBOS, 2002).
Bwaise III (a) evolved under different land ownership and management first by the Buganda Kingdom,
then the central government following abolition of Kingdoms by the 1967 Uganda constitution, then
under the Buganda Kingdom following enactment of the Traditional Rulers Restitution of Assets and
Properties Act CAP 247 in 1993 which saw return of public mailo land to the Buganda kingdom (b)
evolved on a low lying area; formerly a wet land connected to the Lubigi wetlands and faces a yearly
problem of flash floods which disrupt everyday life, cause destruction of property, breakdown of transport
and disease outbreaks (c) has been identified as one of the flood prone areas within the Lubigi catchment
area where a study on integrated flood management is being done by the UN Habitat in conjunction with
KCCA (d) in spite of these problems occupation and development in the area continues necessitating an
examination of land access, land subdivision and land development processes in this area.
Case II: Mailo Land access by a real estate company

To illustrate the effect of land tenure on urban developments, the key informant interviewed at the BLB
highlighted challenges encountered by one real estate company when acquiring land in Buziga area for
residential development. The case was further investigated and forms Case II in this research. The land
examined in this case is owned by the Buganda Kingdom, occupies sections of Konge, Kyamula and
Katuuso zones and has a mix of high income and low income residential developments.
Case III: Ntinda Parish

Ntinda parish lies about 8 kilometres northeast of Kampala‘s central business district. Administratively,
Ntinda is located in Nakawa division and is comprised of 18 zones. The parish has an area of
approximately 263 Ha and a population of 9,094 (UBOS, 2002). Ntinda falls on land formerly owned by
the colonial government. Though the parish does not lie within the boundary of the former Kampala
Municipality, it falls within the adjacent areas identified for expansion of Kampala Township by the 1951
Kampala plan. It is one of the first planned settlements occupied by Africans and largely evolved after
independence first as an estate constructed by the government to house staff of the East African Railways
and Harbours, then under private individuals following privatisation which resulted in the issuance of
leases to individuals. The map below shows the selected case study areas.
14
Figure 8: Selected case study areas.
Data collection methods employed within case study areas are discussed below.
Household interviews
House hold questionnaires were applied to collect data on research questions within case study areas.
Household questionnaires targeted leaseholders in Ntinda parish and occupants with claims on land in
Bwaise III parishes. To assess the appropriateness of the formulated questionnaire in obtaining the
information required a sample of ten questionnaires were administered by the researcher in Bwaise III
parish. An examination of the sample questionnaires administered showed no great variation in the
answers obtained. Based on this observation and the homogeneity of urban developments in the parish a
sample of 60 respondents was interviewed. To ensure spread/ distribution of sample points in the parish,
the area was divided in to 100 x 100 m grids. Within each grid two houses occupied by occupants with
claims to land were to be purposefully selected where interviews would be conducted. Realization of the
pre field work sampling strategy was hampered by (a) the nature of house ownership within the parish. In
Bwaise III there are houses constructed and occupied by occupants with claims to land and houses
constructed by occupants with claims to land (mainly row houses) and rented out. Occupants of rental
row houses are tenants of occupants with claims on land who were not the target of the household survey
therefore the researcher had to move within each grid to find houses occupied by plot holders (b) because
of the informal state of rights of occupants and existing disputes between occupants and registered land
owners the information sought by this study on access to land and evidence of occupancy was considered
sensitive by some occupants who declined to be interviewed (c) few occupants were sampled in Kawaala
Road zone which has few occupants as most of the land is either a wet land or comprises the northern by
pass road reserve. This resulted in the distribution of sampled households shown in the map below where
some grids have no sampled occupants and others have more than two occupants sampled. The
information obtained from the sampled occupants is however representative of land access, land
subdivision and land development processes in the parish as there is no diverse difference in occupancy
characteristics and urban developments in Bwaise III.
15
Figure 9: Sampled households in Bwaise III Parish
To address the challenges described above the researcher sought the help of the chairman LC1 Kalimali
zone to help in identifying plot holders and giving further clarification on the purpose of the study. Other
challenges encountered during data collection are on differences in interpretation of questions by field
assistants even after pre fieldwork training. An examination of questionnaires administered by field
assistants showed good interpretation of questions however there was variation in understanding of the
question on land tenure related challenges encountered by occupants when accessing, subdividing and
developing land where general challenges were given. Further clarification of the information sought
through this question was done. Appendix 2 annexed is a sample of the household questionnaire
administered.
A similar sampling procedure had been outlined for data collection in Ntinda parish. The researcher
however encountered difficulties in administering household questionnaires in the area because it is a high
income area with gated properties which are not easily accessible. Data that was to be collected using
household questionnaires on the origin and growth of Ntinda parish and Land access, Land subdivision
and Land development processes applied in the parish was obtained from the physical planner, Nakawa
division within whose jurisdiction Ntinda parish lies. The division urban planner is the technical officer
charged with implementation of physical development plans, development control, evaluation and
recommendation of development applications at the division level.
Review of land records

To obtain information on land access, land subdivision and land development processes pursued by the
real estate company presented in Case II and challenges encountered, land records and correspondence
between the company and BLB were reviewed. This was supplemented by information obtained from the
key informant interview conducted at the BLB. Further information on details of the proposed
developments was obtained from the website of the architectural firm contracted to prepare layout plans,
architectural plans and topographic survey for the land. Information on the extent of project
implementation was obtained from the website of the real estate company.
16
In-depth interviews
In-depth interviews were conducted with an occupant in St. Francis zone who has is one of the early
occupants in Bwaise III and is knowledgeable on the origin and growth of the settlement and the LC1
chairman for Kalimali zone who gave insight on the roles of Local Councils regarding land access, land
subdivision and land development processes.
Field observation
Field observation was done thorough a transect survey of the two case areas to gain a better understanding
of actual differences in conditions of urban developments. This was aided by 2010 ortho photo of
Kampala. Photographs were used to collect data during the transect survey.
4.2. Quality control

The use of multiple sources of data and multiple methods of data collection enabled examination and
comparison of findings from different sources therefore bolstering the validity of research findings. Key
informant interviews conducted were recorded and transcribed to ensure that responses were presented as
obtained during interviews. To ascertain the relevance of the formulated questionnaire in obtaining the
information needed from the household survey a sample of 10 questionnaires were administered in Bwaise
III. Further training of field assistants was done to avoid misinterpretation of questions.
4.3. Limitations of data collection

Challenges encountered during data collection arise from the structural changes being done to
accommodate new legislations on physical planning (The Physical Planning Act 2010) and management of
the city (The Kampala Capital City Authority Act 2010), thus some of the bodies identified as potential
sources of information before field work like Division Urban Councils did not have some of the targeted
technical staff for key informant interviews hence the information needed was obtained from the KCCA
central office.
The researcher encountered apprehension when conducting an interview at the Kampala District Land
Board because of an existing conflict over the management of public (leasehold) land in Kampala.
4.4. Data analysis

Responses obtained from key informant interviews were transcribed and the questions as set in the
interview guide and the additional questions that came up during interviews matched with the responses
given. The responses have been incorporated in write ups in subsequent chapters. Data on actors involved
in land access, land subdivision and land development processes for land under the tenure systems in
Kampala and their roles was extracted and presented using UML activity diagrams in chapter six of this
research. Data obtained from household questionnaires was coded and analysed using excel and SPSS and
constitutes case study findings presented in chapter 7 of this research.
The figure below gives a diagrammatic summary of the research methodology discussed above.
17
Figure 10: Research design
18
5. LAND TENURE SYSTEMS IN KAMPALA

This chapter presents a detailed description of land tenure systems in Kampala, land rights under each
land tenure system, key actors in each land tenure system and a summary of general observations on the
forms of land holding in Kampala.
5.1. Land tenure systems

Land ownership in Kampala is under the Mailo, Leasehold, Freehold and Customary tenure systems
(MoLHUD & UNDP, 2008). These are the four tenure systems through which land can be held in
Uganda and are stipulated in article 237 of the 1995 constitution of Uganda. These are discussed in detail
below.
5.1.1. The Mailo land tenure system

The Mailo land tenure system derives its origins from the 1900 agreement which led to the allocation of
land between the Kabaka of the Buganda, notables, chiefs, church and the colonial state(Okuku, 2006).
Since its inception the land tenure system has gone through changes guided by various laws enacted by the
different Ugandan governments the latest being The Land Act 1998 and The Land Amendment Act 2010.
Land holding under the Mailo tenure system as prescribed by The Land Act 1998 is by registered land
(Mailo) owners who own land in perpetuity2. The Mailo land tenure system ―separates ownership of land
from ownership of developments on land by lawful, bonafide and tenants by occupancy‖3
A lawful occupant as defined in Section 30 (1) of The Land Act 1998 is ―a person occupying land by
virtue of (a) the repealed Busuulu and Envujjo law 1928 (b) Toro landlord and tenant law of 1937 (c)
Ankole landlord and tenant law of 1937 (d) a person occupying land by consent of registered land owner
including purchase (e) a person who had occupied land as a customary tenant whose occupancy was not
disclosed or compensated for by the registered owner by the time of acquiring the leasehold certificate of
title‖4.
Section 30 (2) of The Land Act 1998 defines a bonafide occupant as ―(a) a person who had occupied and
utilised or developed any land unchallenged by the registered owner or agent of the registered owner for
twelve years or more before enactment of the 1995 Ugandan constitution (b) had been settled on land by
government or agent of government which may include a local authority (c) a person who had purchased
or acquired interest on land‖5. Section 4 (c) of The Land Act 1998 grants lawful and bonafide occupants
all rights ascribed to owners of land under the freehold land tenure system. These are use rights, rights to
enter in to transaction (sell, lease, mortgage, pledge) in connection with land, rights to subdivide land and
rights to dispose land6.
Tenant by occupancy as defined in section 31 (1) of the Land Act 1998 is ―a person who had occupied
and utilised or developed land unchallenged by the land owner or an agent of the registered owner for less
2 Section 4(4)(a),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 10)

3 Section 4(4)(b), The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 10)
4 Section 30(1),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 36)
5 Section 30(2),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 36)
6 Section 4(2)(b),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998)
19
than twelve years‖7 . Tenants by occupancy are tenants of the registered land owner according to Section
32(2) of The Land Act 1998 thus pay ground rent to the registered owner. Sections 32-39 of the Land Act
1998 prescribe the procedure for obtaining certificate of occupancy by tenants by occupancy upon which
they acquire rights to ―use, assign, sublet or pledge, and subdivide land‖ 8 subject to consent of the
registered land owner. ―Tenancy by occupancy is inheritable‖9 .
The figure below summarizes land rights under Mailo land tenure system.
Documentary evidence
Rights of ownership
Registered Mailo Owner Use, Transaction (Sell, Lease, Mortgage, Certificate of title
pledge, Subdivide), Disposal
Lawful Occupant
Use, Transaction (Sell, Lease, Mortgage,
pledge, Subdivide) Disposal
Certificate of occupancy
Bonafide Occupant
Leasehold certificate of title
Use, assign, sublet/pledge, subdivide
Tenant by
occupancy
Where
 Use means right to develop land for any lawful
purpose
 Transaction means right to undertake (sell,
lease, mortgage, pledge, subdivision) operations
on land.
 Disposal means right to dispose land to any
person at will
 Assign/Sublet means rights to transfer tenancy
Subject to consent of registered Mailo owner
Figure 11: Land rights under the Mailo land tenure system
In Kampala ownership of land under the Mailo tenure system is by private individuals (private Mailo land)
and by the Buganda Kingdom (Public Mailo land). Public Mailo land in Kampala is comprised of a section
of the 350 Square miles of land returned to the Buganda Kingdom by the central government under The
Traditional Ruler‘s Restitution of Assets and Properties Act Cap 247 in 1993 and is managed by the
Buganda Land Board. Land under the Mailo tenure system is located in Rubaga, Kawempe and Makindye
divisions.
5.1.2. The Leasehold land tenure system

Leasehold land tenure system is a form of land ownership ―created by a contract or operation of law
under which a land lord or lessor grants or is deemed to have granted another person namely tenant or
lessee exclusive possession of land usually but not necessarily for a period defined directly or indirectly by
7 Section 31(1),The Land Act 1998 (RoU, 1998, p. 37)

8 Section 35(1),The Land Act 1998 (RoU, 1998, p. 41)
9 Section 35(2) The Land Act 1998(RoU, 1998, p. 41)
20
reference to a specific date of commencement and a specific date of ending‖ 10 . Leasehold tenure in
Kampala is comprised of public land formerly owned by the colonial government whose ownership fell
under the Uganda Land Commission (ULC) after independence as prescribed by the 1969 Public Land
Act and whose and management the commission vest in the Land Board of the Kampala City Council.
The land is currently managed by the KDLB as per Section 60 of the Land Act 1998 and the ULC which
manages land occupied by government offices, schools, hospitals and missions.
Land holding under leasehold tenure is by individuals who have been leased land by the KDLB and hold
leasehold certificate of titles and individuals who occupy the land customarily and can be issued with a
certificate of customary ownership. Leaseholders have use, transaction (lease, mortgage, subdivision, sell)
and disposal rights subject to consent of the KDLB. Section 29 of The Land Act 1998 provides for the
conversion of leasehold land to freehold tenure for leases issued before enactment of the Act and
conversion of certificate of customary ownership to free hold certificate of title under Sections 13. The
official interviewed at the KDLB however indicated that the board has not issued any certificates of
customary ownership yet. Land under leasehold tenure is located mainly in Central and Nakawa divisions.
The figure below summarises the rights of land holders under the leasehold land tenure system.
Documentary evidence of
Rights ownership
 Use Conversion to Endorsed

 Transaction(lease, Leasehold freehold for leasehold
Leaseholder mortgage, certificate of title Leases issued certificate of
subdivide, sell) title
before 1998
 Disposal
Subject to KDLB
consent
Figure 12: Land rights under the leasehold land tenure system
5.1.3. The Freehold land tenure system

Freehold tenure entails ―holding of registered land in perpetuity‖11. Rights associated with freehold land
ownership as outlined in Section 4 (2)(b) of the Land Act 1998 are use rights, right to derive benefits from
land, transaction (sell, lease, mortgage, pledge, subdivision) and disposal rights12.
Freehold land tenure system in Kampala is comprised of land owned by institutions like churches,
schools, mosques and land under leasehold tenure being converted to freehold in accordance with
Sections 13 of The Land Act 1998. The figure below illustrates land rights under the freehold land tenure
system.
10 Section 4 (5)(a)(c),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 11)

11 Section 4,(2)(a),The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998, p. 10)
12 Section 4, (2)(b), The Land Act 1998,(RoU, 1998)
21
Land owned by institutions Documentary evidence of

(Churches, Mosques, Schools, ownership
Rights
NGOs )
Freehold certificate of title
Use rights
Transaction (Sell, Lease, Mortgage,
Subdivide)
Disposal Endorsed certificate of title
Land converted from leasehold to
freehold tenure (Leases existing
before 1998)
Figure 13: Land rights under the freehold land tenure system
5.1.4. The Customary land tenure system

Customary tenure is described in Section 4(1)(a)(b) of The Land Act 1998 as a form of land tenure
―applicable to a specific area, land, description of persons governed by rules accepted as binding to the
class of people to which it applies‖ 13 . SIDA (2002) , Okuku (2006) and the Independent land expert
interviewed identified customary tenure as the dominant form of land holding in Uganda with exception
of land falling in urban areas and under the Buganda Kingdom. Kampala being an urban area located on
land previously owned by the Buganda Kingdom has limited if any incidence of customary land tenure.
Though previous research on land tenure, informal settlements and urban developments in Kampala by
SIDA (2002), MoLHUD and UNDP (2008), UN-Habitat (2007) , the independent land expert and key
informants interviewed at the KCCA and KDLB all identify customary tenure as one of the land tenure
systems in Kampala its existence could not be verified because;
a. The KDLB which is tasked with regularization of customary occupancy has not issued any
certificates of customary occupancy;
b. In the absence of certificates of occupancy, the researcher did not find any alternate procedures that
have been put in place to address land access, land subdivision and land development for land under
customary tenure;
c. Land under customary tenure could not be located spatially during the interview conducted with an
official at the KDLB nor from land tenure map (Fig.14) obtained from KCCA GIS unit.
Based on the above observations customary tenure has not been addressed in subsequent discussions in
this research.
The map below shows the distribution of land tenure systems in Kampala.
13 Section 4 (1)(a)(b),The Land Act 1998(RoU, 1998, p. 9)

22
Figure 14: Land tenure systems in Kampala
Source: KCCA GIS unit. (This map gives general indications of land
holding under different land tenure systems in Kampala for the
purposes of this research)
The table below gives a summary of key characteristics of the land tenure systems described above.
Table 4: Key characteristics of land tenure systems in Kampala

Land tenure systems
Mailo Leasehold Freehold
1 Dominant land tenure system Second largest form of land Least form of land holding
in Kampala. This also holding in Kampala. in Kampala.
supported by findings of
(Giddings, 2009, p. 12) (SIDA,
2002, p. 97; UN-Habitat, 2007,
p. 15)
2 Comprised of public Mailo Comprised of public land owned Comprised of land owned by
land owned by the Buganda by the government and managed institutions.(Churches,
Kingdom and private Mailo by KDLB Schools, NGOs)
land owned by individuals
3 Land owned in perpetuity Land leased to private individuals Land owned in perpetuity
by KDLB
4 Separates ownership of land Does not separate ownership of Does not separate ownership
from ownership of land from ownership of of land from ownership of
developments on land by developments on land developments on land
occupants
5 Land has highest incidence of Land has limited occupancy Considerable land under
occupancy occupants
23
5.2. Key Observations

There are two levels of rights for land under the Mailo tenure systems; rights of the registered land owners
(BLB, Private Mailo Owners) and rights held by occupants over developments on small portions of the
land (Kibanja) registered under the above owners.
Kibanja holders occupy significant portions of land in Kampala. The official interviewed at the BLB
indicated that all public Mailo land which constitutes about (14%) of land in Kampala according to
(Fig.14) had Kibanja claims when returned to the kingdom in 1993. In order to understand the effect of
land tenure on urban developments, it is imperative to examine the origin and evolution of Kibanja
occupancy and the laws that have shaped tenure relations between Kibanja occupants and registered land
owners.
Kibanja occupancy existed in Buganda before colonialism as peasant (bakopi) rights to land. Peasants had
occupation and cultivation rights to small portions of land owned by chiefs which they paid for by
offering labour to the chiefs (Batungi & Rüther, 2008). The 1900 agreement between the colonial
government and the Kabaka of the Buganda formalised kings (kabaka) rights, chiefs (obutongole) rights, clan
(obutaka) rights, and hereditary (obwesengese) rights to land who became the new Mailo landlords and
precluded peasant rights to land who became tenants of the new landlords creating multiple rights to land
which have persisted to date (Okuku, 2006).
Though various laws have been enacted overtime to address multiple rights to land, the independent land
expert interviewed and Okuku (2006) cite the 1928 busuulu and envujjo law and the 1975 land reform
decree as the legislations that have had significant impact on landlord tenant tenure relations. They
maintain that while the 1928 busuulu and envujjo law improved security of tenants by restricting arbitrary
evictions and limiting the rent charged by landlords the 1975 land reform decree by making all land in
Uganda public, abolishing all forms of absolute land ownership (Mailo and Freehold land tenure) and
abolishing the payment of ground rent increased unauthorised occupation of land which extended to land
under Freehold tenure.
The Land Act 1998 is the most recent legislation that addresses landlord tenant relations. The Land Act
1998 grouped tenants into lawful, bonafide, tenant by occupancy and customary occupants based on
criteria discussed under subheading 5.1.1 of this report. The Act provides further legislations on landlord
tenant relations in Sections 31, 32, 33 and 34 some of which were repealed by the Land Amendment Act
2010. The provisions made in these acts have however not resolved conflicts in landlord tenant relations.
The Uganda National Land Policy (2011) and the Independent land expert interviewed attribute this to
controversies over (a) rights accorded to bonafide occupants (b) provisions on eviction of occupants and
(c) provisions on ground rent prescribed by The Land Act 1998. This coupled with failure by the
government to put up land tribunals, land committees and mediators proposed by The Land Act 1998 to
aid in regularization of occupancy have resulted in a situation where the rights accorded to lawful,
bonafide and tenants by occupancy have never been realised. In view of the failure of measures proposed
by the Land Act 1998 to aid in regularization of occupancy, the registered land owners (BLB, Institutions)
and KCCA have come up with alternate procedures through which occupants can regularize their
occupancy. These are discussed in the following chapter.
24
6. LAND ACCESS, LAND SUBDIVISION AND LAND

DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES
This chapter presents land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the land tenure
systems in Kampala, the actors involved in these processes and their roles.
6.1. Land access processes
The Mailo land tenure system

Land ownership under the Mailo land tenure system is by private mailo owners and the Buganda
Kingdom. Private Mailo land is owned in perpetuity and is accessed through purchase or inheritance upon
which rights vested in a Mailo title are transferred to the new owner. The figure below shows the land
transfer process act
forComponent
privateModel
Mailo land.
Applicant Registra of titles Kampala Mailo Office Chief Gov ernment Valuer
Applies for consent to

transfer land
Ev aluates applicaiton
No Yes
Applicant
appeal
Issues land transfer consent
Forw ards application to chief Assesses stamp

gov ernment v aluer duty to be paid
Pays stamp duty to

Uganda Rev enue
Authority
Forw ards application
to registra of titles
Kampala Mailo Office
Prepares certificate of title
Forw ards title to applicant
Transaction
End
Figure 15: Land transfer process; private Mailo land
Land owned by the Buganda Kingdom is managed by the Buganda Land Board. Land falling under the
board within Kampala was highly encumbered by Kibanja occupants when it was returned to the
Kingdom by the central government in 1993. The board has however provided a process for
regularization of occupancy by which it grants leases to occupants. The figure below shows the lease
application procedure for land falling under the BLB.
25
act Activ ity ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF LAND TENURE ON URBAN DEVELOPMENTS IN KAMPALA
Applicant BLB Lease Committee BLB Executiv e Commitee BLB Surv eyor KCCA Commissioner Surv eys Commissiner Land
Registration
Obtains application
form from BLB
Obtains LC1 Ev aluates application Ev aluates Undertakes

recommendation letter application topographic surv ey
Submits LC1 No
Applicant
recommendation Prepares
appeal
letter,sale agreement, > Acre subdiv ision
Forw ards to Yes
location plan,photograph scheme
executiv e
of dev elopments on site
< Acre committee
to BLB
<1 Acre Forw ards application Submits
Pays ground rent Assesses and sets ground rent Ev aluates subdiv ision
for procesing by lease subdiv ision
application
committee scheme to KCCA
Authorises commencement of Corrects

surv ey w ork No Yes
subdiv ision
scheme
Issues approv al
Undertakes cadasral Forw ards approv al to

surv ey BLB surv eyor
Submits surv ey data to

commissioner surv eys Prepares deed plans
Forw ards deed plans to

Prepares lease agreements
lease committee
Forw ards lease agreements to Prepares leasehold

commissioner land registarion certificate of title
Secretary and chairman

BLB append their Forw ards title to
signature on title executiv e
committee
Forw ards
title to Forw ard title to lease
Transaction committee
end applicant
Figure 16: Lease application procedure for land managed by the BLB
26
The Leasehold land tenure system

Land falling under the leasehold land tenure system is managed by the ULC and the KDLB. The ULC
manages land occupied by government offices, schools, hospitals and missions thus cannot be leased by
the public for private use. Land falling under the KDLB is accessed by the public through the procedure
shown below.
act KDLB
Applicant Area Land Committee Kampala District Land Board Chief Gov ernment Valuer Commissoner Land Registration
Obtains application
form from ALC
Payment of Receiv es lease

application fees to applicaiton fees
ALC
Submits filled lease

application form and Receiv e application
4 passport photos to for lease
ALC
Field v isit to v erify

boundaries
Adv ertises lease

application for 14
days in a w idely read
new spaper
Prepares a report
Ev aluates appliation
and forw ards it to
the KDLB
No Yes
Correction
Approv es application
considering comments
arising from public notice,
planning and
env ironmental
concerns,stipulates land
use and ground rent
Forw ards application to chief Assesses stamp

gov ernment v aluer duty to be paid
Pays stamp duty to
Uganda Rev enue
Authority
Forw ards lease approv al

to commissioner land Prepares leasehold
registration certificate of title
Title signed by Chairman Forw ards title to KDLB

and Sectretary Kampala
District Land Board
Forw ards title to

applicant
Transaction End
Figure 17: Lease application process for land under the Leasehold tenure system
27
The Freehold land tenure system

The Freehold land tenure system is comprised of land owned by institutions like churches, mosques,
schools, NGOs and land converted from leasehold tenure. The land set aside for institutional use is not to
be accessed and developed by private individuals, it is however heavily encumbered by Kibanja holders
thus the registered land owners in consultation with KCCA have provided a process by which Kibanja
act holders on freehold land can regularize their occupancy though acquiring of leases. This is shown below.
Component Model
Applicant Local Council 1 Registered Land Priv ate Surv eyor KCCA Commissioner Chief Gov ernment Commissioner Land
Ow ner Surv ey Valuer Registration
Applies for proof
of user rights
from LC1
Field v isit
Issues
recommendation
letter and sketch of
land indicating
adj acent occupants
Applies for consent
to subdiv ide land
from registered
land ow ner , Forw ards
attaches copy of recommendaton
LC1 letter to applicant
recommendation
letter
Ev aluates
applicaiton for
land subdiv ision
No Yes
Ascertain user
rights
Contracts priv ate
surv eyor to
preopare Issues
topographic surv ey subdiv ision
and subdiv ision consent
Undertakes
scheme topographic surv ey
and prepares
subdiv ision
scheme
Submits
subdiv ision Ev aluates
scheme to KCCA application
No Yes
Corrects
Issues
Cadastral surv ey subdiv ision
approv al
Submits cadastral
surv ey data to Issues deed
commissioner plans
surv ey
Submits
application to Forw ard
chief gov ernment application to
v aluer applicant
Assesses stamp
duty
Pays, premium, Assesses ground

ground rent and rent and premium
stamp duty
Prepares
Forw ards
leasehold
application to
certificate of title
commissioner land
registration
Forw ards
leasehold
to applicant
Transaction End
Figure 18: Lease application procedure for land under Freehold land tenure system
28
6.2. Land subdivision processes
The Mailo land tenure system

The subdivision process for land falling under Private Mailo owners is shown below.
act Priv ate mailo
Applicant Priv ate Surv eyor KCCA Registra titles Kampala Commissioner Chief Gov ernment
Mailo Office Surv ey Valuer
Applicant contracts private
surveyor to do a topographic
survey and prepare
subdivision scheme
Undertakes topographic
surv ey
Prepares subdiv ision

scheme
Submits subdiv ision Ev aluates subdiv ision

to KCCA application
No Yes
Correct
Applys for subdiv ision
and tranfer consent
from the registra of Forw ards approv al to Issues subdiv ision
titles, Kampala Mailo applicant approv al
Office
Issues consent to
subdiv ide and
transfer land
Cadastral surv ey
Submits surv ey Issues deed

records to plans
commissioner
surv ey
Submits transfer
consent forms and
Forw ards deed
deed plans to chief
plans to
gov ernment v aluer
applicant
Assesses stamp
duty to be paid
Pays stamp duty to
Uganda Rev enue
Authority
Forw ards
documents to
registra of titles,
Kampala Mailo
Office
Prepares
Forw ards title to

applicant
Transaction
End
Figure 19: Land subdivision process for private Mailo land
29
Land owned by the Buganda Kingdom has largely been informally partitioned on the ground based on
extents of Kibanja claims to land. Boundaries existing on the ground are formalised through subdivision
and cadastral survey which are incorporated in the lease regularization procedure (Figure 16) discussed
under land access procedures.
The Leasehold land tenure system

Subdivision procedure for land under the leasehold land tenure system is shown below.
act Component Model
Applicant Priv ate Surv eyor Kampala Capital City Kampala District Land District Surv eyor Commissioner Commissioner Land
Authority Board Surv eys Registration
Applicant contracts
private surveyor to
prepare subdivision
scheme
Prepares
subdiv ision
scheme
Submits Forw ards

subdiv ision subdiv ision
scheme and scheme to
copy of title applicant
deed to KCCA Ev aluates
application
Corrects No Yes
Issues approv al
Applys for
subdiv ision
consent from the Forw ard approv al to
KDLB applicant
Ev aluates subdiv ision

application
Issues subdiv ision

consent
Contracts priv ate

surv eyor to Forw ards consent to
undertake applicant
cadastral surv ey
undertakes
cadastral
surv ey
Submit surv ey
data to the Ev aluates
district application
surv eyor
Corrects No Yes
Forw ards
applicaiton to Issues deed
commissioner plans
surv eys
Secretary
KDLB forw ards Forw ards
application to application to
commissioner KDLB
Prepares
land leasehold
registration certificate of title
Title is signed by
Chairman and Forw ards title to
secretary KDLB KDLB
Forw ard title to

applicant
Transaction End
Figure 20: Subdivision process for land under Leasehold tenure
30
The Freehold land tenure system

Land falling under the freehold land tenure system is informally partitioned by Kibanja occupants who
have claims on the land. Subdivision and survey of boundaries is incorporated in regularization of
occupancy procedure (Figure 18) discussed under land access processes.
6.3. Land development Processes

Section 12 of the Physical Planning Act 2010 vests the powers of preparation of physical development
plans, implementation of physical development plans and development control on urban physical planning
committees constituted in local authorities. Since the enactment of The Kampala Capital City Authority
Act 2010 planning functions of the former Kampala City Council are executed by KCCA. KCCA is the
only body charged with physical planning in Kampala thus all developments in the city are subject to the
same application procedure. Development as defined under Section 2 of the Physical Planning Act 2010
incorporates both construction of buildings and subdivision on land therefore the process shown below
incorporates both subdivision and building approval application processes.
act Component Model
Applicant Planner Div ision Urban Council KCCA central planning office Physical Planning Committee
Contracts registered Contracts surveyor to
architect to prepare prepare subdivision
building plans plan
Submission of
Submission of
subdiv ison plan
buiding plans and
and copy of
copy of ow nership
ow nership
document to DUC
document to DUC
Ev aluates application
No Yes
Issues recommendation
letter
Forw ards application to Application ev aluated by

KCCA central planning chief tow n planner, chief
office building surv eyor and
principal staff surv eyor
Issue recommendations
to physical planning Ev aluates application
committee
No Yes
Issues approv al letter
Forw ard
rej ection/approv al to
applicant
Transaction End
Figure 21: Development application procedure for land falling under the jurisdiction of KCCA
31
6.4. Conclusions
From the above discussions it is observed that the state of land rights under the different land tenure
systems influences land access and land subdivision processes employed by actors. Land access processes
under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems are basically lease regularization procedures because of
extensive Kibanja occupancy whose rights are not registered. Land subdivision under these tenure systems
are part of the lease regularization procedure an indication that Kibanja claims to land are not surveyed.
Land access and land subdivision processes under Leasehold tenure are separate and indication of well
managed land rights. Also noted is the key role played by KCCA in approving subdivision and
development applications under all the land tenure systems in Kampala and the requirement by KCCA for
all subdivision and building applications submitted for evaluation to have attached copy of ownership
documents which links land access to land subdivision and land development processes.
In the next chapter land access, land subdivision and land development processes are examined in detail
within the selected case study areas with a view to assessing the effect rules of tenure have on these
processes and the resultant effect on urban developments.
32
7. THE EFFECT OF LAND TENURE ON URBAN

DEVELOPMENTS
This chapter presents the effects of land tenure on urban developments by examining land access, land
subdivision and land development processes in the selected case study areas.
7.1. Case I: Bwaise III Parish

Bwaise III parish has a mix of residential (single dwelling units and Row houses), commercial cum
residential, commercial developments and public facilities including churches, schools, mosques, public
toilets among others. The main roads in the area (Bombo, Nabweru, and Kawaala Road) are fronted by
storied commercial cum residential developments. The roads feeding into the main roads though
motorable are not well defined but are also lined by commercial cum residential developments. The rest of
the developments in the area are accessed via lanes defined by occupants to provide access to their houses.
The figure below shows the spatial pattern of developments in Bwaise III
Figure 22: Spatial patterns of developments in Bwaise III
7.1.1. Land access

Land in Bwaise III being (a) Under the Mailo tenure system (b) Owned by the Buganda Kingdom is
primarily under Kibanja occupation thus not subject to the issuance of new leases. Land access processes
in the parish are limited to regularization of occupancy done through the lease application procedure
illustrated by Figure16. Most occupants in Bwaise III have however not regularized their occupancy. This
shown by findings of the survey done in the parish (Table 5 below) where majority of the occupants
interviewed hold LC1 agreements and sale agreements as documentary evidence of occupancy.
Table 5: Documentary evidence of occupancy in Bwaise III Parish

Evidence of occupancy Percentage %
LC1 Agreement 38.3
Sale Agreement 33.3
Lease from BLB 11.7
Others 16.7
NB. Total No. of respondents is 60
Source: Household survey
33
LC1 agreements are drawn by executive members of Local Council 1 in charge of a zone; the lowest unit
within the KCCA administrative structure while sale agreements are drawn between occupants when
buying/selling land. The third entry in table 5 above represents occupants who have obtained leases from
the BLB while category others represent occupants who do not hold any of the above documents as
evidence of ownership.
Further investigation of evidence of ownership for occupants falling under category others showed that
these occupants obtained permission to settle on land directly from the Buganda Kingdom via the
Omutongole14 and comprise category (Lease) under means of accessing land or inherited land and do not
hold any documents as evidence of occupancy. These occupants have been on the settlement for more
than 30 years but comprise a minority as most of the occupants (68.3%) purchased land they occupy and
have been in the settlement for less than 20 years. This is shown by the bar charts below
Figure 23: A comparison of documentary evidence of occupancy and means of accessing land and years of
occupancy
7.1.2. Land subdivision

Most of the occupants in Bwaise III have not subdivided or subleased portions of their land to other
people. Only 5% of the occupants interviewed have subdivided their land indicating that occupants have
claims to small portions of land. The parish however has high population density (265 persons per
hectare) according to UBOS (2002) and high density of developments. This is attributable to row houses
partitioned mainly in to one roomed compartments constructed by occupants and rented out an
observation made when conducting household interviews and verified through an in depth interview with
one of the earliest occupants in Bwaise III.
7.1.3. Land development

Majority of developments in Bwaise III are constructed without approval of the KCCA. Out of the 60
occupants interviewed (38.3%) responded as having approvals from KCCA. This percentage is however
high compared to the percentage (11.7%) of occupants who qualify (have leases from the BLB) to apply
for development permission from the KCCA. A comparison of documentary evidence of ownership and
development approval status (Fig.24 below) showed occupants with Sale agreements, LC1 agreements as
having development approvals. Further investigation showed that these occupants obtain ―verbal no
objections‖ to put up buildings on land from KCCA officials at the Kawempe division office and have not
obtained official development permission from the KCCA central planning office.
14 Omutongole is the chief in charge of a village which is the lowest administrative unit in the Buganda Kingdom
34
Figure 24: Comparison of development approval status and

documentary evidence of occupancy
7.1.4. Observations
The findings of Case I discussed above are representative of land access, land subdivision and land
development procedures undertaken on land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems which are
predominantly under Kibanja occupancy. From the discussions the following observations are made;
a. Because of Kibanja occupancy land access processes under the Mailo and Freehold tenure
systems are largely informal. This evidenced by the high number of occupants holding LC1 and
Sale agreements as documentary evidence of occupancy.
b. Informality in land access processes is replicated in land subdivision and land development
processes as LCI agreements and Sale agreements are neither recognized nor admissible as valid
evidence of occupancy in the KCCA subdivision and development approval procedure.
These findings corroborate sentiments expressed by the Physical Planner interviewed at KCCA who
highlighted the unregistered state of Kibanja occupancy as an impediment to planning in Kampala. He
remarked ―land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems in Kampala has two owners, the registered land owners and
Kibanja occupants who settle on land, they hold no title or papers to but they have possession on the ground. That is where the
challenge comes in as far as planning is concerned. This observation is also in line with findings of previous
research on land tenure on urban developments by MoLHUD and UNDP (2008) , UN-Habitat (2007),
Van Nostrand (1994) and Giddings (2009) all who identified multiple rights to land as one of the greatest
impediments to planned urban developments in Kampala
To further illustrate the effect of Kibanja occupancy on land access, land subdivision and land
development processes case II is presented below.
7.2. Case II: Mailo Land access by a real estate company

A real estate company intending to put up a high income residential housing approached the BLB with the
intention of leasing land. The BLB identified land with minimum Kibanja occupation measuring
approximately 141.5 hectares falling under Konge, Kyamula, Katuuso zones in Buziga for lease. The Real
Estate Company applied for lease in November 2007 and was issued a provisional lease in December 2007
and final lease in January 2008. The duration it took to process the lease application is notably short
35
compared the five years highlighted by Giddings (2009) as the duration it takes to acquire leases on land
under leasehold tenure.
Developments proposed by the company would entail subdivision of the land, construction of 350 houses
on 90 acres with the remaining land set for recreational and educational use. The subdivision proposal
made incorporated existing roads and houses. The proposed developments were grouped in to 9 phases.
Phase 9 would be implemented last because of high Kibanja occupation. A topographic survey for the
land was done in 2008 and subdivision and architectural plans submitted and development permission
obtained from KCCA in February 2009.
The official interviewed at the BLB indicated that ―there were only 6 houses (occupants) on the land when it was
leased to the Real Estate Company‖. The Real Estate Company however declared 25 acres of the land
occupied by Kibanja holders when applying for lease to the BLB. After obtaining the lease, the company
held meetings with about 127occupants in the three zones to agree on ways of compensating them for the
developments they have on land. The company also gave the occupants who could afford opportunity to
buy land they occupy at between 10 and 16 Million Uganda Shillings. Occupation and construction on the
land however continued. By February 2009 the number of Kibanja claims had risen (to 600, 1000, 2000).
Again, the figure varies depending on the source of information indicating that the extent of Kibanja
occupation is not known. The BLB responded by issuing eviction notices to occupants. Eviction notices
and attempts to implement roads designed as part of the project by the real estate company were met with
violent demonstrations and appeals to the Katikkiro (Prime Minister) of the Buganda Kingdom. The
company has managed to develop sections of Zone 1 and 2 of the project and is issuing sub leases for the
rest of the land. The maps below show the land discussed.
Proposed subdivision of the land Zones 1 and 2 (Sections developed)

discussed showing existing buildings Existing roads and buildings.
and roads. (Extracted by the researcher by
Source: Architectural firm contracted to comparing (Fig.26) with 2010 Kampala
prepare layout plans for the proposed building footprint to bring out the extent
developments (http://www.symbion- of Kibanja occupancy on land.
int.com/view_my_project.asp?cid=38)
Figure 25: Proposed developments on the land discussed under Case II
36
7.2.1. Observations
Case II above illustrates the challenges of acquiring land under Kibanja occupancy. From the above
discussions it is observed that;
a. Kibanja occupancy has made the process of acquiring land lengthy and complex. Developers have
to deal with two parties the registered land owner through whom they acquire leases and the
Kibanja occupants who own developments on the ground and who have to be compensated to
free land for development a fact reiterated by the Physical Planner interviewed at KCCA who
remarked ―After obtaining lease from the registered land owner developers have to compensate “buy out” all
occupants on land before they can develop”.
b. The process of compensating Kibanja occupants is unstructured. This was affirmed by the
Physical Planner interviewed at KCCA who highlighted the absence of a procedure to guide land
valuation for the purposes of compensation as a cause of speculation in land values a situation he
expressed as ―Everybody having his own value” resulting in high land prices. Similar views were
expressed by the independent land expert interviewed who remarked ―There is no legislation
stipulating compensation procedures for kibanja occupants this is left to negotiation between the land owner and the
occupants, developers have to negotiate with many occupants on one property making it difficult to assemble land for
development.
c. The unregistered state of Kibanja occupancy is an impediment to the process of identifying

genuine Kibanja claims; this when coupled with the unregulated compensation procedures
described above has crated conditions suitable for speculative occupation of land by individuals
hoping to get compensated, hindering access to land for development.
Case III below illustrates land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the
Leasehold land tenure system.
7.3. Case III: Ntinda Parish

Urban developments in Ntinda are classified into distinct land use zones. These include a medium density
residential zone, low density residential zone, and an industrial zone. The medium density residential zone
is comprised of the first developments in Ntinda constructed as part of housing estate for East African
Railways and Harbours staff by the government in the 1960s. The low density residential zone borders
Kiwatule and UPK parishes and is distinctly under residential use with developments on relatively larger
parcels of land compared to the middle density residential zone. The industrial zone is located on land
fronting Kampala Road and is a part of the wider industrial zone located adjacent to the Railway line. The
parish has a commercial area encompassing the commercial node designated for the housing estate initially
constructed but which has extended to include properties fronting Ntinda Road. This area also houses
numerous offices for Non-Governmental Organizations and professional firms attracted to the area by
affordable office and parking space. All developments in Ntinda parish have access roads.
The figure below shows spatial pattern of developments in Ntinda parish
37
Low density residential Zone
Medium density residential Zone
Industrial Zone
Figure 26: Spatial pattern of

developments in Ntinda Parish
7.3.1. Land access, land subdivision and land development processes

Land in Ntinda is under the Leasehold land tenure system thus it has been acquired, subdivided and
developed in accordance with Land access, Land subdivision and Land development processes illustrated
by (Fig. 17,20,21) discussed under chapter 6.
7.3.2. Observations
Urban developments in Ntinda are formal and fairly well planned and typify developments on land under
leasehold tenure located in Nakasero, Kololo, Kamwokya, Bugolovi, Luzira, Nakawa and Naguru. Though
part of the land under leasehold tenure was planned and developed formally during the colonial period,
urban developments in areas that evolved after independence like Ntinda are formal. The Physical Planner
interviewed attributes this to;
a. The process of accessing leasehold land (Fig.17) which incorporates such aspects as planning,
cadastral survey, issuance of titles and the attachment of user covenants to tittles which stipulate
the use land is to be put to.
b. Ease of enforcement of Land access process for land under leasehold tenure because land is
owned by the government thus individuals intending to lease land have to comply with the set
procedure. As the Physical Planner interviewed affirmed “Even where leasehold land does not lie within a
planned area, it is always handled in this way. Subdivided properly and good access roads provided. It is easier to
regulate development on this land because even the user covenant has been placed there; this is for residential, single
family units, commercial etc.”
7.4. Conclusion
This chapter set out to illustrate the effect of land tenure on urban developments in Kampala by
examining land access, land subdivision and land development processes in three case study areas. From
the discussions above it emerges that land access processes play a key role in determining whether urban
developments are undertaken formally or informally in Kampala. Land access processes under the Mailo
and Freehold tenure systems are largely informal due to the high incidence of Kibanja occupancy whose
rights are not formally registered. Kibanja holders cannot obtain formal development permission because
38
the LC1 and sale agreements they hold are not recognized as valid evidence of occupancy by KCCA thus
subdivisions and developments on land under Kibanja occupancy (Mailo and Freehold tenure) are
undertaken informally. On the other hand land under leasehold tenure is formally registered owing to the
well enforced land access process by the KDLB consequently subdivisions and development processes on
this land are undertaken formally.
Land access processes being the means through which people access rights to land are influenced by rules
of tenure which ―define how people access rights to land‖ (FAO, 2002b, p. 7). Subdivision and
Development processes entail making material changes on land and comprise development according to a
definition provided in Section 2 of the Physical Planning Act 201015 hence the inference drawn above
about land access processes determining whether urban developments are undertaken formally or
informally in Kampala. From the above the link between land tenure and urban developments in Kampala
is drawn. This is illustrated by the figure below.
Urban Developments
Land Land subdivision

Land Tenure
access
Land development
Figure 27: The link between land tenure, land access, land subdivision and land development processes in Kampala.
Having highlighted the key role played by land access processes in influencing urban developments in
Kampala, the next chapter which focuses on land tenure related challenges encountered by actors in
essence examines land tenure systems in Kampala with a view to identifying aspects which constrain or
contribute to informality in land access processes.
15The Physical Planning Act 2010 ,Section 2, ―development means (a)the making of any material change in the use
or density of buildings or land or the subdivision of any land; and (b) the erection of such buildings or works and the
carrying out of such building operations‖(RoU, 2010b, p. 7).
39
8. LAND TENURE RELATED CHALLENGES

This chapter presents land tenure related challenges encountered by actors in land access, land subdivision
and land development processes and measures which can be taken by actors and actors at a higher level to
address these challenges.
8.1. Land tenure related challenges encountered by actors in land access, land subdivision and
land development processes
Kibanja occupancy was identified as the key source of challenges encountered by actors (BLB, Private
Mailo Owners, Institutions) in land access, land subdivision and land development processes under the
Mailo and Freehold land tenure systems. These challenges are therefore presented together followed by
challenges encountered by actors under Leasehold tenure.
8.1.1. Mailo and Freehold land tenure systems

Land access processes for land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems are largely informal as
shown by the high number of occupants holding LC1 and sale agreements as evidence of occupancy in
Case Study I discussed in the previous chapter . Factors underlying the informal state of Kibanja rights are
(a) The disputed rights over (bonafide occupants, ground rent, and eviction provisions) accorded to
Kibanja occupants by The Land Act 1998 and (b) Failure of mechanisms proposed by The Land Act 1998
to aid in regularization of Kibanja occupancy. The land committees, land tribunals and mediators
proposed by the act to facilitate registration of Kibanja rights have never been instituted thus identification
of occupants (Lawful, Bonafide and Tenant by occupancy) has never been done and no certificates of
occupancy have ever been issued. Land access challenges faced by the BLB, Private Mailo owners and
Institutions are associated with these factors. These are;
a. Kibanja occupancy impedes the issuance of leases by BLB to developers and the sale of or
transfer of land by Private Mailo owners and Institutions because Kibanja interests have to be
compensated first, this illustrated by Case II presented in the previous chapter.
b. Regularization of occupancy by Kibanja occupants is impeded by;

i) Low ground rents prescribed by The Land Act 1998 which are considered a disincentive to
regularization of occupancy. Section 32 (3) of The Land Act 1998 grants District Land
Boards and the minister for lands powers to set annual ground rent payable by occupants
while Section 32 (5) of the same act restricts annual ground rent payable by occupants to
1,000 Uganda shillings irrespective of the area or location of land. Following
recommendations by the Uganda National Land Policy (2011) which advocated for setting of
annual ground rent commensurate to the value of land, the annual ground rent payable by
occupants in Kampala for 2012 was set at 50,000 by the minister for lands. This amount is
however still low compared to lease regularization fee charged by the BLB (USh 1,200,000)
and is deterrent to regularization of occupancy for Kibanja holders on land owned by the
Kingdom. The low ground rent also hinders the process of clearing occupants to regularize
their occupancy by private mailo owners and institutions who argue that the ground rent is
still low compared to the high value of developments on land views best illustrated by this
remark by the independent land expert interviewed who argued that ―The Mailo owners have
refused because you cannot cheat me and say you are going to pay 50,000 per annum when you are putting up
40
row houses with 10 units, each one is USh.100, 000 on my land and you are going to pay me 50,000
because The Land Act talks of nominal ground rent”.
ii) Security offered against eviction to Kibanja occupants by the Land Amendment Act 2010.
Kibanja occupants can only be evicted for non-payment of ground rent (already deemed very
low) or upon issuance of an eviction order by a court.
iii) Recognition of rights of lawful and bonafide occupants by The Land Act 1998 even without
documentary evidence of occupancy 16 which is a disincentive to the regularization of
occupancy.
iv) Disputed rights of Bonafide occupants by the registered land owners which hinder the
clearance of bonafide occupants intending to regularize their occupancy. The rights of
freehold owners accorded to Bonafide occupants by the Land Act 1998 are challenged by
registered land owners because bonafide occupants being individuals who occupied land
unchallenged by the land owner for 12 years before enactment of the 1995 constitution
occupied land in the late 1970s and early 1980s a period of political instability in Uganda
when most registered land owners were in exile or could not challenge their occupancy
(Schwartz, 2008).
Land subdivision challenges encountered by actors are also linked to the unregistered state of Kibanja
rights. The registered land owners (BLB, Private Mailo owners and Institutions) cannot control land
subdivision processes because they are not aware of subdivision and transfer transactions done on their
land by occupants. Land under Mailo and Freehold tenure is already partitioned based on the extent of
Kibanja claims thus registered land owners cannot implement KCCA recommended subdivision standards
like provision of roads of access, minimum road standards or meet the recommended minimum parcel
size of (50x100 feet) when subdivisions are eventually done during regularization of lease.
Majority of Kibanja occupants hold LC1 and sale agreements as evidence of occupancy and are locked out
of development application procedure provided by KCCA thus develop informally.
8.1.2. Leasehold Tenure System

Land tenure related challenges encountered by the KDLB on land under leasehold tenure are mainly
related to the land access process. These are;
a. The lengthy and bureaucratic lease application procedure set by the government for accessing
land under leasehold tenure. The lease application procedure is made lengthy by the numerous
consultations which have to be made with different bodies i.e. KCCA over issuance of user
covenants, Commissioner Surveys over issuance of deed plans and Commissioner Land
Registration over issuance of leases and the un computerised state of records in these offices.
b. An existing conflict over management of leasehold land between KCCA and KDLB creating a
standoff hindering the process accessing land.
16The Land Act 1998, Section 32(9) ―For the avoidance of doubt the security of tenure of a lawful or bonafide
occupant shall not be prejudiced by reason of the fact that he/she does not possess a certificate of occupancy‖(RoU,
1998, p. 38)
41
8.2. Measures which can be taken by actors to improve land access, land subdivision and land
development processes
In discussing measures which can be taken by actors to improve land access, land subdivision and land
development processes a two pronged approach has been adopted. First, measures which can be taken to
improve land access processes are discussed then measures which can be taken to improve land
subdivision and land development processes in the absence of clear land access processes.
Measures proposed to improve land access processes for land under the Mailo and Freehold land tenure
systems address challenges of Kibanja occupancy presented under subheading 8.1.1 above. These are the
measures that have been adopted by actors to improve land access processes identified during key
informant interviews at the BLB, KCCA and KDLB. These are;
a. Posting of BLB staff to Division Urban Councils to aid in regularization of occupancy at the local
level therefore eliminating the need for occupants to go to Buganda Land Board offices to apply
for lease.
b. Provision for payment of lease regularization fees of USh. 1,200,000 charged by the BLB in
instalments to encourage regularization of occupancy.
c. Provision of a process by Institutions and KCCA for regularization of occupancy for Kibanja
occupants on freehold land (Fig18) discussed under land access processes.
The effectiveness of these measures is however minimal because awareness of these provisions is limited
to occupants who apply for lease. The independent land expert interviewed attributes this to the
regularization of occupancy approach pursued by registered land owners where the BLB and Institutions
do not engage in any exercises to identify and register occupants on their land. It is the duty of occupants
to regularize their occupancy17. Therefore there is need by the registered land owners to undertake public
sensitization to create awareness among occupants of the availability these measures.
Other measures which could improve land access processes based on discussions with the key informants
interviewed include undertaking a land audit by registered land owners to establish extent and nature of
Kibanja claims on their land. This would aid in
 Tracking land transactions (subdivision and transfer) on land by Kibanja occupants
 Regularization of occupancy
 Compensation in cases where leases are issued to developers
 Control speculative occupation of land
Measures which can be taken by actors to improve land subdivision and land development processes in
the absence of clear ownership documents include the issuance of no objection letters by registered land
owners (BLB, Private Mailo owners and Institutions) to occupant‘s intending to submit subdivision and
development applications to KCCA for evaluation.
Land under Leasehold tenure is owned by the government thus actions to improve land access, land
subdivision and land development processes under this tenure are initiated by the central government,
categorized as higher actors in this research. These are discussed below.
17The Land Act 1998,Section 31(1); ―…. it is the duty of occupants to take all reasonable steps to seek to identify the
registered owner of the land for the purposes of undertaking negotiations with that owner concerning his or her
occupancy of land‖ (RoU, 1998, p. 37)
42
8.3. Measures which can be taken by actors at a higher level to improve land access, land
subdivision and land development processes
Measures which can be taken by actors at a higher level to improve land access, land subdivision and land
development processes are presented in two ways. Measures which can be taken by the central
government related to policy and legislation on land tenure which has a direct effect on land access
processes and measures which can be taken by KCCA to improve land subdivision and land development
processes in spite of inadequacies in land access processes.
8.3.1. Measures which can be taken by the Central Government

Land access challenges associated with the Mailo and Freehold land tenure systems stem from the
contested, poorly administered multiple rights to land. In discussing measures which can be taken to
improve land access processes under these tenure systems it is necessary to explore approaches that have
been advanced by experts to resolving multiple rights to land in Kampala. The independent land expert
interviewed, Okuku (2006), Schwartz (2008) propose a redefinition of landlord tenant relations. These
proposals are in line with statements by the Uganda National Land Policy (2011, p. 21) which underscored
the need to ―disentangle the multiple, overlapping and conflicting interests and rights to land under Mailo
and Freehold tenure‖. This they propose can be achieved through;
 The setting up of a land fund to either aid occupants in purchasing their interest on land or aid
the government in purchasing registered interest on land and selling it to occupants at rates set on
―social justice and equity considerations‖(RoU, 2011, p. 22). Implementing such a measure would
however be expensive. Schwartz (2008) cites a similar fund set up to facilitate occupants purchase
their interests in Ankole, Singo and Bunyoro ranches as being in financial deficit.
 Formulation of a compensation legal regime to ensure fairness in compensation between
registered land owners and occupants. The independent land expert interviewed maintains that
this cannot be achieved with the current legal regimes which leave compensation to negotiation
between registered land owners and occupants18.
 Redefinition of bonafide occupants and the rights accorded to these occupants. The Uganda
National Land policy (2011) proposes this be done on the basis of conditions under which
occupants settled on land and conditions which made registered land owners not challenge
occupancy.
 Review of legal provisions on determination of ground rent to allow landlords charge rents on
land registered to them and allow ground rents charged to be proportionate to the value of land.
The official interviewed at the KDLB identified a project currently being undertaken by the Ugandan
Government in conjunction with the World Bank whose aim is to create a Land Information System,
computerization of land records and training of relevant staff in Kampala as a measure that would reduce
the cost and duration of land registration process improving land access processes not only under the
Leasehold tenure but also under Mailo and Freehold tenure.
Other measures which could be taken by the central government to improve land access processes include
a re-examination of tenure related provisions in The Land Act 1998 deemed contradictory to subdivision
and development control approaches embraced by KCCA. These include provisions in;
18The Land Act 1998, Section 31 (1); ―……it is the duty of occupants to take all reasonable steps to seek to identify
the registered owner of the land for the purposes of undertaking negotiations with that owner concerning his or her
occupancy of land‖(RoU, 1998, p. 37)
43
 Section 32(9) of The Land Act 1998 which though secures the rights of lawful and bonafide
occupants to land by recognising their rights even in the absence of certificates of occupancy is a
disincentive to obtaining documentary evidence of occupancy which is a precondition for
submission of subdivision and development applications at KCCA.
 Section 29 of The Land Act 1998 provides for the conversion of leases existing before 1998 to
freehold tenure. Conversion of land to freehold tenure could hamper the enforcement of user
covenants by eliminating the need to obtain consent from KDLB when subdividing and
changing the use of land. The appropriateness of such a provision should be reconsidered given
challenges encountered by KCCA with subdivision and development control for land under
Mailo and Freehold tenure (Nkurunziza, 2004).
8.3.2. Measures which can be taken by KCCA

Subdivision and development processes for land under Leasehold tenure are well enforced thus land is
relatively well planned. Effective implementation of subdivision and development processes under Mailo
and Freehold tenure is however hampered by multiple rights to land. In view of the existence of factors
that have militated against effective resolution of multiple rights to land by various efforts including The
Land Act 1998, The Land Amendment Act 2010, The Uganda National Land Policy, the significant
resources (time and financial) required to implement the measures proposed to improve land access
processes and the high demand for developable land caused by high population growth, measures
proposed here are actions which can be taken by KCCA to improve land subdivision and land
development processes despite informal land access processes.
The development regulatory framework implemented by KCCA is rigid and heavily depended on clear
land ownership yet a large percentage of land in Kampala is under Mailo tenure typified by informal land
holding by Kibanja occupants. This is characteristic of physical planning standards and regulations in
developing countries which Fekade (2000) citing Mattingly (1996) described as out dated, inappropriate,
alien, and based on legal ownership of land which has rendered them unresponsive to the range of
informal land rights characteristic of land ownership in cities in developing countries. To bridge the gap
between land use control regulations and informal developments in developing countries, Fekade (2000, p.
134) proposes setting of ―bare minimum enforceable standards and regulations in informal
developments‖. This is in line with views expressed by the independent land expert and Physical Planner
interviewed who recommended a reorientation of the physical planning standards and development
application approaches implemented by KCCA to the local tenure situation. From the foregoing the
following proposals are made which if pursued could improve land subdivision and land development
processes under Mailo and Freehold tenure.
 Evaluation of the admissibility of LC1 agreements as evidence of occupancy when applying for
development permission. Local Councils have continued recording Kibanja occupancy through
the issuance of LC1 agreements, demarcating Kibanja claims through sketches showing extents of
Kibanja claims and adjacent occupants, and adjudicating disputes between Kibanja occupants in
place of the failed land tribunals, land committees, recorders and mediators proposed by The
Land Act 1998. They have social legitimacy and support according to findings of research done by
SIDA (2002), this affirmed by the high number of occupants holding LC1 agreements as evidence
of occupancy in Bwaise III parish and are the lowest administrative unit within KCCA thus
KCCA should consider the acceptability of LC1 agreements as documentary evidence of
occupancy for Kibanja holders applying for subdivision and development permission. This was
44
also noted by Nkurunziza (2004) who recommended an examination of potential contributions

that Local Councils could make towards planning and management of land in Kampala. This
proposal is in line with recommendations for bridging the gap between formal and informal land
management approaches in Sub Saharan African countries advanced by Kombe and Kreibich
(2000) who advocate for the identification and support of accepted land management bodies in
informal areas and Farvacque and McAuslan (1992, p. 51) who advocate for the ―strengthening of
existing dispute resolution bodies‖ .
 Issuance of temporal development permits with conditions absolving KCCA of land disputes and
inhibiting further subdivision and development on land without KCCA approval thus establishing
a basis for development regulation. The Physical Planner interviewed at KCCA advocated for the
issuance of such permits to occupants based on clearance from LC1, submission of a letter of no
objection from the registered land owner and a survey report indicating location of land, road of
access and adjacent developments. Farvacque and McAuslan (1992) support setting up of such
local forms of regulation rather than imposing stringent physical planning standards. They
however underscore the importance of formulation and enforcement of these simplified planning
regulations in consultation with the public.
 Implementation of the simplified planning regulations would be more effective if supported by an

image showing roads and spatial extents (parcels) of Kibanja claims. This proposal is in line with
recommendations by Mabogunje (1992, p. 41) for formulation of ―half-way cadastres to aid in
management of cities in Sub Saharan Africa‖ . Such an image could;
a. Form a basis for incremental implementation of subdivision and building regulations19 where
rudimentary road and building standards existing in informally developed areas are upgraded
overtime to levels sufficient for effective functioning of urban spaces at redevelopment and
as income levels of occupants increase. This approach is applied to upgrade substandard
commercial residential subdivisions in Latin American countries (Fekade, 2000).
b. Form informed basis for evaluation of subdivision and development applications by Kibanja
occupants and address the negative effects of the piecemeal planning approach currently
being implemented by KCCA where evaluation of subdivision and development applications
are done without due consideration of developments in the immediate neighbourhood and
proposals for future developments. Views expressed by the Physical Planner interviewed at
KCCA.
c. This image could curb speculative occupation of land if taken at a date decided upon in
consultation with the registered land owners and occupants and on which records of
occupants and developments would be based with any additional developments considered
illegal occupation not subject to compensation.
d. Aid in controlling of further encroachment of wetlands largely falling on land owned by the
Buganda Kingdom and managing subsequent developments in these environmentally fragile
areas.
19―Subdivision regulations include lot sizes, layouts street improvements and procedures for dedicating private land
for public uses and building regulations define the way new structures are to be built and the materials to be
used‖(Farvacque & McAuslan, 1992, p. 64)
45
The proposal by Mabogunje (1992, p. 41) to formulate ―half-way cadastres‖ arguably found expression
and enhancement in the Social Tenure Domain Model (STDM), an innovative tool advanced by the
Global Land Tool Network (GLTN) and partners which by design facilitates the recording of informal
land rights often ill-defined, ambiguous, multiple, overlapping and difficult to register by conventional
systems (Augustinus, 2010). The STDM was applied in 2011 by The National Slum Dwellers Federation
of Uganda (NSDFU) to link spatial data and data on land use and land rights with data obtained from
enumeration of slum dwellers in Mbale Municipality (UN Habitat, 2012). The information obtained
through the STDM will be used to inform discussions on slum upgrading between slum dwellers and the
Municipality (ibid). The success and lessons learnt from Mbale Municipality could be drawn upon and
applied to implement the STDM in recording rights for Kibanja holders under the Mailo and Freehold
tenure in Kampala. If implemented the STDM would not only provide the KCCA basis for incremental
planning and development control but would also;
a. Reduce the cost of obtaining subdivision and development permission because it would eliminate
the need to undertake survey whose cost is currently borne by Kibanja occupants.
b. Aid registered land owners in managing land transactions among occupants hence controlling
speculative occupation of land, manage payment of ground rent and lease applications.
c. For the central government the STDM would provide potential for the identification of
occupants according to the definitions (bonafide, lawful, tenants by occupancy) provided by The
Land Act 1998.
8.4. Conclusion
From the foregoing the disputed poorly managed rights of Kibanja holders emerge as the source of
challenges faced by actors leading to informality in land access processes, this informality is replicated in
land subdivision and land development processes because the subdivision and development control
approaches employed by KCCA are not compatible with the informal land access processes under the
Mailo and Freehold tenure systems. To address challenges arising out of the poorly managed rights
measures are proposed directed at tenure aspects causing informality in land access processes which can
be implemented by the central government however in view of the complexity involved in resolving
conflicting rights and putting up effective attendant administration systems, emphasis is laid on
incremental recording of rights and incremental implementation of subdivision and development
regulations tailored to the local tenure situation. Land tenure related challenges encountered by actors
under Leasehold tenure arise from the lengthy land access process which will be addressed by the Land
Information System being put up by the central government.
46
9. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
The aim of this research was to assess the effect of land tenure on urban developments in Kampala. In
order to do this, relevant aspects of land tenure and urban developments were presented as research sub
objectives which were investigated through research questions. This chapter presents summary findings of
research sub objectives, followed by conclusions and recommendations.
9.1. Summary of findings
9.1.1. Sub objective 1

The first research sub objective sought to examine land tenure systems in Kampala. This was done by first
identifying the land tenure systems then examining rights defined under these land tenure systems.
Decision to examine land tenure systems was informed by the understanding that access to land on which
urban development takes place is regulated by rules of tenure (FAO, 2002b); that rules of tenure not only
define rights to land but how those rights are accessed and exercised (ibid) and that land rights determine
what one can do on land (Dale & Mclaughlin, 1999). Research findings show that (a) Land in Kampala is
held under the Mailo, Freehold and Leasehold land tenure systems (b) Mailo is the dominant land tenure
system in Kampala. (c)There are multiple rights to land under Mailo and Freehold tenure systems; rights
of the registered land owners and rights of Kibanja occupants who own developments on land (d) Rights
of Kibanja occupants are contested and poorly administered (e) Rights for land under Leasehold tenure
are fairly well managed.

This study examined land access, land subdivision and land development processed under the land tenure
systems in Kampala. Selection of these processes was based on findings of research done by Farvacque
and McAuslan (1992) and Postiou and Ioannidis (2006) who identified land access, land subdivision and
land development processes as the three stages of in the land and property development process where
informality can occur . Land access, land subdivision and land development processes are however
implemented by actors therefore sub objective two of this study sought to identify actors involved in land
access, land subdivision and land development processes under the land tenure systems in Kampala, to
examine their roles and the land tenure related challenges they encounter. Key actors identified are private
Mailo owners and BLB under the Mailo land tenure system, Institutions under the Freehold land tenure
system and the KDLB under the Leasehold land tenure system. These actors are charged with the
management of land they own (private Mailo owners and Institutions) or under their control (BLB and
KDLB). Their roles in land access include the issuance of leases to individuals accessing land for the first
time or to Kibanja holders regularizing their occupancy. Their role regarding land subdivision is limited to
issuance of subdivision consent to Kibanja holders on Mailo and Freehold land and lessees on leasehold
land. The KCCA was identified as the actor charged with physical planning and development control for
land under all tenure systems in Kampala. This is achieved through subdivision and development
regulation.
The study identified contested poorly administered rights of Kibanja holders as the greatest the source of
challenges faced by actors under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems. This has resulted in informal land
access processes with consequent effects leading to informality in land subdivision and land development
47
processes. Not only are Kibanja rights largely without formal registration as illustrated by Case I findings
their compensation procedures are not streamlined and are thus a hindrance to issuance of leases to
developers and transfer of land. Land access challenges under Leasehold tenure are associated with the
lengthy non computerised land access process and conflict over management of land between KCCA and
KDLB.
Land subdivision challenges encountered by actors under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems arise out
of the unregistered nature of Kibanja occupancy. Subdivisions under these tenure systems are done
informally by occupants (without consent from the registered land owners or approval from KCCA). This
hampers implementation of subdivision standards by KCCA such as minimum plot sizes or adequate road
and infrastructure provisions as physical extents of Kibanja claims become the overriding consideration in
subdivision plan preparation. Subdivisions on land under Leasehold tenure are done by KDLB before
issuance of leases and are therefore well regulated.
Land development challenges encountered by KCCA on land under Mailo and Freehold tenure are also
associated with unregistered Kibanja occupancy. Subdivisions and developments on land under Mailo and
Freehold tenure are undertaken informally as development regulation procedures implemented by KCCA
are limited to land with clear ownership documents. Subdivisions and developments on land under
Leasehold tenure are largely formal because of ease of enforcement of regulations related to these
processes created by the reasonably well managed land registration process.

The third sub objective sought measures which can be taken to improve land access, land subdivision and
land development processes under the land tenure systems in Kampala. This was approached two fold in
this study; Measures which can be taken by actors and measures which can be taken by actors at a higher
level. To improve land access processes under Mailo and Freehold tenure, this study recommends
strengthening though publicization of measures currently being implemented by actors such as provision
of lease regularization procedure for Kibanja holders on Freehold land and opportunity to pay lease
application fees in instalments provided by the BLB. The study further recommends issuance of letters of
no objection by actors in instances of undisputed Kibanja occupancy to facilitate formal subdivision and
development processes.
The study identified the central government and KCCA as actors at a higher level. Proposed measures
which can be taken by the central government to improve land access processes under Mailo and Freehold
tenure are geared at addressing causal factors for contested Kibanja rights. These include setting up of a
land fund to aid in purchase of conflicting interests, provision of clear regulations for compensation of
Kibanja occupants and review of provisions on determination of ground rent. Other proposals entail
review of sections in The Land Act 1998 viewed as undermining development control approaches
employed by KCCA.
Based on existing literature on practical ways of addressing informal urbanization, the study proposes a
rethink of subdivision and development control approaches employed by KCCA and encourages the
adoption of subdivision and development control measures sensitive to the local tenure situation. These
include utilizing existing benefits of the roles currently played by LC1s in recording and adjudicating
Kibanja rights in the preparation of a half-way cadastre, recognizing LC1 agreements as valid evidence of
occupancy thus admitting subdivision and development applications by Kibanja occupants to the KCCA
48
approval process, formulation of lower subdivision and development standards for land under Kibanja
occupancy and public participation in setting up of these standards creating ownership and ease of
implementation .
9.2. Conclusions
Overall study findings attribute informal developments in Kampala to (a) inefficient Land access processes
caused by poorly administered land rights and (b) land use planning and development regulations ill-suited
to the local tenure situation. Land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems (which form majority land
holding in Kampala) is predominantly under Kibanja occupancy. Kibanja rights are contested, poorly
administered and largely informal while subdivision and development regulation procedures implemented
by KCCA are pegged on presentation of clear land ownership documents. The result has been an impasse
where subdivisions and developments on land under the Mailo and Freehold tenure systems are
undertaken informally but which land continues to be subdivided and developed due to high demand for
land caused by high population growth resulting in the informal expansion of Kampala.
9.3. Recommendations
In view of the research findings and rapid expansion of Kampala city the study recommends:
 Detailed research on nature of developments under Kibanja occupancy which is not uniform
across Kampala but varies in density and type depending on location of land, income levels of
occupants among other factors. The findings of such a research should underpin the formulation
of subdivision and development regulations for land under Kibanja occupancy by KCCA.
 Urban developments in Kampala have sprawled in to the surrounding areas, now delineated as
the Kampala Metropolitan area and officially recognized by KCCA as evidenced by its inclusion
in the spatial planning area covered by the on-going project to update the 1994 Kampala structure
plan. Land in the surrounding areas is however under customary tenure and is unregistered
following poor, if any implementation of the measures provided for management of such land by
The Land Act 1998. This study recommends research on implications customary tenure would
have on urban developments in the Kampala Metropolitan area.
49
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Sample Key informant interview schedule
Interview guide: Buganda Land Board (BLB)
Dear Participant,
I request your participation in a research I am undertaking on the effects of land tenure on urban
developments in Kampala at the faculty of geo-information science and earth observation of the
University of Twente. Discussions in this interview will be on the role of the BLB in the access,
subdivision and development of land under its control. The information you provide will be treated
confidentially and will be used solely for the purposes of this research. This interview will take about one
hour.
I request to record this interview in order to capture all the details of the discussion.
1. For how long has the BLB been in existence?
2. What are the functions of the BLB?
3. a) What is the total area (Ha) of land in Kampala that is controlled by the BLB?
b) In which parishes is land owned by the BLB located?
4. a) What was the state of land before it was returned to the Buganda kingdom by the central
government? (Occupied or un occupied?)
b) If occupied, what forms of land holding existed on land? (Lawful occupant, bonafide
occupant, tenants by occupancy)
c) If occupied has the BLB taken any measures to regularize occupancy?
d) If yes, what process do occupants follow to regularize occupancy?
e) Has the BLB encountered any challenges from existing occupants? If yes what are they?
f) How has the BLB addressed these challenges?
5. What processes should one go through to

a. Access land under the BLB?
b. Subdivide land under the BLB?
c. Develop land under the BLB?
6. Which other bodies does the BLB interact with respect to

a. Land access procedures?
b. Land subdivision procedures?
c. Land development procedures?
7. What land tenure related challenges does the BLB encounter in executing
a. Land access processes for land under its control?
b. Land subdivision processes for land under its control?
c. Land development processes for land under its control?
8. Has the BLB put in place measures to address the challenges identified in Question 7 above? If
yes, what are they? If no, why?
53
Appendix 2: Household Questionnaire
Dear participant,
I request your participation in a research I am undertaking on the effects of land tenure on urban
developments in Kampala at the faculty of geo-information science and earth observation of the
University of Twente. Your participation will contribute to further understanding of the process of
accessing subdividing and developing land in Bwaise III Parish.
The information you provide will be treated confidentially and will be used solely for the purposes of this
research.
Thank you for your kind assistance in this study.

Date Village Name Ref. No
Land access
1. Respondents name ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Gender
 Male  Female
3. Land use
 Residential  Educational
 Commercial  Commercial – cum- residential
 Religious  Others (Specify)
4. For how long have you lived here?
5. How did you acquire the land you currently occupy?

 Inheritance  Lease
 Purchase  Other (Specify)
6. What documentary evidence of occupancy do you have?

 Sale agreement  Lease from Buganda Land
 LC1 agreement Board
 Other (Specify)
Land subdivision
7. Have you leased or given out part of your land to other people?
 Yes
 No
8. If Yes, to how many people?
54
9. What procedure did you follow when demarcating the boundaries of areas to be leased?
10. What documentary evidence do the people occupying your land have?
 Sale agreement
 LC1 sale agreement
 Lease from Buganda Land Board
 Other (Specify)
Land development
11. Are the developments on your land approved by KCCA? ( Yes, No)
If No, Why ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. What challenges did you encounter when
a. Accessing land -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. b. Subdividing land --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. c. Developing land --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. What measures did you take to address these challenges ---------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What measures should be taken by other relevant actors to address these challenges ---------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
55

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ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF

LAND TENURE ON URBAN

DAMARIS KATHINI MUINDE

DAMARIS KATHINI MUINDE

Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth

THESIS ASSESSMENT BOARD:

Keywords: land tenure; land access; land subdivision; land development

BLB Buganda Land Board

GLTN Global Land Tool Network

KCCA Kampala Capital City Authority Act

KDLB Kampala District Land Board

LC1 Local Council 1

MoLHUD Ministry of Lands Housing and Urban Development

NSDFU National Slum Dwellers Federation of Uganda

STDM Social Tenure Domain Model

ULC Uganda Lands Commission

UML Unified Modelling Language

1.2. Background and justification

1.3. Research Problem

1.4. Research Objectives

1.4.1. Main objective

1.4.2. Sub objectives and questions

c) What land tenure related challenges do actors encounter

Sub objective 3 a) What actions can be taken by actors to improve land

1.5. Definition of terms

1.6. Thesis Outline

1 Section 2 (a) (b);The Physical Planning Act 2010; (RoU, 2010a, p. 7)

2.1. Urban development

2.2. The link between land tenure and urban development

2.2.1. Land Rights

Figure 1: An illustration of the bundle of rights concept (Jacobus 2003)

2.2.2. Security of tenure

2.2.3. Restrictions on land rights

Figure 2: Negative externalities of land use (Wai Chung Lai, 1997)

2.2.4. Continuum of rights

Figure 3: An illustration of the continuum of rights concept (UN-Habitat, 2008)

3. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA

3.1. Location of Kampala

Figure 4: Location of Kampala within the national Figure 5: Kampala city

3.2. Origin and growth of Kampala city

3.3. Administrative structure

Table 2: Kampala city administrative structure

4.1. Data collection approach

4.1.1. City level

Key informant interviews

Table 3: Key informants interviewed

4.1.2. Case level

Background to case selection

Case I: Bwaise III Parish

Case II: Mailo Land access by a real estate company

Case III: Ntinda Parish

Figure 8: Selected case study areas.

Figure 9: Sampled households in Bwaise III Parish

Review of land records

4.2. Quality control

4.3. Limitations of data collection

4.4. Data analysis

Figure 10: Research design

5. LAND TENURE SYSTEMS IN KAMPALA