Garrett Nagle would like to dedicate this book to Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany — for their help

and
patience in the production of the book.
Paul Guinness would like to dedicate this book to Mary.

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Contents
Fact file
World map
Introduction
How to use this book
THEME 1 Population and settlement
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Migration
1.3 Population structure
1.4 Population density and distribution
1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and service provision
1.6 Urban settlements
1.7 Urbanisation
End-of-theme questions
THEME 2 The natural environment
2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
2.2 Rivers
2.3 Coasts
2.4 Weather
2.5 Climate and natural vegetation
End-of-theme questions
THEME 3 Economic development
3.1 Development
3.2 Food production
3.3 Industry
3.4 Tourism
3.5 Energy
 3.6 Water
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development
End-of-theme questions
THEME 4 Geographical skills and investigations
4.1 Geographical and mathematical skills
4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative to coursework
Command words
Glossary
Acknowledgements
Index

Fact file
The world’s largest oceans and seas

Ocean or sea Area in million km2

Pacific Ocean 156
Atlantic Ocean 77
Indian Ocean 69
Southern Ocean 20
Arctic Ocean 14
Mediterranean Sea 3.0
Caribbean Sea 2.7
South China Sea 2.3
Bering Sea 2.3
Source: www.infoplease.com/world/world-geography/oceans-and-seas
 The world’s largest countries

Country Area in 1000 km2

1 Russia 17,098
2 Canada 9,985
3 USA 9,834
4 China 9,598
5 Brazil 8,515
6 Australia 7,692
7 India 3,287
8 Argentina 2,780
9 Kazakhstan 2,725
10 Algeria 2,382
11 D. R. Congo 2,345
12 Saudi Arabia 2,000
13 Mexico 1,964
14 Indonesia 1,904
15 Sudan 1,886
16 Libya 1,760
17 Iran 1,648
18 Mongolia 1,564
19 Peru 1,285
20 Chad 1,284
Source: www.nationsonline.org
Introduction
This book has been written to help you obtain the knowledge, understanding and skills you need for
geography IGCSE®/O Level. It will also increase your awareness of geography from a local to a global scale,
using examples and case studies from around the world. Geography is about people and places, so we hope that
you will use your own home area as much as possible to add to the material in this book.
We would encourage you to keep up to date with geographical events — one way is through listening to the
news or reading about events in newspapers or on the internet. Geography is happening every day,
everywhere, and examiners love to read about new developments — so think about your own geographical
location and new geographical events.
This book has been written to follow closely the IGCSE/O Level syllabuses. It includes a number of activities
to help you succeed with the written assessment, and guidance for your coursework. Helpful support with
essential maths skills is also provided.
Other resources published to support this student book include:
• a Revision and Study Guide, which provides a condensed version of the course, and includes
common errors (misconception in geography) and exam-style questions and answers (this book has not
been through the Cambridge endorsement process)
• a Workbook, which provides a series of questions relating to all themes.
Below are details of the exams and assessment that you will experience. Be prepared — knowing what to
expect will help you succeed in your exams. Make sure you also use your teachers’ experience — they are an
excellent resource waiting to be tapped. Good luck and enjoy your geographical studies.

Assessment
Scheme of assessment for IGCSE
All candidates take Paper 1, Paper 2 and either Component 3 or Paper 4. Papers 1, 2 and 4 consist of
combined question papers and answer booklets where candidates answer in the spaces provided.
Paper 1 Geographical themes (1 hour 45 minutes; 75 marks): Candidates are required to answer three
questions (3 × 25 marks). They choose one question out of two on each theme. Questions are structured with
gradients of difficulty, are resource-based and involve problem solving and free-response writing. This paper is
mainly concerned with Assessment Objectives 1 (Knowledge with understanding), 2 (Skills and analysis) and 3
(Judgement and decision making). It is worth 45 per cent of the total marks.
Paper 2 Geographical skills (1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer all the questions. The paper
is based on testing the interpretation and analysis of geographical information, decision making and the
application of graphical and other techniques as appropriate. The questions do not require specific information
about places, but do require the use of a 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 topographical map, and include a full key. This
paper is worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
Either
Component 3, Coursework (school-based assessment; 60 marks): Teachers set one school-based
assignment of up to 2000 words.
Or
Paper 4, Alternative to coursework (1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer two compulsory
questions, completing a series of written tasks based on the following three themes:
1 Population and settlement
2 The natural environment 3
Economic development
The questions involve an appreciation of a range of techniques used in fieldwork studies. This paper is
worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.

Scheme of assessment for O Level

All candidates take three papers.
Paper 1 Geographical themes (1 hour 45 minutes; 75 marks): Candidates are required to answer three
questions (3 × 25 marks), one question from each theme. This paper is worth 45 per cent of the total marks.
Paper 2 Geographical skills (1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer all the questions. This paper
is worth 27.5 per cent of the total marks.
Paper 3 Geographical investigations (1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks): Candidates answer two compulsory
questions, completing a series of written tasks based on the three themes. This paper is worth 27.5 per cent of the
total marks.
Paul Guinness
Garrett Nagle

How to use this book

To make your study of IGCSE and O Level Geography as rewarding and successful as possible, this
Cambridge endorsed textbook offers the following important features:
THEME 1 Population and settlement
 Topics
1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Migration
1.3 Population structure
1.4 Population density and distribution
1.5 Settlements and service provision
1.6 Urban settlements
1.7 Urbanisation
This theme looks at population dynamics, for example birth rates and death rates, and ways in
which governments try to manage population change. It looks at internal and international
migration and the impacts that they have. It analyses population structure and considers variations
in population density around the world. The theme also looks at rural and urban settlements, and
the services that they provide. It reviews urban structures in developed and developing countries,
and considers the impact of rapid urbanisation.
Key questions
• How rapidly has the world’s population increased?
• What are the reasons for such a rapid increase in the world’s population?
• What are the causes of a change in population size?
• What are the reasons for contrasting rates of natural population change?
• What are the causes and consequences of overpopulation and underpopulation?
• How effective are population policies in achieving their objectives?

1.1 Population dynamics

Figure 1.1 Athletes and spectators from around the world took part in the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro,
2016

The rapid increase in the world’s

population
During most of the early period in which humankind first evolved, the global population was very low,
reaching perhaps some 125,000 people a million years ago. Ten thousand years ago, when people first began to
domesticate animals and cultivate crops, world population was no more than 5 million. Known as the Neolithic
Revolution, this period of economic change significantly altered the relationship between people and their
environments. But even then the average annual growth rate was less than 0.1 per cent per year.
However, as a result of technological advance the carrying capacity of the land improved and population
increased. The carrying capacity is the largest population that the resources of a given environment can support.
By 3500 BCE, global population reached 30 million. By 2000 years ago, this had risen to about 250 million
(Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 World population growth

Demographers (people who study human populations) estimate that world population reached 500 million
by about 1650. From this time population grew at an increasing rate. By 1800 global population had doubled to
reach 1 billion. Figure 1.3 shows the time taken for each subsequent billion to be reached, with the global total
reaching 7 billion in 2011. It took only 12 years for world population to increase from 6 billion to 7 billion — the
same timespan required for the previous billion to be added. It has been estimated that world population will
reach 8 billion in 2023.
 Figure 1.3 World population growth by each billion
Table 1.1 shows population change in 2016, with a global population increase of 89.8 million in that year.
This is the result of 147.2 million births and 57.4 million deaths. The bulk of this population increase is in the
developing countries. When the number of births exceeds the number of deaths, world population increases. The
greater the gap between the number of births and deaths, the greater the population increase. The very rapid
growth of the world’s population over the last 70 years or so, illustrated by Figure 1.2 and 1.3, is the result of the
largest ever difference between the number of births and deaths in the world as a whole.
Table 1.1 World population clock, 2016

Recent demographic change

Figure 1.4 shows that both total population and the rate of population growth are much higher in the less
developed world than in the more developed world. The fastest rate of growth is taking place in the least
developed countries, which form the poorest subsection of the less developed world. However, only since the
Second World War has population growth in the poor countries overtaken that in the rich. The rich countries had
their period of high population growth in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, while for the less
developed countries rapid population growth has occurred since about 1950.
The highest ever global population growth rate was reached in the early to mid 1960s when population
growth in the less developed world peaked at 2.4 per cent a year. At this time the term population explosion was
widely used to describe this rapid population growth. But by the late 1990s the rate of global population growth
was down to 1.8 per cent and by 2016 it had reduced further to 1.2 per cent. However, even though the rate of
growth has been falling for over four decades, demographic momentum means that the number of people added
each year remains very high. This is because there are so many women in the child-bearing age range.
 Figure 1.4 Population growth in more and less developed countries, 1950–2050
The demographic transformation, which took a century to complete in the developed world, has occurred in a
single generation in some less developed countries. Fertility has dropped further and faster than most
demographers predicted 20 or 30 years ago. Except in Africa, where in around 20 countries families of at least
five children are the average and population growth is still over 2.5 per cent per year, birth rates are now
declining in virtually every country. According to the Population Reference Bureau: ‘Developed countries as a
whole will experience little or no population growth in this century, and much of that growth will be from
immigration from less developed countries.’
Table 1.2 shows the ten largest countries in the world by population size in 2016, and their population
projections for 2050. In 2016, China and India together accounted for 36.5 per cent of the world’s population.
The USA is a long way behind, in third place. While only two developed countries were in the top ten in 2016,
only one — the USA — is in the forecast for 2050.
Interesting note
The Population Reference Bureau estimates that throughout the history of human population
about 108 billion people have lived on Earth. This means that about 6.5 per cent of all people ever
born are alive today.
Table 1.2 The world’s ten largest countries in terms of population, 2016 and 2050
Activities
1 With the help of Figure 1.2 and 1.3, briefly describe the growth of human population over
time.
2 Define the term ‘carrying capacity’.
3 Comment on the information shown in Table 1.1.
4 Look at Figure 1.4. Describe the differences in population growth and projected growth in
more developed and less developed countries between 1950 and 2050.
5 Look at Table 1.2:
a Show the data for 2016 on an outline map of the world.
b Briefly describe the changes that are forecast to occur by 2050.
The causes of a change in population size
The birth rate is defined as the number of births per thousand population in a year. If the birth rate of a
country is 20/1000 (20 per 1000), this means that, on average, for every 1000 people in this country 20 births will
occur in a year. The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand population in a year. If the death rate for the
same country is 8/1000, it means that, on average, for every 1000 people 8 deaths will occur.
The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the rate of natural change. If it is positive it is
termed natural increase. If it is negative it is known as natural decrease. In the case given above there is a
natural increase of 12/1000 (20/1000 − 8/1000). This is the current rate of natural increase for the world as a
whole — look at the birth and death rates given in Table 1.3. The rate of natural change may also be shown as a
percentage, so in this example 12/1000 is equivalent to 1.2 per cent. Table 1.3 shows how much birth and death
rates vary by world region.
Table 1.3 Birth and death rates, 2016

Population change in a country is affected by (a) the difference between births and deaths (natural change)
and (b) the balance between immigration and emigration (net migration). In Figure 1.5 the dividing line indicates
that the relative contributions of natural change and net migration can vary over time. For most countries natural
change is a more important factor in population change than net migration.
 Figure 1.5 Input–output model of population change
The immigration rate is the number of immigrants per thousand population entering a receiving country in a
year. The emigration rate is the number of emigrants per thousand population leaving a country of origin in a
year. The rate of net migration is the difference between the rates of immigration and emigration. Figure
1.6 shows some simple demographic calculations for the imaginary island of Pacifica.

Figure 1.6 Pacifica diagram and calculations

Activities
1 Define:
a the birth rate
b the death rate
c the rate of natural change.
2 What is net migration?
3 Look at Table 1.3. Calculate the rate of natural change for each region.
4 Look at Figure 1.6. Imagine that the population of the island at the beginning of the year
was 4000 rather than 5000. Calculate the rates of change for this new starting population figure.

The demographic transition model

The demographic transition model helps to explain the causes of a change in population size. Although the
populations of no two countries have changed in exactly the same way, some broad generalisations can be made
about population growth since the middle of the eighteenth century. These trends are illustrated by the
demographic transition model (Figure 1.7). A model is a simplification of reality, helping us to understand the
most important aspects of a process. Demographic transition is the historical shift of birth and death rates from
high to low levels in a population.
No country as a whole retains the characteristics of stage 1, which only applies to the most remote societies
on Earth, such as isolated tribes in New Guinea and the Amazon basin. All the developed countries of the world
are now in stage 4 or stage 5. The poorest of the developing countries are in stage 2. Most developing countries
that have undergone significant social and economic advances are in stage 3, while some of the newly
industrialised countries such as South Korea and Taiwan have entered stage 4. Stage 5, natural decrease, is
mainly confined to eastern and southern Europe at present.

Figure 1.7 The demographic transition model

• The high stationary stage (stage 1): The birth rate is high and stable while the death rate is high and
fluctuating due to famine, disease and war at particular times. Population growth is very slow and there may
be periods of considerable decline. Infant mortality is high and life expectancy low. A high proportion of the
population is under the age of 15. Society is pre-industrial, with most people living in rural areas, dependent
on subsistence agriculture.
• The early expanding stage (stage 2): The death rate declines to levels never before experienced. The
birth rate remains at its previous level because the social norms governing fertility take time to change. As
the gap between the two vital rates widens, the rate of natural change increases to a peak at the end of this
stage. The infant mortality rate falls and life expectancy increases. The proportion of the population under
15 increases. The main reasons for the decline in the death rate are: better nutrition; improved public health,
particularly in terms of clean water supply and efficient sewerage systems; and medical advances.
Considerable rural-to-urban migration occurs during this stage.
• The late expanding stage (stage 3): After a period of time social norms adjust to the lower level of
mortality and the birth rate begins to decline. Urbanisation generally slows and the average age increases.
Life expectancy continues to increase and infant mortality to decrease. Countries in this stage usually
experience lower death rates than nations in stages 4 and 5, due to their relatively young population
structures.
• The low stationary stage (stage 4): Both birth and death rates are low. The former is generally
slightly higher, fluctuating somewhat due to changing economic conditions. Population growth is slow.
Death rates rise slightly as the average age of the population increases. However, life expectancy still
improves as age-specific mortality rates continue to fall.
• The natural decrease stage (stage 5): In a limited but increasing number of countries, mainly
European, the birth rate has fallen below the death rate. In the absence of net migration inflows these
populations are declining. Examples of natural decrease include Germany, Belarus, Bulgaria and Ukraine.

Contrasts in demographic transition

There are a number of important differences in the way that developing countries have undergone population
change compared with the experiences of most developed nations before them. In the developing world:
• birth rates in stages 1 and 2 were generally higher
• the death rate fell much more steeply
• some countries had much larger base populations and thus the impact of high growth in stage 2 and the
early part of stage 3 has been much greater
• for those countries in stage 3 the fall in fertility has also been steeper
 • the relationship between population change and economic development has been much weaker.
Activities
1 What is a geographical model (such as the model of demographic transition)?
2 Explain the reasons for declining mortality in stage 2.
3 Why does it take some time before fertility follows the fall in mortality?
4 Suggest why the birth rate is lower than the death rate in some countries (stage 5)?
5 How has demographic transition differed in the more developed world and the less
developed world?

Reasons for contrasting rates of

population change
Population change is governed by three factors: fertility, mortality and migration. This section looks at
influences on fertility and mortality, while migration is covered in more detail in Topic 1.2.

The factors affecting fertility

The most common measure of fertility is the birth rate, but other more detailed measures are used at a more
advanced level of study. One of these measures is the total fertility rate, which is illustrated in Figure 1.8. The
total fertility rate is the average number of children a woman has during her lifetime. Table 1.4 shows the
countries with the highest and lowest total fertility rates in 2016.

Figure 1.8 Total fertility rates in industrial, less developed and least developed countries, 1950–2010
Table 1.4 Countries with the highest and lowest fertility rates, 2016
 The factors affecting fertility can be grouped into four categories:
• Demographic: Other population factors, particularly mortality (death) rates, influence fertility. Where
infant mortality is high, it is usual for many children to die before reaching adult life. In such societies,
parents often have many children to compensate for these expected deaths. The infant mortality rate is the
number of deaths of children under 1 year of age per thousand live births per year. In 2016, the infant
mortality rate for the world as a whole was 36/1000, ranging from 5/1000 in Europe to 57/1000 in Africa. It is
not just coincidence that the continent with the lowest fertility is Europe and the continent with the highest
fertility is Africa. The infant mortality rate is generally regarded as a prime indicator of socio-economic
progress. Over the world as a whole infant mortality has declined sharply during the last half century.
• Social/cultural: In some societies, particularly in Africa, tradition demands high rates of reproduction.
Here the opinion of women in the reproductive years may have little influence weighed against intense
cultural expectations. Education, especially female literacy, is the key to lower fertility (Figure 1.9 and
1.10). With education comes a knowledge of birth control, greater social awareness, more opportunity for
employment and a wider choice of action generally. Indonesia sees education as essential for its future
development (Figure 1.11).
In some countries religion is an important factor. For example, the Muslim and Roman Catholic religions
oppose artificial birth control. Most countries that have population policies have been trying to reduce their
fertility by investing in birth control programmes.

Figure 1.9 Education and development

 Figure 1.10 An international comparison between female secondary education and total fertility rates

Figure 1.11 A school in Indonesia

• Economic: Fertility rates tend to be highest in the world’s least developed countries (Figure 1.8). In
many of the least developed countries children are seen as an economic asset because of the work they do,
often on very small farms, and also because of the support they are expected to give their parents in old age.
In many poor countries there is little or no government support for elderly people. In the developed world
the general perception is reversed and the cost of the child dependency years is a major factor in the decision
to begin or extend a family. Economic growth allows greater spending on health, housing, nutrition and
education, which is important in lowering mortality and in turn reducing fertility. Government statistics
published in the UK in 2010 showed that people were getting married 5 years later than a decade before,
with couples in the UK now typically in their mid-30s when getting married. Many other countries have
followed this trend. In general, an increase in the average age of marriage leads to a fall in the birth rate.
• Political: There are many examples in the past century of governments attempting to change the rate of
population growth for economic and strategic reasons. During the late 1930s Germany, Italy and Japan all
offered inducements and concessions to those with large families. In more recent years Malaysia has adopted a
similar policy. Today, however, most governments that try to change fertility want to reduce population
growth, although some countries, such as Russia, are concerned about their populations declining because the
birth rate has fallen below the death rate.

Factors affecting mortality

Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live under current
mortality levels. In 1900 the world average for life expectancy is estimated to have been about 30 years but by
1950–55 it had risen to 46 years. By 1980–85 it had reached a fraction under 60 years and is presently 72 years,
with men living to an average of 70 years and women averaging 74 years (Table 1.5). However, the global
average masks significant differences by world region. The highest life expectancy of 79 years is in North
America, while the lowest of 60 years is in Africa. Individual countries show an even wider range with the
highest figures of 84 years (males) and 89 years (females) in San Marino. The lowest life expectancy, according
to the 2016 World Population Data Sheet, was in Swaziland (males 50, females 48).
 The twentieth century fall in mortality was particularly marked after the Second World War, which had
provided a tremendous impetus for research into tropical diseases. Rates of life expectancy at birth have
converged significantly between rich and poor countries over the past 50 years in spite of a widening wealth gap.
However, it must not be forgotten that the ravages of AIDS in particular have caused recent decreases in life
expectancy in some countries.

Table 1.5 Life expectancy at birth, 2016

Region Males Females
World 70 74
More developed world 76 82
Less developed world 68 72
Africa 59 62
Asia 71 74
Latin America/Caribbean 72 79
North America 77 81
Oceania 75 80
Europe 75 81
The causes of death vary significantly between the developed and developing worlds (Figure 1.12). Aside
from the challenges of the physical environment in many developing countries, a range of social and economic
factors contribute to the high rates of infectious diseases. These include:
• poverty
• poor access to healthcare
• antibiotic resistance
• changing human migration patterns
• new infectious agents.
When people live in overcrowded and insanitary conditions, communicable diseases such as tuberculosis and
cholera can spread rapidly. Limited access to healthcare and medicines means that otherwise treatable conditions
such as malaria and tuberculosis are often fatal to poor people. Poor nutrition and deficient immune systems are
also key risk factors for several big killers such as lower respiratory infections, tuberculosis and measles.
 Figure 1.12 World Health Organization — what are the main differences between rich and poor countries with
respect to causes of death?
Public health campaigns can help to reduce the spread of disease. Figure 1.13 shows a poster produced by the
government of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina in an attempt to eliminate the mosquitoes that spread dengue
fever.
 Figure 1.13 Dengue fever poster in Buenos Aires

Activities
1 Discuss three factors that cause the birth rate to vary from one part of the world to
another.
2 Describe the relationship shown in Figure 1.10 between the total fertility rate and the
percentage of girls enrolled in secondary school.
3 Compare the changes in total fertility rates between the three groups of countries shown
in Figure 1.8.
4 Describe and explain the variations in life expectancy at birth shown in Table 1.5.
5 What are the main differences in the causes of death between countries at different levels
of economic development (Figure 1.12)?

The current demographic divide

Although average population growth has slowed globally, the range of demographic experience has actually
widened. Growth rates have remained high in many countries while they have fallen steeply in others. These
diverging trends have created a demographic divide between countries where population growth remains
high and those with very slow-growing, stagnant or declining populations. International migration is now the
most unpredictable factor. For example, in the UK the birth rate has risen recently due to high levels of
immigration.
Four groups of countries can be recognised in terms of projected population change to 2050 (Figure 1.14):
• Countries that are projected to decline in population between 2005 and 2050. Less than 15 per cent of
the world’s population lives in such countries, which include Russia, Germany, Japan and Italy.
• Slow population growth countries, which will increase their populations by 25 per cent at most by
2050. China is the most important country in this group.
• Medium population growth countries, which include the USA, Bangladesh, Brazil and India. For
example, the USA is projected to increase its population by 42 per cent between 2005 and 2050.
• High population growth countries, which accounted for only 8 per cent of world population in 2005.
Except for a few oil-exporting countries, nearly all of the high population growth countries are in the UN’s
list of least developed countries. Many are in Africa, but the list also includes Afghanistan, Guatemala and
Haiti.
 Figure 1.14 Projected population change by region, 2005–50

Mortality due to HIV/AIDS

Although in general mortality continues to fall around the world, in some countries it has risen in recent
decades. HIV/AIDS (Figure 1.15) is the major reason for such increases in mortality. However, the global battle
against AIDS is showing significant signs of success. In 2015, 1.1 million people died from AIDS- related causes
worldwide — which was 45 per cent fewer deaths than in 2005. According to UNAIDS in 2015:
• Eastern and southern Africa remained the region most affected, with 19 million people living with
HIV. This region also recorded the highest number of AIDs-related deaths (470,000).
• Worldwide, 2.1 million people became newly infected with HIV.
• Not all world regions had witnessed a decline in AIDS-related deaths. Between 2010 and 2015 the
number of people dying from this cause in the Middle East and North Africa increased by 22 per cent.

Figure 1.15 World AIDS Day is recognised all over the world
The epidemic has been particularly concentrated in southern Africa. The factors responsible for such high
rates include:
• poverty and social instability that result in family disruption
• high levels of other sexually transmitted infections
• the low status of women
• sexual violence
• high mobility, which is mainly linked to migratory labour systems

• ineffective leadership during critical periods in the epidemic’s spread.

 The impact of HIV/AIDS
• Labour supply — the economically active population reduces as more people fall sick and
are unable to work. This can have a severe impact on development. In the worst affected
countries the epidemic has already reversed many of the development achievements of recent
decades. In agriculture, food security is threatened as there are fewer people able to farm and to
pass on their skills.
• Dependency ratio — those who contract HIV are mainly in the economically active
population. An increasing death rate in this age group increases the dependency ratio.
• Family — AIDS is impoverishing entire families and many children and old people have to
take on the role of carers. Adult deaths, especially of parents, often causes households to be
dissolved. The large number of orphaned children in some areas puts a considerable strain on
local communities and on governments in developing countries.
• Education — with limited investment in education many young people are still unaware
about how to avoid the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. In addition there are a considerable number
of teachers who have AIDS and are too ill to work. UNICEF has stressed how the loss of a
significant number of teachers is a serious blow to the future development of low-income
countries.
• Poverty — there is a vicious cycle between AIDS and poverty. AIDS prevents development
and increases the impact of poverty. Poverty worsens the AIDS situation due to economic

burdens such as debt repayments and drug/medical costs.

• Infant and child mortality — mortality rates increase as AIDS can be passed from mother
to child.
Activities
1 With reference to Figure 1.14, explain what you understand by the term ‘demographic
divide’.
2 What are the factors responsible for such high prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS in southern
Africa?
3 How does HIV/AIDS affect communities where prevalence rates are high?

Case study: Kenya — a country with a high rate of

natural population growth
Kenya has a high rate of population growth (Figure 1.16). Between 1969 and 2009 the country’s
population increased more than threefold from 10.9 million to 38.6 million. By 2016, Kenya’s
population had reached 45.4 million. Such a rate of increase has been due to several factors:
• A high number of births per woman: in 2016 the Kenyan average was 3.9 children per
woman (down from 4.6 in 2009). This compares with the current global average of 2.5.
• Falling death rates, particularly in infant mortality: in 2016, the Population Reference
Bureau estimated that infant mortality in Kenya had fallen to 39/1000. This compares with the
average for Africa as a whole of 57/1000.
• A steady and significant increase in life expectancy: in 2016 life expectancy was over 62
years in Kenya compared with 60 for Africa as a whole.
 Figure 1.16 The growth and projected growth in Kenya’s population between 1969 and 2030

Figure 1.17 Population pyramid for Kenya (2016)

Kenya’s total fertility rate is falling, in line with most other African countries. However, even if it
drops to the forecast of 3.7 children per woman by 2030, the population will still grow to 65.9 million
(Figure 1.16). This will be almost six times the population in 1969. Such rapid population increase
puts heavy pressure on a country’s resources, particularly food, water, housing, health and
education.
An analysis of family planning in Kenya showed that:
• women with more education have fewer children
• fewer than one-half of births are attended by a skilled provider (doctor, nurse, midwife etc.)
• the poorest women have the highest unmet need for family planning
• many adolescents have sex before age 15
• birth spacing of at least 2 years has a big impact on child health and well-being.
Kenya has a very high youth dependency ratio, with 42 per cent of the population under 15.
Figure 1.17 shows that Kenya has a classic population pyramid for a country with a high population
growth rate. A rapidly growing population results in a lower amount of land per capita available to
farmers and their children. This is a major issue as about 70 per cent of the country’s population live
in rural areas. A recent survey showed that 67 per cent of farmers thought that the size of their land
holding was not sufficient for their children. Young people who cannot find work on the land often
migrate to urban areas. Such rural-to-urban migration is a significant phenomenon in Africa. However,
although the economy is growing, youth unemployment is a considerable problem as the rate of
population increase is greater than the rate of job creation. The World Bank estimates that 50 per
cent of Kenya’s population will live in urban areas by 2033.
Although the poverty rate fell from 47 per cent in 2005 to 38 per cent in 2012, Kenya remains
among the most unequal countries in Africa. While clear progress has been made in health,
education, infrastructure and other aspects of society, a significant proportion of the population
continue to live in fragile conditions with sub-standard access to water, sanitation and energy (Figure
1.18). The situation is particularly difficult in the north and northeast.

Figure 1.18 Overcrowding in Kibera — Nairobi’s and Africa’s largest slum

In recent decades, both erratic weather patterns associated with climate change and the impact
of HIV/AIDS have been major contributors to high poverty levels.
Case study analysis
1 Use the atlas map at the beginning of the book to describe the location of Kenya.
2 Using Figure 1.16, produce a table to show population increase in Kenya between 1969
and 2030.
3 Study Figure 1.17 and describe the population structure of Kenya. Refer to the
populations:
a under 15
b 15–64
c 65 and over.
4 Briefly explain the reasons for Kenya’s population structure.
5 What are the problems associated with high population growth in Kenya?

Case study: Population decline in Russia

In 2016 Russia’s birth and death rates were equal, at 13/1000, resulting in a natural change of
zero. Such stagnant population change or natural decrease is common in eastern Europe. Russia’s
population reached its highest level of almost 148.7 million in 1991 (Figure 1.19 and Table 1.6), just
before the break-up of the Soviet Union. Since then it has been mainly in decline, although very
slight increases have been registered in some recent years. In 2016 the Russian population stood at
144.3 million. With a population density of just over 8 km 2, this is one of the most sparsely populated
countries in the world (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.19 Russia’s population, 1950–2015

Table 1.6 Russia’s population, 1991–2050
Year Population (millions)
1991 148.7
2016 144.3
2030 (estimate) 142.6
2050 (estimate) 136.4

Figure 1.20 The trans-Siberian railway. Many communities in Asiatic Russia have declined in population
The decline in Russia’s population has been due to a combination of economic and social factors.
Population decline or very slow growth has been due to:
• low birth rates
• high death rates, particularly among men
• emigration.
The change in recent decades from a communist centrally planned economy to a market
economy has resulted in some people being much better off, while many other people struggle to
make a reasonable living. Inequality has increased considerably in Russia, with unemployment and
poverty being major concerns for many people. The cost of raising children is perceived to be high
when both parents need to work to make ends meet. These circumstances have had a big impact on
decisions to start or extend a family.
Education standards for women in Russia are high and so women in general have the decisive
say in decisions about family size. The use of contraception is high, with almost 70 per cent of
married women aged 15–49 using various methods.
The difference in life expectancy between men and women in Russia is considerable. In 2016 life
expectancy for women was 77 years, but only 66 for men. This extremely low level for men in a
European country has been attributed to very high intakes of alcohol, a high incidence of smoking,
pollution, poverty and the ravages of HIV/AIDS and other diseases. The high male death rate has
resulted in there being almost 11 million more women than men in Russia.
Population decline has had its greatest impact in rural areas, with 8500 villages said to have been
abandoned since 2002. The cold northern regions of Russia have experienced the highest levels of
depopulation. Such are the concerns of many Russians about the future that a sociological survey
in June 2011 found that one-fifth of the Russian population are potential emigrants.
In 2008 Russia began honouring families with four or more children with a Paternal Glory medal.
The government has urged Russians to have more children, sometimes suggesting that it is a matter
of public duty.
Case study analysis
1 Use the atlas map at the beginning of the book to describe the location of Russia.
2 Describe the changes in Russia’s population shown in Figure 1.19 and Table 1.6.
3 Discuss the reasons for population decline in Russia.

Interesting note
In 2016 worldwide, thirteen countries had birth rates lower than their death rates, thus registering
a natural decrease in population. Bulgaria and Serbia had the highest rates of natural decrease at
−0.6 per cent (−6/1000).
Overpopulation and underpopulation
The idea of optimum population has been mainly understood in an economic sense (Figure 1.21). At first,
an increasing population allows for a fuller exploitation of a country’s resource base, causing living standards to
rise. However, beyond a certain level, rising numbers place increasing pressure on resources and living standards
begin to decline. The highest average living standards mark the optimum population. Before that population is
reached, the country or region can be said to be underpopulated. As the population rises beyond the optimum,
the country or region can be said to be overpopulated.
In terms of the planet as a whole, there are many indications that human population is pushing up against the
limits of the Earth’s resources. For example:
• One-quarter of the world’s children have protein-energy malnutrition.
• The long-term trend for grain production per person is falling.
• About 40 per cent of agricultural land is moderately degraded and 9 per cent is highly degraded.
• Water scarcity already affects every continent and 4 of every 10 people in the world.
• A quarter of all fish stocks are overharvested.
• There are concerns that global peak oil production will come as early as the next decade.
Where an individual country is placed in terms of its relationship between population and resources is a
matter of opinion. There may be big differences in the views of people living in the same country. Such views
can change over time, particularly with economic cycles.
The Netherlands and the UK are two of the most densely populated countries in Europe. Not everyone in
these countries thinks they are overpopulated, but it does seem that an increasing number of people are of this
opinion. In the UK, an organisation called the Optimum Population Trust states that 30 million is the optimum
population for the country. At present the population of the UK is about 66 million. Signs of population pressure
in both the UK and the Netherlands include:
• intense competition for land
• heavy traffic congestion
• high house prices
• high environmental impact of economic activity
• pressure on water resources.
Two of the most sparsely populated developed countries in the world are Australia and Canada. Throughout
the history of both countries the general view has been that they would benefit from higher populations. Thus
Australia and Canada have welcomed significant numbers of immigrants. However, in recent years, with an
uncertain economic climate, both countries have been much more selective in terms of immigration. Although
both countries are very large in size, they have large areas of inhospitable landscape.

Figure 1.21 Optimum population, overpopulation and underpopulation

In the developing world, China and Bangladesh are countries that many would view as overpopulated. The
‘one-child’ policy, which operated between 1979 and 2016, confirmed the Chinese government view.
Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities in the world and struggles to provide for many in its
population. In contrast, Malaysia has been concerned that it is underpopulated. In 1982, when Malaysia’s
population was below 15 million, the government announced that the country should aim for an ultimate
population of 70 million. A range of benefits was put in place to encourage people to have larger families.
Case study: Is Bangladesh an overpopulated country?
‘Spiraling population strains Bangladesh’s sustainability.’
Source: OneWorld South Asia, April, 2009
If small, largely urbanised countries such as Singapore and small island states such as the
Maldives are not considered, then Bangladesh (Figure 1.22) has the highest population density in
the world. At 1128 people per km2 its population density is about 20 times the global average. This
compares with 400 per km2 in India and 143 per km2 in China — two countries that many people
associate with overpopulation. Overpopulation cannot be judged by population density alone, but it is
a useful starting point when considering the relationship between population and resources in a
country.

Figure 1.22 Map of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a relatively small and resource-poor country with a land area of 147,000 km2. This
compares with 244,000 km2 in the UK. Yet the population of Bangladesh is 163 million compared
with 66 million in the UK.
The lack of natural resources is a major factor in overpopulation in Bangladesh, as is rapid
population growth. The current rate of natural increase in Bangladesh is 1.5 per cent. When
Bangladesh became an independent country in 1971 its population was about 75 million — just
under half of the total today. The Population Reference Bureau estimates that the population of
Bangladesh will rise to 187 million by 2030 and 202 million by 2050. There is already intense
competition for the available resources in Bangladesh. How will the country cope in the future when it
is already experiencing large-scale poverty and so many other problems?
Extremely high population pressure and the deprivation associated with it is characteristic of
both rural and urban areas. Four-fifths of the population live in rural areas. The very small amount of
cultivable land per person has resulted in a very high level of rural poverty. Most families have to
survive on extremely small plots of land. This means that there is not enough work available for
many people. About 40 per cent of the population is underemployed, working a limited number of
hours a week at low wages. Underemployment is not just confined to the countryside, but affects
urban areas too.
The regular threat of cyclones and flooding makes this problem much worse. Eighty per cent of
the country is situated on the floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and those of several
other minor rivers. Much of the country is close to sea level and about 40 per cent is regularly
flooded during the monsoon season. Major floods can cause considerable loss of life and destroy
vital infrastructure, often setting back development many years. Where possible, people move to
higher land, increasing the already overcrowded nature of such areas. Major floods increase
the level of rural-to-urban migration, with the majority of migrants heading for the capital city Dhaka.
Other urban areas such as Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi (Figure 1.22) are also growing in
population at very rapid rates. Around 8000 hectares of cultivable land are lost every year due to
urbanisation, industrialisation and the expansion of infrastructure. This is potential food production
that Bangladesh can ill afford to lose.

Figure 1.23 Urban overcrowding in Bangladesh

Living conditions in Dhaka and the other main urban areas are in a continuous state of
deterioration. Many people lack basic amenities such as electricity and clean drinking water.
Dhaka (Figure 1.23) has become one of the most crowded cities in the world with a population
density of 43,000 per km2. This rapidly growing megacity was recently ranked as the least
habitable city among 140 cities surveyed by the Economist Intelligence Unit. The 2016 Human
Development Index, which ranks all the countries of the world according to their quality of life, placed
Bangladesh 139th in the world.
Land is being lost to rising sea levels, a process associated with global warming. The United
Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has predicted that as sea levels rise, by 2050
about 35 million people from Bangladesh will cross the border into India in search of more secure
living conditions.
Poor governance and corruption have undoubtedly hindered development in Bangladesh.
However, national and international efforts to improve the lives of the population have registered
progress. For example, the World Bank noted in 2013 that the number of people in poverty in
Bangladesh had fallen from 63 million in 2000 to 47 million in 2010. The question is: can Bangladesh
continue to reduce poverty in the future?
Case study analysis
1 Describe the geographical location of Bangladesh.
2 How does the physical geography of the country make life difficult for its people?
3 What evidence would you produce to support the statement that ‘Bangladesh is an
overpopulated country’?

Case study: Is Australia an underpopulated country?

Australia is generally regarded as an example of an underpopulated country although there are
some experts who would disagree because much of the interior of the country is so inhospitable. In
the world’s sixth largest country in land area, most of the population is concentrated in two widely
separated coastal regions — the southeast and east, and the southwest (Figure 1.24) — and within
these regions there is considerable concentration in urban areas (Figure 1.25).
 Figure 1.24 Population density map of Australia

Figure 1.25 Sydney, Australia

This country of continental size had a population of only 24.1 million people in 2016 (Table 1.7).
The population of Australia is forecast to rise to 31 million in 2030 and 41 million by 2050. The
current population density is only 3 per km2 — one of the lowest figures in the world.
Australia is a resource-rich nation, exporting raw materials in demand on the global market all
over the world. The country’s major resources include coal, iron ore, copper, gold, natural gas and
uranium. Australia also has great potential for renewable energy, particularly in terms of wind and
solar power. Such an abundant resource base has attracted a high level of foreign direct investment.

Table 1.7 Comparing Bangladesh and Australia

Indicator Bangladesh Australia

Population 2016 163 million 24 million

Population forecast 2030 187 million 31 million
Population density 2016 1128 km2 3 km2

Rate of natural change 2016 1.5% 0.6%

Net migration rate 2016 −2/1000 +9/1000
 Infant mortality rate 2016 38/1000 3.4/1000
Life expectancy at birth 2016 72 years 82 years
% urban 2016 34 89
GNI PPP per capita ($) 2016 3550 44,570

Countries that need to import large amounts of natural resources, such as China, Japan and
Korea, have been major investors in Australia. The country has a well-developed infrastructure and a
relatively highly skilled population, which enjoys a generally high income. Australia exudes an image
of an affluent outdoor lifestyle that attracts potential migrants from many different countries. Australia
was ranked second in the world (after Norway) according to the 2016 Human Development Index.
Net migration is a good measure of how attractive a country is to people from other countries.
While Bangladesh has negative net migration (Table 1.7), Australia has one of the highest positive
net migration figures in the world. Australia’s extremely high gross national income per capita is not
just a major attraction to potential international migrants, it is also a useful statement of the
opportunities available in the country and the relationship between population and resources.
Although Australia’s immigration policy has changed over the years, the country has generally
encouraged immigration to develop the country’s resources and to solve shortages of certain skills.
Australia is particularly keen for migrants to settle in the more remote rural areas, which have
suffered from out-migration for a number of decades. Figure 1.26 shows how important net
overseas migration has been to total population growth.

Figure 1.26 Australia 1982–2015: net migration and natural increase

Another useful indicator of the population/resources relationship is unemployment. Australia has
a low rate of unemployment by global standards. Unlike Bangladesh, underemployment is not a
significant problem. Australia scores highly for virtually all measures of quality of life, including
health and education. Although Australia’s population is highly concentrated in certain areas, there
are undoubtedly more genuine opportunities for population increase here than in most other parts of
the world.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of Australia.
2 Use Figure 1.24 to briefly comment on the population distribution of Australia.
3 What evidence would you produce to support the statement that ‘Australia is an
underpopulated country’?

The effectiveness of population policies

Population policy encompasses all of the measures taken by a government aimed at influencing population
size, growth, distribution or composition. Such policies may promote large families (pro-natalist policies) or
immigration to increase population size, or encourage fewer births (anti-natalist policies) to reduce population
growth. A population policy may also aim to modify the distribution of the population over the country by
encouraging migration or by displacing populations.
 A significant number of governments have officially stated positions on the level of the national birth rate.
Forming an opinion on demographic issues is one thing, but establishing a policy to do something about it is
much further along the line, so not all nations stating an opinion on population have gone as far as establishing a
formal policy.
Most countries that have tried to control fertility have sought to curtail it. In 1952 India became the first
developing country to introduce a policy designed to reduce fertility and to aid development with a government-
backed family planning programme. Because India’s family planning programme was perceived to be working, it
was not long before many other developing nations followed India’s policy of government investment to reduce
fertility. In India the birth rate fell from 45/1000 in 1951–61 to 41/1000 in 1961–71. By 1987 it was down to
33/1000, falling further to 29/1000 in 1995. By 2016 it had dropped to 22/1000.

Anti-natalist policy in China

China, with a population in excess of 1.3 billion, operates the world’s most severe family planning
programme. Although it is the fourth largest country in the world in land area, 25 per cent of China is infertile
desert or mountain and only 10 per cent of the total area can be used for arable farming. Most of the best land is
in the east and south, reflected in the extremely high population densities found in these regions. Thus the
balance between population and resources has been a major cause of concern for much of the latter part of the
twentieth century and the early part of the present century (Figure 1.27).

Figure 1.27 Beijing — crowds at the Forbidden City

In the aftermath of the communist revolution in 1949, population growth was encouraged for economic,
military and strategic reasons. Sterilisation and abortion were banned and families received a benefit payment for
every child. However, by 1954 China’s population had reached 600 million and the government was now
worried about the pressure on food supplies and other resources. Consequently, the country’s first birth control
programme was introduced in 1956. This was to prove short-lived, for in 1958 the ‘Great Leap Forward’ began.
Its objective was rapid industrialisation and modernisation. The government was now concerned that progress
might be hindered by labour shortages and so births were again encouraged. But by 1962 the
government had changed its mind, heavily influenced by a catastrophic famine due in large part to the relative
neglect of agriculture during the pursuit of industrialisation. An estimated 20 million people died during the
famine. A new phase of birth control ensued in 1964, but just as the new programme was beginning to have some
effect, a new social upheaval, the Cultural Revolution, got underway. This period, during which the birth rate
peaked at 45/1000, lasted from 1966 to 1971.
With order restored, a third family planning campaign was launched in the early 1970s with the slogan ‘Late,
sparse, few’. However, towards the end of the decade the government felt that its impact might falter and in 1979
the controversial ‘one-child’ policy was imposed. The Chinese demographer Liu Zeng calculated that China’s
optimum population was 700 million, and he looked for this figure to be achieved by 2080.
Figure 1.28 shows changes in the birth and death rates in China since 1950, and projected to 2050. The
impact of the one-child policy is very clear to see. Some organisations, including the UN Fund for Population
Activities, have praised China’s policy on birth control. Many others see it as a fundamental violation of civil
liberties because it has placed such extreme pressure on couples to obey the policy. In July 2009, newspapers in
the UK and elsewhere reported that dozens of babies had been taken from parents who had breached China’s
policy, and sold for adoption abroad.

Figure 1.28 China’s birth and death rates, 1950–2050

The one-child policy has been most effective in urban areas, where the traditional bias of couples wanting a
son is less. However, the story is different in rural areas, where the strong desire for a male heir remains the norm.
In most provincial rural areas, government policy was gradually relaxed so that couples could have two children
without penalties.
Although the one-child policy has been very effective in reducing China’s birth rate, it has caused other
problems:
• The policy has had a considerable impact on the gender ratio, which at birth in China is currently 119
boys to 100 girls. This compares with the natural rate of 106 to 100. This is already causing social problems,
which are likely to multiply in the future. Selective abortion after pre-natal screening is a major cause of the
wide gap between the actual rate and the natural rate. But even if a female child is born, her lifespan may be
sharply curtailed by infanticide or deliberate neglect.
• A paper published in 2008 estimated that China had 32 million more men aged under 20 than women.
The imbalance is greatest in rural areas because women are ‘marrying out’ into cities. In recent years,
reference has been made to the ‘four-two-one’ problem whereby one adult child is left with having to
provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents.
• China’s low birth rate, 12/1000 in 2016, has contributed to the country’s ageing population, which has
now become a major concern for the government.
In recent years there has been increasing debate within China about the one-child policy. In 2015, the
Chinese government announced it would relax the rules to allow all couples to have two children from March
2016.

Pro-natalist policy in France

A relatively small but growing, number of countries now see their fertility as being too low. Such countries
are concerned about:
• the socio-economic implications of population ageing
• the decrease in the supply of labour
• the long-term prospect of population decline.
France’s relatively high fertility level (in European terms) can be partly explained by its long-term active
family policy, adopted in the 1980s to accommodate the entry of women into the labour force. The policy seems
to have created especially positive attitudes towards two-and three-child families in France. France has taken
steps to encourage fertility on a number of occasions over the last 70 years. In 1939 the government passed the
‘Code de la Famille’, which:
• offered financial incentives to mothers who stayed at home to look after children
• subsidised holidays
 • banned the sale of contraceptives (this stopped in 1967).
More recent measures to encourage couples to have more children include:
• longer maternity and paternity leave: maternity leave, on near full pay, ranges from 20 weeks for the
first child to 40 or more for the third child
• higher child benefits
• improved tax allowances for larger families until the youngest child reaches 18
• pension schemes for mothers/housewives
• 30 per cent reduction on all public transport for three-child families
• child-oriented policies, for example provision of crèches and day nurseries — state-supported daycare
centres and nursery schools are available for infants starting at the age of 3 months, with parents paying a
sliding scale according to income
• preferential treatment in the allocation of government housing.
Overall, France is trying to reduce the economic cost to parents of having children. The country is close to
the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman. The 2016 Population Data Sheet put France’s total fertility rate
at 1.9. The only country in Europe with a higher rate was Kosovo at 2.3. Figure 1.29 shows the population
growth rate in France from 2000 to 2014.

Figure 1.29 Population growth in France, 2000–14

Although the average age of French mothers at childbirth is still rising, it is still less than in many other
European countries. Within France, the highest level of fertility is among the immigrant population, and even for
those born in France the average is 1.8 babies. French economists argue that, although higher fertility means
more expenditure on childcare facilities and education, in the longer term it gives the country a more sustainable
age structure.
French politicians have talked about demography as a ‘source of vitality’ for the country. Some French
commentators also argue that there is a better work/life balance in France compared with many other European

countries.
Activities
1 Define the term ‘optimum population’.
2 List three signs of population pressure in a country.
3 What is the difference between a pro-natalist policy and an anti-natalist policy?
4 Why did China introduce its controversial one-child policy in 1979?
5 Describe the changes in China’s birth rate shown in Figure 1.28.
6 State two problems cause by China’s one-child policy.
7 Suggest why China relaxed its population policy from March 2016.
8 Give three measures introduced in France to encourage couples to have more children.
9 Describe the changes in France’s population growth between 2000 and 2014 (Figure
1.29).
Key questions
• What is migration?
• What are the causes of migration?
• What are the impacts of migration on areas of both origin and destination?

1.2 Migration
Figure 1.30 Chinatown, San Francisco — a major Chinese community in an American city

The nature of, and reasons for, population

migration
Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary, national or international, to establish a
new permanent place of residence. The UN defines ‘permanent’ as a change of residence lasting more than 1
year. Migration has been a major process in shaping the world as it is today. Its impact has been economic, social,
cultural, political and environmental. Few people now go through life without changing residence several times.
How many people in your class have lived in (a) different parts of your country (b) other countries?

Push and pull factors

Figure 1.31 shows the main push and pull factors relating to migration. Push factors are negative conditions
at the point or origin that encourage or force people to move. For example, a high level of unemployment is a
major push factor in a region or a country. In contrast, pull factors are positive conditions at the point of
destination that encourage people to migrate. An important pull factor is often much higher wages in another
country or region. The nature of push and pull factors varies from country to country (and from person to person)
and changes over time.
 Figure 1.31 Push and pull factors

Voluntary and involuntary migrations

Figure 1.32 shows the main types of migration and the barriers that potential migrants can face. Today,
immigration laws present the greatest obstacle to most potential international migrants, whereas in the past the
physical dangers encountered on the journey often presented the greatest difficulty. The cost of migration was
also generally higher in the past in real terms (taking account of inflation) than it is today. Most countries now
attempt to manage immigration carefully, being most eager to attract people whose skills are in demand.

Figure 1.32 Types of migration and barriers to migration

The big distinction is between voluntary migration and involuntary (forced) migration. In voluntary
migration the individual has a free choice about whether to migrate or not. In involuntary migrations, people are
made to move against their will and this may be due to human or environmental factors. The abduction and
transport of Africans to the Americas as slaves was the largest involuntary migration in history. In the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 15 million people were shipped across the Atlantic Ocean as slaves. The
expulsion of Asians from Uganda in the 1970s when the country was under the dictatorship of Idi Amin, and the
forcible movement of people from parts of the former Yugoslavia under the policy of ‘ethnic cleansing’, are
much more recent examples. Migrations may also be forced by natural disasters (volcanic eruptions, floods,
drought and so on) or by environmental catastrophes such as the nuclear contamination in Chernobyl.
In the latter part of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century, some of the world’s
most violent and protracted conflicts have been in the developing world, particularly in Africa, the Middle East
and Asia. These troubles have led to numerous population movements on a significant scale. Not all have crossed
international frontiers to merit the term refugee movements. Instead many are internally displaced people. The
current conflict in Syria has produced large numbers of both refugees and internally displaced people (Figure
1.33), as has conflict in Iraq, Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia. Major natural disasters such as the Pakistan
floods of 2010 and the Haiti earthquake in the same year created large numbers of internally displaced people.

Figure 1.33 Syria: refugees and internally displaced people, September 2013
The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) put the number of forcibly displaced people
worldwide at 65 million at the end of 2015. This included 21.3 million refugees, the remainder being internally
displaced people.

Migration trends
Figure 1.34 shows international migrants by major areas of destination, 2000 and 2015. Nearly two-thirds of
international migrants worldwide live in Europe or Asia. The number of international migrants reached 244
million in 2015, a 41 per cent increase compared with 2000. This is 3.3 per cent of the world’s population.
Foreign-born populations are rising in both developed and developing countries (Figure 1.35).

Figure 1.34 Bar graph showing number of international migrants by major area of destination, 2000 and 2015
 Figure 1.35 Southall, the centre of London’s Indian community
Recent migration data show the following:
• With the growth in the importance of labour-related migration and international student mobility,
migration has become increasingly temporary and circular in nature. The international mobility of highly
skilled workers increased substantially in the 1990s and beyond.
• The spatial impact of migration has spread, with an increasing number of countries affected either as
points of origin or of destination. While many traditional migration streams have remained strong,
significant new streams have developed.
• The proportion of female migrants was 48 per cent in 2015. For some countries of origin, women now
make up the majority of contract workers (for example, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia).
• The great majority of international migrants move from developing to developed countries. However,
there are also strong migration links between some developing countries, in particular between low-and
middle-income countries.
• Developed countries have reinforced controls, in part in response to security issues, but also to combat
illegal immigration and networks that deal in trafficking and exploitation of human beings.
Globalisation in all its aspects has led to an increased awareness of opportunities in other countries. With
advances in transportation and communication, and a reduction in the real cost of both, the world’s population
has never had a higher level of potential mobility. Also, in various ways, economic and social development has
made people more mobile and created the conditions for emigration. Many developing countries are looking to
developed countries to adopt a more favourable attitude to international migration, arguing that it brings benefits
to both developed and developing countries.

Internal population movements

Population movement within countries is at a much higher level than movement between countries. In both
developed and developing countries significant movements of people take place from poorer regions to richer
regions as people seek employment and higher standards of living. In developing countries, much of this
migration is in fact from rural to urban areas. Developed countries had their period of high rural-to-urban
migration in the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century. The developing countries have
been undergoing high rural-to-urban migration since about 1950, resulting in the very rapid growth of urban
areas such as Cairo, Nairobi, São Paulo and Dhaka. The largest rural-to-urban migration in history is now taking
place in China, where more than 150 million people have moved from the countryside to the rapidly expanding
urban/industrial areas to satisfy the demand for workers in China’s factories.
In Brazil, there has been a large migration from the poor northeast region to the more affluent southeast.
Within the northeast, movement from rural areas is greatest in the Sertão, the dry interior that suffers intensely
from unreliable rainfall. However, poor living standards and a general lack of opportunity in the cities of the
northeast have also been a powerful incentive to move. Explaining the attraction of urban areas in the southeast
demands more than the ‘bright lights’ scenario that is still sometimes used. The Todaro model presents a more
realistic explanation. According to this model, migrants are all too well aware that they may not find employment
by moving to, say, São Paulo. However, they calculate that the probability of employment, and other factors that
are important to the quality of life of the individual and the family, is greater in the preferred destination than at
their point of origin.

Depopulation and counterurbanisation

In developed countries two significant trends can be identified concerning the redistribution of population
since the late eighteenth century. The first, urbanisation, lasted until about 1970, while the second,
counterurbanisation, has been dominant since that time.
 The process of urbanisation had a considerable impact on many rural areas where depopulation occurred
because of it (Figure 1.36). Depopulation is an absolute decline in the population of an area, usually due to a high
level of out-migration. It is generally the most isolated rural areas that are affected. Figure 1.37 shows the causes
and consequences of rural depopulation.
Counterurbanisation is the process of population decentralisation as people move from large urban areas
to smaller urban settlements and rural areas. The objective is usually to seek a better quality of life by getting
away from the problems of large cities. This process has resulted in a renaissance in the demographic fortunes of
rural areas and is often referred to as the ‘population turnaround’. There has been considerable debate as to
whether this trend will be long-term or relatively short-lived.

Figure 1.36 Rural depopulation in northern Spain

Figure 1.37 Model of rural depopulation

Interesting note
In 2016 Amnesty International said that 10 countries were hosting more than half the world’s
refugees. The leading countries were Jordan (> 2.7 million), Turkey (> 2.5 million), Pakistan (1.6
million), Lebanon (> 1.5 million).

Activities
1 Define the term ‘migration’.
2 What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary migration?
3 Discuss three significant push factors in migration.

4 Suggest how the barriers to migration have changed over time.

5 State the difference between a refugee and an internally displaced person.
6 Summarise the data presented in Figure 1.34.
7 Briefly describe two types of internal population movement.
The impacts of migration
‘The overall economic gains from international migration for sending countries, receiving countries, and the
migrants themselves are substantial.’
Source: The World Bank, 2012
Migration has played a major role in shaping the global cultural map. The process of migration is essentially
a series of exchanges between places. In some parts of the world international migration is a long- established
process. The truly cosmopolitan nature of major cities such as London, New York and Paris is clear evidence of
this. In other parts of the world there is little evidence of cultural diversity because international migration has
not been a significant phenomenon in the recent past.
Figure 1.38 summarises some of the possible impacts of international migration. Many of these factors are
also relevant to internal migration. Because migration can be such an emotive issue you may not agree with all of
these statements, and you may consider that some important factors have been omitted.

Figure 1.38 Matrix showing the impact of migration

Impact on countries of origin

Remittances — money sent back by migrants to their families in their home community — are often seen as
the most positive impact on the country of origin. They are a major economic factor in developing countries
(Figure 1.39). Remittances to developing countries are estimated to have totalled $429 billion in 2016. Global
remittance flows, including those to high-income countries, were an estimated $575 billion in 2016. Remittances
exceed considerably the amount of official aid received by developing countries.
Remittances can account for over 20 per cent of annual GDP in some developing countries such as Kyrgyz
Republic, Nepal, Liberia, Haiti and Tonga. They have been described as ‘globalisation bottom up’. Migration
advocates stress that these revenue flows:
• help alleviate poverty
• spur investment and create a multiplier effect
• cushion the impact of global recession when private capital flows decrease.
The major sources of remittances are the USA, and countries in western Europe and the Persian Gulf. In 2016,
the top recipients of remittances were: India ($63 billion), China ($61 billion), the Philippines ($30 billion) and
Mexico ($29 billion). Other large recipients included Nigeria, Egypt, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam and
Lebanon.
 Figure 1.39 MoneyGram sign — remittances are an important element of international migration. Moneygram
is an electronic money transfer system
Other possible advantages of emigration include reducing population pressure on resources such as food and
water, and lowering levels of unemployment and underemployment, which are major problems in many poor
countries. Emigration can also reduce pressure on the housing stock and on key services such as health and
education, which are areas of heavy expenditure for low-income countries. The links that migrants
maintain with their home communities can also help to develop new skills and technologies, particularly when
migrants return home permanently and establish new businesses.
In terms of disadvantages, the loss of workers with important skills — the so-called brain-drain effect — is of
concern in many countries of origin. In extreme cases there may not be enough people to continue to farm
effectively in some communities. Population structure can be adversely affected if migration is very gender-
selective, and the loss of many young people can advance the ageing of the population.

Impact on countries of destination

Any increase in the labour force is generally welcomed by businesses, particularly if migrants have skills that
are in short supply. For example, in the UK the National Health Service (NHS) relies heavily on foreign nurses
and doctors. Greater competition in the labour force tends to limit wage rises, which helps to keep inflation low.
Low inflation is an important factor in economic stability. Many people value an increase in cultural diversity,
which can enrich communities. An influx of young migrants can help to reduce the rate of population ageing and
lower the dependency ratio (Figure 1.40). This has a positive financial impact on countries.
The negative impact of immigration is more contentious. A significant influx of migrants can put pressure on
the available housing stock, causing overcrowding and pushing up prices. Similarly, it will increase demand on
health, education and other services to varying degrees. Trade unions often voice concerns over migration levels
if they feel that their members are losing out on employment prospects because of an increase in the level of
competition for work. In areas where there has been a significant change in the ethnic balance, tension between
ethnic groups may increase.
Each receiving country has its own sources of immigrants. This is the result of historical, economic and
geographical relationships. Earlier generations of migrants form networks that help new arrivals to overcome
legal and other obstacles.
 Figure 1.40 Age distribution of the total population and international migrants worldwide, 2015

Impact on migrants themselves

The prospect of higher wages, a wider choice of job opportunities and the chance to develop new skills are all
important pull factors to potential migrants. For many this will enable them to provide financial support to their
families in the country of origin. Other benefits may also become apparent, such as developing language skills.
On the debit side, the financial cost of migration may be significant, but may be shared by family members in
anticipation of the remittances to follow. For many migrants, by far the greatest cost is separation from family
and friends in their home country. The ‘culture shock’ of settling in a new country may be lessened if migrants
find housing and employment in an established migrant community in their new country. The risk of exploitation
is a real concern for many migrants. Receiving countries vary in how effectively they challenge such practices.

The costs and benefits of internal migration

Figure 1.41 provides a useful framework for understanding the costs and returns from migration between
rural and urban areas. It highlights the main factors that determine how rural areas are affected by migration —
namely the two-way transfers of labour, money, skills and attitudes. However, while all the linkages seem fairly
obvious, none is easy to quantify. Therefore, apart from some very clear-cut cases, it is often difficult to decide
which is greater: the cost or the benefits of migration.

Figure 1.41 The costs and returns of migration

Climate change
It is predicted that climate change will force mass migrations in the future. In 2009 the International
Organization for Migration estimated that worsening tropical storms, desert droughts and rising sea levels will
displace 200 million people by 2050.
Activities
1 State two positive and two negative impacts of international migration on countries of
origin.
2 Give three benefits of international migration for countries of destination.
3 Why is it likely that climate change will create mass migration in the future?
Case study: International migration from Mexico to the
USA
One of the largest labour migrations in the world has been from Mexico to the United States, a
rare example where a developed country borders a developing country. This migration has largely
been the result of:
• much higher average incomes in the USA
• lower unemployment rates in the USA
• the faster growth of the labour force in Mexico, with significantly higher population growth in
Mexico than in the USA
• the overall quality of life: on virtually every aspect of the quality of life conditions are better
in the USA than in Mexico.
Most migration has taken place in the last four decades. Although previous surges occurred in
the 1920s and 1950s, when the American government allowed the recruitment of Mexican workers
as guest workers, persistent mass migration between the two countries did not take hold until the
late twentieth century.
There is a very strong concentration of the US Mexican population in the four states along the
Mexican border: California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. The main reasons for this spatial
distribution are:
• proximity to the border
• the location of demand for immigrant farm workers
• urban areas where the Mexican community is long-established.

Figure 1.42 Increase in the Mexican-born population in the USA

Figure 1.42 shows the increase in the Mexican-born population in the USA. About one in ten
Mexican citizens (12 million) live in the USA, half of them illegally. This is the largest immigrant
community in the world. However, in the last year or so there is evidence that this migration has
levelled out (Figure 1.42) because:
• tougher economic conditions in the USA have made migration less attractive
• the US Border Patrol has made illegal immigration much more difficult to achieve (Figure
1.43).
 Figure 1.43 Fencing along the US border with Mexico, and the US Border Patrol
Donald Trump, who took office as the new president of the USA in 2017, has promised to build a
new ‘wall’ in an attempt to make illegal migration from Mexico much more difficult. This is a
controversial issue in both the USA and Mexico.
In the USA the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) has opposed large-scale
immigration from Mexico, arguing that it:
• undermines the employment opportunities of low-skilled US workers
• has negative environmental effects because of the increased population
• threatens established US cultural values.
The recent global economic crisis, which began in 2008, saw unemployment in the USA rise to
about 10 per cent, the worst job situation for 25 years. Immigration always becomes a more sensitive
issue in times of high unemployment. FAIR has also highlighted the costs to local taxpayers
of illegal workers in terms of education, emergency medical care, detention, and other costs that
have to be borne.
Those opposed to FAIR see its actions as uncharitable and arguably racist. Such individuals and
groups highlight the advantages that Mexican and other migrant groups have brought to the country.
The impact on Mexico
Sustained large-scale labour migration has had a range of impacts on Mexico, some of them
clear and others debatable. Significant impacts include:
• the high value of remittances, which totalled over $24 billion in 2014 — this is the world’s
biggest flow of remittances and as a national source of income for Mexico is only exceeded by
its oil exports
• reduced unemployment pressure as migrants tend to leave areas where unemployment is
particularly high
• lower pressure on housing stock and public services
• changes in population structure with emigration of young adults (Table 1.8)
• loss of skilled and enterprising people
• migrants returning to Mexico with changed values and attitudes.
It remains to be seen whether the recent migration slowdown is temporary or permanent. Much
depends on the relative fortunes of the US and Mexican economies.
Table 1.8 Age distribution in 2014 — Mexican migrants and the native-born population of
the USA
Age group Mexican immigrants Native-born population
Under 18 6% 26%
 18–64 87% 60%
65 and over 8% 15%
Case study analysis
1 What are the main reasons for such a high level of international migration from Mexico to
the USA?
2 Describe the change in the Mexican-born population of the USA shown in Figure 1.42.
3 Suggest why immigration from Mexico is a controversial issue in the USA.
4 Briefly discuss the impact of emigration on Mexico.
5 Describe and suggest reasons for the differences shown in Table 1.8.

Key questions
• How does population structure vary between countries at different levels of economic
development?
• What are the implications of different types of population structure?

1.3 Population structure

Figure 1.44 Elderly people are making up an increasing proportion of the population in many countries

Variations in population structure

The structure of a population is the result of the processes of fertility, mortality and migration. The most
studied aspects of population structure are age (Figure 1.44) and sex (gender). Other aspects of population
structure that can also be studied include race, language, religion and social/occupational group.

Population pyramids
Age and sex structure can be illustrated by the use of population pyramids (Figure 1.45). Pyramids can be
used to show either absolute or relative data. Absolute data show the figures in thousands or millions, while
relative data show the numbers involved in percentages. Each bar represents a 5-year age group. The male
population is represented to the left of the vertical axis, with females to the right.
 Figure 1.45 Four population pyramids for Niger, Bangladesh, the UK and Japan

Demographic transition and changing

population structure
Population pyramids change significantly in shape as a country progresses through demographic transition
and economic development:
• The wide base of Niger’s pyramid reflects extremely high fertility. The birth rate in Niger is 49/1000,
the highest in the world. The marked decrease in width of each successive bar indicates relatively high
mortality and limited life expectancy. The death rate at 9/1000 is relatively high, particularly considering
how young the population is. The infant mortality rate is 56/1000. Life expectancy in Niger is 61 years; 50
per cent of the population is under 15, with only 3 per cent aged 65 or over. Niger is in stage 2 of
demographic transition.
• The base of the pyramid for Bangladesh is narrower than that of Niger, reflecting a considerable fall in
fertility after decades of government-promoted birth control programmes. The fact that the 0–4 and 5–9 bars
are narrower than the bar immediately above is evidence of recent falls in fertility. The birth rate is currently
20/1000. Falling mortality and lengthening life expectancy is reflected in the relatively wide bars in the
teenage and young adult age groups. The death rate at 5/1000 is almost half that of Niger. The infant
mortality rate is 38/1000. Life expectancy in Bangladesh is 72 years; 33 per cent of the population are under
15, while 6 per cent are aged 65 or over. Bangladesh is an example of a country in stage 3 of demographic
transition.
• In the pyramid for the UK, much lower fertility still is illustrated by narrowing of the base. The birth
rate in the UK is only 12/1000. The relatively uniform width of the bars for the working-age population
indicates a significantly higher life expectancy than for Bangladesh. The death rate in the UK is 9/1000, with
an infant mortality rate of 3.9/1000. Life expectancy is 81 years; 18 per cent of the population are under 15,
while 17 per cent are 65 or over. The UK is in stage 4 of demographic transition.
• The final pyramid, for Japan, has a distinctly inverted base reflecting the lowest fertility of all four
countries. The birth rate is 8/1000. The width of the rest of the pyramid is a consequence of the highest life
expectancy of all four countries. The death rate is 10/1000, with infant mortality at 1.9/1000. Life
expectancy is almost 84 years. Japan has only 13 per cent of its population under 15, with 27 per cent aged
 65 or over. With the birth rate lower than the death rate, Japan is experiencing natural decrease and thus the
country is in stage 5 of demographic transition.
Table 1.9 compares the basic demographic rates for the four countries with Gross National Income (GNI) per
capita (per person). The data are given at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), which takes account of the different
costs of living in the four countries. The difference in GNI per capita between Niger and Bangladesh is
consistent with the general difference between countries in stages 2 and 3 of demographic transition,
although many countries in stage 3 have much higher GNI per capita figures than Bangladesh. The much higher
GNI figures for the UK and Japan are also to be expected. There is no significant difference in GNI per capita
between countries in stages 4 and 5 of demographic transition.
Table 1.9 Population and economic data for the four countries, 2016

Figure 1.46 provides some useful tips for understanding population pyramids. A good starting point is to
divide the pyramid into three sections:
• the young dependent population
• the economically active population
• the elderly dependent population.

Figure 1.46 An annotated population pyramid

Interesting note

At 50 per cent, Niger has the highest percentage of population under 15 in the world. Japan has
27 per cent of its population aged 65 and over, again the highest in the world.

Activities
1 Define the term ‘population structure’.
2 What is a population pyramid?
3 Look at Figure 1.45 and compare the population structures of Niger and the UK.

Population structure: differences within

countries
In countries where there is strong rural-to-urban migration, the population structures of the areas affected can
be markedly different. These differences show up clearly on population pyramids. Out-migration from rural areas
is age-selective, with single young adults and young adults with children dominating this process. Thus the bars
for these age groups in rural areas affected by out-migration will indicate fewer people than expected in these age
groups.
In contrast, the population pyramids for urban areas attracting migrants will show age-selective in- migration,
with substantially more people in these age groups than expected. Such migrations may also be sex- selective. If
this is the case it should be apparent on the population pyramids.

The implications of different types of

population structure
The fact that Niger and Bangladesh have large numbers of young people in their populations has implications
for both countries. For example, these young people have to be housed, fed, educated and looked after in terms of
health. All this costs money, and governments have to allocate resources to cater for these needs. Conversely,
countries such as the UK and Japan have large numbers of older people in their populations. Older people have
different needs, which governments have to provide for.

The dependency ratio

Dependants are people who are too young or too old to work. The dependency ratio is the relationship
between the working or economically active population and the non-working population. The formula for
calculating the dependency ratio is as follows:

A dependency ratio of 60 means that for every 100 people in the economically active population there are 60
people dependent on them. The dependency ratio in developed countries is usually between 50 and 75. In
contrast, developing countries typically have higher ratios, which may reach over 100. In developing countries,
children form the great majority of the dependent population. In contrast, in developed countries there is much
more of a balance between young and old dependants.
The dependency ratio is important because the economically active population will in general contribute
more to the economy in terms of income tax, sales taxes and the taxes on the profits made by businesses. In
contrast, the dependent population tend to be bigger recipients of government funding, particularly for education,
healthcare and public pensions. An increase in the dependency ratio can cause significant financial problems for
governments if it does not have the financial reserves to cope with such a change.
The dependency ratio is an internationally agreed measure. Partly because of this it is a very crude indicator.
For example:
• In developed countries, few people leave education before the age of 18 and a significant number will
go on to university and not get a job before the age of 21. In addition, while some people will retire before
the age of 65, others will go on working beyond this age. Also, a significant number of people in the
economically active age group, such as parents staying at home to look after children, do not work for
various reasons. The number of people in this situation can vary considerably from one country to another.
• In developing countries a significant proportion of children are working full or part time before the age
of 15. In some developing countries there is very high unemployment and underemployment within the
economically active age group.
Despite its limitations the dependency ratio does allow reasonable comparisons to be made between

countries. It is also useful to see how individual countries change over time. Once an analysis using the
dependency ratio has been made, more detailed research can look into any apparent anomalies.
Activities
1 Who are dependants?
2 Define the term ‘dependency ratio’.
3 Identify one limitation of the dependency ratio.
4 Calculate the dependency ratios for Niger, Bangladesh, the UK and Japan from the
information given earlier in this topic.
Case study: The Gambia — a country with a high
dependent population
 Figure 1.47 A school in the Gambia
The Gambia, in West Africa, is a small country with a young population (Figure 1.47), which has
placed big demands on the resources of the country. The rate of natural increase in 2016 was
3.2 per cent. Figure 1.48 shows the high rate of growth since the 1950s. The population of 2.1
million is forecast to grow to 5.1 million by 2050. 95 per cent of the country’s population are Muslim
and, until recently, religious leaders were against the use of contraception. In addition, cultural
tradition meant that women had little influence on family size. Children were viewed as an economic
asset because of their help with crop production and tending animals. One in three children
aged 10–14 is working. The country suffered from high infant and maternal mortality. In 2016 the
infant mortality rate was 45/1000. With 46 per cent of the population classed as young
dependants and only 2 per cent as elderly dependants, the dependency ratio is 92. This means
that for every 100 people in the economically active population in The Gambia there are 92 people
dependent on them.

Figure 1.48 Population growth in The Gambia, 1952–2017

The World Health Organization has stressed the link between rapid population growth and
poverty for The Gambia and other countries. Many parents in The Gambia struggle to provide basic
housing for their families. There is huge overcrowding and a lack of sanitation, with many children
sharing the same bed. Rates of unemployment and underemployment are high, and wages are
low, with parents struggling to provide even the basics for large families.
The government has insufficient financial resources for education and health. Because there are
not enough schools, many of them operate a two-shift system, with one group of pupils attending in
the morning and a different group attending in the afternoon. The shortage of teachers means that
some are working 12 hours a day. General facilities are poor and sanitation facilities are inadequate.
School books are in very short supply.
Another sign of population pressure is the large number of trees being chopped down for
firewood. As a result, desertification is increasing at a rapid rate. ‘Forest educators’ are working in
rural areas in particular in an attempt to improve this situation.
In recent years the government has introduced a family planning campaign, which has been
 accepted by religious leaders. It has been working with a non-governmental organisation (NGO)
called Futures to deliver contraceptives and family planning advice to rural areas. The scheme has
been subsidised by the World Health Organization. To some extent there has also been a change in
male attitudes to family size and contraception. This has been very important to the success of the
campaign.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of The Gambia.
2 What is the dependency ratio in The Gambia, and why is it so high?
3 What are the problems of such a high rate of dependency in The Gambia?

Key question
• What are the factors that influence the density and distribution of population?

1.4 Population density and distribution

Figure 1.49 The coast of Antarctica — the continent that has no permanent residents
Population density is the average number of people per square kilometre (km2) in a country or region.
Population distribution is the way in which the population is spread out over a given area, from a small region
to the Earth as a whole. Figure 1.50 shows the global distribution of population using a dot map. Areas with a
high population density are said to be densely populated (Figure 1.51). Regions with a low population density
are sparsely populated (Figure 1.52).

Figure 1.50 Dot map showing areas of high population density

 Figure 1.51 High population density in Cairo, Egypt

Figure 1.52 Low population density on the west coast of Ireland

Table 1.10 shows the density of population by world region. The huge overall contrast between the more
developed and less developed worlds is very clear. The average density in the less developed world is more than
two and a half times that of the more developed world. North America (16 per km2) and Oceania (5 per km2)
have the lowest population densities of all the world regions. However, the overall difference between the
developed and developing worlds is largely accounted for by the extremely high figure for Asia (136 per km 2).
Population density is increasing most in regions and countries that have the fastest rates of population growth.

Table 1.10 Variations in world population density, 2016

Region Population density (people per km2)
World 53
More developed world 23
Less developed world 72
Africa 37
Asia 136
Latin America/Caribbean 30
North America 16
Europe 32
Oceania 5
The average density figure for each region masks considerable variations. The most uniform distributions of
population occur where there is little variation in the physical and human environments. Steep contrasts in these
environments are sharply reflected in population density. People have always avoided hostile environments if a
reasonable choice has been available. Look at an atlas map of the world illustrating population density. Now look
at world maps of relief, temperature, precipitation and vegetation. Note the low densities associated with high
altitudes, polar regions, deserts and rainforests. More detailed maps can show the influence of other physical
factors such as soil fertility, natural water supply and mineral resources.
Areas of low soil fertility have been avoided from the earliest times of settlement as people have looked for
more productive areas in which to settle. Water supply has always been vitally important. This is why so many
settlements are historically located by rivers, lakes, and springs, and where artesian wells could be dug to access
aquifers (water-bearing rocks) below the surface. Mineral resources, particularly coalfields, have led to the
development of large numbers of settlements in many countries. Although mining may eventually cease when the
resource runs out, the investment in infrastructure (housing, railways, roads etc.) over time usually means that the
settlement will continue. The Ruhr coalfield in western Germany, once the most productive in Europe, now has
only a few working mines remaining. However, it is still one of the most densely populated regions of Europe.
But mining settlements in very hostile environments such as Alaska, Siberia and the Sahara desert may be
abandoned when mining stops.
The more advanced a country is, the more important the elements of human infrastructure become in
influencing population density and distribution. While a combination of physical factors will have decided the
initial location of the major urban areas, once such towns or cities reach a certain size, economies of scale and the
process of cumulative causation ensure further growth. As a country advances, the importance of agriculture
decreases and employment relies more and more on the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, which are
largely urban based. The lines of communication and infrastructure between major urban centres provide
opportunities for further urban and industrial location.
Social and political factors also play their part in population distribution. Examples of social factors
include the historical designation of religious places such as Varanasi in India (Hindu) and Mecca in Saudi
Arabia (Muslim), which can build up large resident populations over time. Customs regarding the inheritance of
land can have a big effect on the size of farms and thus the density of rural populations.

Political factors include decisions to build new capital cities such as Brasilia (Brazil), Abuja (Nigeria) and
Astana (Kazakhstan). Decisions to build other major elements of infrastructure can also influence population
distribution. Political unrest involving violence, such as in Sudan and South Sudan, can result in large-scale
migration that can significantly change existing patterns of population distribution.
Activities
1 Define:
a population density b population distribution.
2 To what extent does population density vary by world region (Table 1.10)?
3 Briefly discuss the factors that influence low population density.
4 What are the factors encouraging high population density?
Interesting note
Antarctica has no permanent residents. Its very small, temporary population is made up of
researchers and scientists from many different countries. This amounts to about 1000 people during
the winter, rising to 5000 in the summer months.

Case study: Sparsely and densely populated areas in

North America North America has a low population density
compared with most other parts of the world. The USA has
an average of 35 persons per km2, while Canada has only 4
per km2. In both countries population is highly concentrated
in some areas, while large expanses of land elsewhere are
very sparsely settled (Figure 1.53).
• Very few people live in the cold (Alaska and the Canadian northlands), dry (arid and semi-
arid regions of southwest USA) and mountainous regions (Western Cordillera and Appalachian
mountains).
• In more hospitable areas, where agriculture and other primary activities are the main
economic activities, population densities are very modest due mainly to the high level of
mechanisation in these activities.
 • Population densities are at their highest in the major clusters of manufacturing and service
industries.

Figure 1.53 Population density of North America

The Canadian northlands: a sparsely populated region
The Canadian northlands (Figure 1.54) comprise that part of Canada lying north of 55°N.
Figure 1.53 shows that virtually the whole area has a population density of less than one person per
km2.
The influence of low temperature is very clear in the north and largely explains why 75 per cent of
Canadians live within 160 km of the main border with the USA. Winters are cold with most of the
region having a mean January temperature below −20°C. Summers are short, becoming increasingly
shorter further north. The climate in much of the region is beyond the limits of agriculture, which is a
key factor in explaining the very low rural population density.

Figure 1.54 A remote community in the Canadian northlands

Much of the northlands are affected by permafrost. Here the ground is permanently frozen to a
depth of about 300 metres. In summer the top metre or so thaws out, resulting in a marshy,
waterlogged landscape. Life is extremely difficult in the permafrost environment of the northlands
and, apart from the Inuit and other native groups, the few people living there are mainly involved in
the exploitation of raw materials and in maintaining defence installations, although the role of tourism
is expanding.
The great distances separating the generally small communities in the northlands and the
severe environmental conditions in this vast region have created substantial economic,
engineering and maintenance difficulties for transportation development. Immense areas of the
northlands are lacking in surface communications. Not one of the railway lines extending into the
northlands crosses the Arctic Circle. The road system is also very sparse, the most important
elements of which are the Alaska, Mackenzie and Dempster highways. The northern limit of the
Mackenzie highway is Yellowknife on the northern shore of the Great Slave Lake. The town, which
has a population of over 19, 000, was founded in 1935 after the discovery of rich deposits of gold.
Yellowknife is the capital and largest settlement in the Northwest Territories.
The use of water transport is dictated by location and season, with many water transportation
routes frozen over for much of the year. For many communities, air transport is the only link they
have to the outside world.
Case study analysis
1 With the help of an atlas, draw a sketch map of the Canadian northlands. Show the main
physical and human features of the region.
2 What is the average population density of this region?
3 Why is this the most sparsely populated region in North America?
The northeast of the USA: a densely populated region
In the USA the greatest concentration of population is in the northeast — the first area of
substantial European settlement. By the end of the nineteenth century it had become the greatest
manufacturing region in the world, and in the USA it became known as ‘the manufacturing belt’. The
region stretches inland from Boston and Washington to Chicago (Figure 1.55) and St Louis. By the
1960s the very highly urbanised area between

Figure 1.55 Chicago, a major city in northeastern USA

Boston and Washington had reached the level of a megalopolis. This is the term used to describe an area
where many conurbations exist in relatively close proximity. The region is sometimes referred to as ‘Boswash’
after the main cities at its northern and southern extremities. Apart from Boston and Washington, the other main
cities in this region are New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore.
New York is classed as a ‘global city’ because it is one of the world’s three great financial cities along with
Tokyo and London. With a population of 8.4 million, New York is the most densely populated city in the USA.
The population of New York alone is much greater than that of the entire Canadian northlands. The population of
the larger metropolitan area of New York is 18.9 million.
The region also includes many smaller urban areas. Much of the area has an average density over 100 per
2
km . Population densities are of course much higher in the main urban areas. The rural parts of the region are
generally fertile and intensively farmed. The climate and soils at this latitude are conducive to agriculture, unlike
much of the Canadian northlands. Many people living in the rural communities commute to work in the towns
and cities. The region has the most highly developed transport networks in North America. Although other parts
of the country are growing at a faster rate, the intense concentration of job opportunities in the northeast will
ensure that it remains the most densely populated part of the continent in the foreseeable future.
Case study analysis
 1 With the aid of an atlas, draw a sketch map of the northeast region to show its main physical and
human features.
2 What is the population density of this region?
3 Why is this the most densely populated region in North America?

Key questions
• What are the main patterns of settlement?
• What are the factors that influence the sites, growth and functions of settlements?
• What are settlement hierarchies and how do they affect people?

1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and

service provision
Figure 1.56 Dispersed settlement, Arabba, Italy
Most of us live in settlements, and most of us take them for granted. And yet there is a huge variety of
settlements, and they are changing rapidly. For example, some settlements in rural areas differ greatly from those
in urban areas, although the distinction between them is becoming less clear. In developing countries large cities
are growing at the expense of rural areas, despite a recent movement out of some very large cities or ‘megacities’.
Population change, technological developments and changing lifestyles are having a tremendous impact on
settlement geography.
In this section we look at the size, development and function of rural and urban settlements. We begin with
rural settlements and analyse their pattern, site and situation, function and hierarchy. We study the characteristics
of land use and describe the problems of urban areas in the developed and developing worlds, and consider
possible solutions to these problems. We also look at the impacts on the environment as a result of urbanisation,
and possible solutions to reduce these impacts.

Rural settlements
A settlement is defined as a place in which people live and where they carry out a variety of activities, such
as residence, trade, agriculture and manufacturing. Most rural settlements are hamlets and villages, although not
all are. The study of rural settlement includes:
• pattern
• form (or shape)
• site and situation
• function and hierarchy
• change.

Pattern
A dispersed settlement pattern is one in which individual houses and farms are widely scattered throughout
the countryside (Figure 1.57). It occurs when farms or houses are set among their fields or spread out along roads,
rather than concentrated on one point. They are common in sparsely populated areas, such as the Australian
outback and the Sahel region of Africa, and in recently settled areas, such as after the creation of the Dutch
polders. The enclosure of large areas of common grazing land into smaller fields separated by hedges led to a
dispersed settlement pattern. This happened because it became more convenient to build farmhouses out in the
fields of the newly established farms. Similarly, the break-up of large estates (particularly in England during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) also led to a dispersed settlement pattern. In areas where the physical
geography is quite extreme (too hot or cold, wet or dry) there is likely to be a low population density, and a poor
transport network, which discourages settlement.

Figure 1.57 Dispersed settlement, Dingle Peninsula, west coast of Ireland

Nucleated settlements are those in which houses and other buildings are tightly clustered around a central
feature such as a church, village green or crossroads (Figure 1.58 and 1.59). Very few houses are found in the
surrounding fields. Such nucleated settlements are usually termed hamlets or villages according to their size
and/or function.

Figure 1.58 Nucleated settlement, Mgwali, Eastern Cape, South Africa

 Figure 1.59 Nucleated settlement, Royston, Hertfordshire
A number of factors favour nucleation:
• joint and cooperative working of the land — people live in nearby settlements
• defence, for example hilltop locations, sites within a meander or within walled cities, such as Jericho
• shortage of water, causing people to locate in areas close to springs
• swampy conditions, which force settlements to locate on dry ground
• near important junctions and crossroads, as these favour trade and communications.
In some countries the government has encouraged people to live in nucleated settlements, such as the Ujaama
scheme in Tanzania, the kibbutzim in Israel and the communes in China.
A linear pattern occurs when settlements are found along a geographical feature, for example, along a river
valley or a major transport route (see Figure 1.62 on page 41 for the potential site of linear settlements).

Village form
Village form refers to shape (Figure 1.60). In a linear settlement, houses are spread out along a road or a
river. This suggests the importance of trade and transport during the growth of the village. Linear villages are
also found where poor drainage prohibits growth in a certain direction. In the rainforests of Sarawak (Malaysia),
many of the longhouses are generally spread alongside rivers (Figure 1.61).

Figure 1.60 Village shapes

 Figure 1.61 A Malaysian longhouse
Cruciform settlements occur at the intersection of roads and usually consist of lines of buildings radiating
out from the crossroads. The exact shape depends on the position of the roads and the amount of infilling that has
since taken place. By contrast, a green village consists of dwellings and other buildings, such as a church,
clustered around a small village green or common, or other open space. In South Africa ring villages are formed
where the houses, called kraals, are built around an open area.

Factors affecting the site, growth and

functions of settlements
Cruciform site and situation
The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a settlement is built, whereas the situation or position is
the relationship between a particular settlement and its surrounding area. In the past geographers have
emphasised the importance of physical conditions on the pattern of settlement, land tenure and the type of
agriculture practised. Increasingly, social and economic factors are important, especially in explaining recent
changes in rural settlements.
Early settlers took into account advantages and disadvantages of alternative sites for agriculture and housing.
These included:
• availability of water — necessary for drinking, cooking, washing, as a source of food supply, and for
transport
• freedom from flooding — but close to the flooded areas as river deposits form fertile soils
• level sites to build on — but these are less easy to defend
• local timber for construction and fuel
• aspect, for example sunny, south-facing slopes (in the northern hemisphere) as these are warmer than
north-facing slopes and are therefore better for crop growth
• proximity to rich soils for cultivation and lush pasture for grazing
• the potential for trade and commerce, such as close to bridges or weirs, near confluence sites, at heads
of estuaries, points of navigation and upland gaps.
A dry point site is an elevated site in an area of otherwise poor natural drainage. It includes small hills
(knolls) and islands. Gravel terraces along major rivers are well favoured. Water supply and fertile alluvial soils,
as well as the use of the valley as a line of communication, are all positive advantages.
A wet point site is a site with a reliable supply of water from springs or wells in an otherwise dry area.
Spring line villages at the foot of the chalk and limestone ridges are good examples. Spring line settlements
occur when there is a line of sites where water is available.
Some hilltop villages suggest that the site was chosen to avoid flooding in a marshy area as well as for
defence. Villages at important river crossings are excellent centres of communication.

Growth and function of settlements

A number of factors affect settlement size, growth and function. In extreme environments settlements are
generally small. This is because the environment is too harsh to provide much food. Areas that are too hot, cold,
wet or dry usually have small, isolated settlements. In contrast, settlements have managed to grow in areas where
food production is favoured. If there is more food produced than the farmers need, then non- farming services
can be supported. In the early days these included builders, craftsmen, teachers, traders, administrators and so on.
Thus, settlements in the more favoured areas had greater potential for growth, and for a wider range of services
and functions.
Some environments naturally favoured growth and hence a large size. In the northeast of the USA,
settlements on the lowland coastal plain were able to farm and trade (Figure 1.62). Those that had links inland as
well, such as New York, were doubly favoured (Figure 1.63).

Figure 1.62 Settlement sites in the northeast of the USA

Figure 1.63 New York developed because of its excellent trading position — inland as well as overseas
Trade and communications have always been important. Cairo grew as a result of being located at the
meeting point of the African, Asian and European trade routes. It also benefited from having a royal family,
being the government centre, and having a university and all kinds of linked trades and industries such as food
and drink, and textiles. Similarly, Paris grew because of its excellent location on the Seine. Not only could the
river be crossed at this point, it could also be used for trade (Figure 1.64).
Other centres had good raw materials. In South Africa, the gold deposits near Johannesburg, and the
diamonds at Kimberley and Bloemfontein, caused these settlements to grow as important mining and industrial
areas.
Functions change over time. Many settlements that were formerly fishing villages have become important
tourist resorts. The Spanish costas are a good example. Many Caribbean settlements, such as Soufrière in St
Lucia, have evolved into important tourist destinations. In the developed world, many rural settlements have now
become dormitory settlements — this is related to good accessibility to nearby urban centres (Figure 1.65).
Increasingly, many rural settlements in the developed world are also becoming centres of industry, as new
science parks locate in areas such as Silicon Valley in California, formerly an agricultural region. South Korea
has industrialised and urbanised over the last 50 years or so, and the rural population had declined to just 17 per
cent by 2011.
Interesting note
Baniachong in Bangladesh claims to be the world’s largest village. The area covers about 75 km 2
and contains around 70, 000 people.

Figure 1.64 The Seine was a vital factor in enabling the growth of Paris into a city of international importance
Other centres have become important due to political factors. New capital cities, such as Brasilia, Canberra
and Ottawa, have developed central administrative roles. Other planned cities, such as Putrajaya in Malaysia and
Incheon in South Korea, have become centres of high-tech industry.

Settlement hierarchy
The term hierarchy means ‘order’. Settlements are often ordered in terms of their size. Dispersed,
individual households are at the base of the rural settlement hierarchy. At the next level are hamlets (Figure 1.66).
A hamlet is a very small settlement, consisting of a small number of houses or farms, with very few services. The
trade generated by the population, which is often less than 100 people, will only support low- order services
such as a general store, a small post office or a pub. By contrast, a village is much larger in population (Figure
1.67). Hence it can support a wider range of services, including a school, church or chapel, community centre
and a small range of shops (Table 1.11). Higher up the hierarchy are towns and cities, offering many more
services and different types of service. As Table 1.11 shows, there are more settlements lower down the
hierarchy — the higher up you go, the fewer the number of each type of settlement. Thus, for example, there are
far fewer cities in a country than there are villages.
Rural settlements offer certain functions and services. Only basic or low-order functions are found in the
smaller hamlets, whereas the same functions and services are found in larger settlements (villages and market
towns) together with more specialised ones — high-order functions. The market towns draw custom from the
surrounding villages and hamlets as well as serving their own population. The maximum distance that a person is
prepared to travel to buy a good is known as the range of a good. Low-order goods have a small range whereas
high-order goods have a large range. The number of people needed to support a good or service is known as the
threshold population. Low-order goods may only need a small number of people (for example 1000) to support a
small shop, whereas a large department store might require 50,000 people in order for it to survive and make a
profit.

Figure 1.65 Cloke’s model of rural change and accessibility to large urban centres

Figure 1.66 A hierarchy of settlement

Table 1.11 A simple rural hierarchy

Hamlet Village Small market town
General General General store
store store
 Post Post Post office
office office
– Butcher Butcher
– Garage Garage
– Grocer Grocer
– Hardware Hardware store
store
– Primary Primary school, baker, bike shop, chemist,
school electrical/television/radio shop, furniture store, hairdresser,
local government offices, restaurant, shoe shop, solicitor,
supermarket, undertaker

Figure 1.67 Settlement hierarchy in County Kerry. (a) Isolated dwelling in Gullaun, (b) linear settlement Dohilla,
(c) Gneeveguilla village, (d) market town Killorglin
The area that a settlement serves is known as its sphere of influence. Hamlets and villages generally have
low spheres of influence whereas larger towns and cities have a large sphere of influence. The definition of
hamlet, village and town is not always very clear-cut and these terms represent features that are part of a sliding-
scale (continuum) rather than distinct categories.
In general, as population size in settlements increases the number and range of services increases (Figure
1.68). However, there are exceptions. Some small settlements, notably those with a tourist-related function, may
be small in size but have many services. In contrast, some dormitory (commuter) settlements may be quite
large but offer few functions or services other than a residential one. In these settlements, people live (reside) in
the village but work and shop elsewhere.
 Activity

Figure 1.69 Services in three settlements. (a) Newsagents, Cassington; (b) Town Hall, Woodstock; (c)
Butchers, Long Hanborough
Study the photos (a), (b) and (c) in Figure 1.69. Arrange the three settlements in terms of their
likely hierarchy. Justify your choice.

Figure 1.68 The relationship between population size and number of services
Case study: Population size and number of services in
Lozère
Lozère is a department in southeast France. It is a mountainous region, and the main economic
activities are farming and tourism. However, due to the mountainous relief and poor-quality soil,
farming is mainly cattle rearing. Surprisingly, the region has a very low rate of unemployment. This is
due to a long history of out-migration of young people in search of work.
Table 1.12 shows how the population of St-André-Capcèze fell between the 1860s and the end of
the twentieth century. However, in recent years the population has increased slightly. This is due to
improved communications and easier travel — but the population is an ageing one. Tourism offers
some employment, but the jobs are seasonal, part-time, unskilled and often quite poorly paid.

Population
Year
Table 1.12 Population change in St-André-Capcèze, 1800–2006
1800 437
1821 455
1841 479
1861 427
1881 383
1901 316
1921 222
1931 190
1962 148
1982 104
1999 145
2006 174
Table 1.13 Population change in Lozère, 1801–2011

Case study analysis

1 a Draw a line graph to show the change in population in Lozère between 1801 and 2011
(Table 1.13).
b Describe the changes in population in the graph you have drawn.
c Suggest reasons for the changes in population between:
i 1801 and 1881
ii 1881 and 1981
iii 1981 and 2011.
d Compare the population changes in the Lozère department with those in St-André-
Capcèze (Table 1.12).
2 Table 1.14 shows data for services in seven settlements in Lozère.
 a Choose a suitable method to plot population size against the number of services.
b Describe the relationship between population size and the number of services for the
region.
c Identify one exception to the pattern and suggest how, and why, it does not fit the
pattern.
d Suggest a hierarchy of settlements based on the information provided.
Table 1.14 Services in Lozère
Activities
Figure 1.70 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica
 Figure 1.71 Key to 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay
Study Figure 1.70, a 1:50,000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica. Use the key (Figure 1.71) to help
you.
 1 What is the grid square reference of:
a the hospital in Montego Bay
b the factory on Torboy (Bogue Islands)?
2 What is the grid square reference for:
a the hotel (H) at Doctors Cave
b the Fairfield Estate?
3 What is the length of the longest runway at Sangster International Airport?
4 a How far is it, ‘as the crow flies’ (in a straight line), from the hotel (H) on Bogue
Islands to the main buildings at Sangster International Airport?
b How far is it, by road, from the hotel (H) on Bogue Islands to the main buildings at
Sangster International Airport?
5 In which direction is Gordons Crossing from the settlement of Montego Bay?
6 Describe the site of Montego Bay. Suggest why the area grew into an important tourist
destination.
7 What types of settlement are found at Pitfour Pen (5598) and Wales Pond (5396)?
8 Suggest reasons for the lack of settlements in grid squares 5497 and 5199.
9 Suggest reasons for the growth of settlements at Bogue (5198) and Granville (5599).
10 Find an example of:
a a dispersed settlement
b a nucleated settlement on the map. Suggest why each type of settlement has that
pattern in the area where it is found.
11 Using the map extract, work out a settlement hierarchy for the area. Name and locate
an example of:
a an area of isolated, individual buildings
b a village
c a minor town
d a town
e a large town.
Use the key (Figure 1.71) to help you decide what type of settlement each one is.

Key questions
• What are the characteristics of urban land use?
• How does urban land use vary between countries at different levels of development?
• What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban growth?
1.6 Urban settlements
Figure 1.72 Downtown Seoul

Urban land use

The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries produced a form of city that was easily
recognisable by its urban land use. It included a central commercial area, a surrounding industrial zone with
densely packed housing, and outer zones of suburban expansion and development. Geographers have spent a lot
of time modelling these cities to explain ‘how they work’.
Every model is a simplification. No city will ‘fit’ these models perfectly, but there are parts of every model
that can be applied to most cities in the developed world. All models are useful because they focus our attention
on one or two key factors.
Interesting note
Hong Kong is the only city in the world with more completed skyscrapers than New York City.

Land value
The value of land (bid rent) varies with different land uses. For example, it varies for retail, office and
residential land uses (Figure 1.73a). Retail land uses are attracted to more expensive central areas. Land at the
centre of a city is the most expensive for two main reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport, and
there is only a small amount available. Land prices generally decrease away from the central area,
although there are secondary peaks at the intersections of main roads and ring roads (Figure 1.73a). Change in
levels of accessibility, due to private transport as opposed to public transport, explains why areas on the edge of
town are often now more accessible than inner areas.

Burgess’s concentric model (1925)

This is the basic model (Figure 1.73b). Burgess assumed that new migrants to a city moved into inner city
areas where housing was cheapest and it was closest to the sources of employment. Over time residents move out
of the inner city area as they become wealthier. In his model, housing quality and social class increase with
distance from the city centre. Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as this sector is best able to afford the
high land prices, and requires highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the
central city the most accessible part of town. Beyond the centre is a manufacturing zone that also includes high-
density, low-quality housing to accommodate the workers. As the city grows and the central business district
(CBD) expands, the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out. The area of immediate change next to the
expanding CBD is known as the zone in transition (usually from residential to commercial).

Hoyt’s sector model (1939)

Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasises the importance of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain
land uses (Figure 1.73c). Sectors develop along important routeways, while certain land uses, such as high-class
residential and manufacturing industry, deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or physical features.
 Figure 1.73 Bid rent theory and urban land use models

Urban land use in developing countries

There are a number of models of cities in developing countries. One of the most common is the model of a
Latin American city (Figure 1.73d). The CBD has developed around the colonial core, and there is a commercial
avenue extending from it. This has become the spine of a sector containing open areas and parks, and homes for
the upper-and middle-income classes. These areas have good-quality streets, schools and public services. Further
out are the more recent suburbs, with more haphazard housing and fewer services. More recent squatter housing
is found at the edge of the city. Older and more established squatter housing is found along some sectors that
extend in towards the city centre. Conditions in these areas near the city centre are better than in the more recent
areas at the edge. In addition, those living in the central areas are closer to centres of employment and are more
likely to find work. Industrial areas are found scattered along major transport routes, with the latest developments
at the edge.

Land use zoning in developing countries

A number of models describe and explain the development of cities in developing countries. These include
several key points:
• The rich generally live close to the city centre whereas the very poor are more likely to be found on
the periphery.
• Better-quality land is occupied by the wealthy.
• Segregation by wealth, race and ethnicity is evident.
 Activities

Figure 1.74 Urban land use in Mexico City

Study Figure 1.74.
1 Describe the pattern of land use in Mexico City.
2 To what extent does the pattern of land use in Figure 1.74 conform to:
a the model of land use in Figure 1.73(d)
b any of the characteristics described in Figures 1.73(a)–(c)?

• Manufacturing is scattered throughout the city.

Internal structure of towns and cities
The central business district
The central business district (CBD) is the commercial and economic core of the city (Figure 1.75), the area
that is most accessible to public transport and the location with the highest land values. It has a number of
characteristic features:
• Multistorey development — high land values force buildings to grow upwards, so the total floor space
of the CBD is much greater than the ground space.
• Concentration of retailing — high levels of accessibility attract shops with high range and threshold
characteristics, such as department stores in the most central areas, while specialist shops are found in less
accessible areas.
• Concentration of public transport — there is a convergence of bus routes on the CBD.
• Concentration of offices — centrality favours office development.
• Vertical zoning — shops occupy the lower floors for better accessibility, while offices occupy upper
floors.
• Functional grouping — similar shops and similar functions tend to locate together (increasing their
thresholds).
• Low residential population — high bid rents can only be met by luxury apartments.
• Highest pedestrian flows — due to the attractions of a variety of commercial outlets and service
facilities.
• Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD — pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars since the
1960s.
• The CBD changes over time — there is an assimilation zone (the direction in which the CBD is
expanding) and there is a discard zone (the direction from which it is moving away).

Figure 1.75 Singapore’s CBD

There are, however, many problems in the CBD, such as a lack of space, the high cost of land, congestion,
pollution, a lack of sites, planning restrictions and strict government controls.

The core–frame concept

The core-frame concept suggests that the CBD can be divided into two — an inner core where most of the
department stores and specialist shops are found, and an outer frame where coach and train stations, offices and
warehouses may be located (Figure 1.76). The CBD core and the frame are closely connected and the CBD core
may advance into the frame, just as the frame may advance into the core as parts of the CBD become run down.

Residential zones
In most developed countries, as a general rule, residential densities decrease with distance from the CBD.
This is due to a number of reasons:
• Historically, more central areas developed first and supported high population densities.
• Large numbers of workers were densely packed into inner city areas to be close to manufacturing jobs
(Figures 1.77a and b).
• There is greater availability of land with increased distance from the CBD.
• Improvements in transport and technology allow people to live further away from their place of work
 in lower-density areas (Figure 1.77c).
• Wealthy households may be able to afford to live in more attractive areas, such as close to rivers, high
ground and open spaces/parks.
• Some communities might desire to live away from other communities — this may be based on levels
of wealth, ethnicity or government policy.
• Some communities may have to locate in areas where building may be difficult (Figure 1.77d).
However, this pattern can be disrupted by:
• low densities in the CBD, as residential land use cannot compete with commercial land use to meet the
high bid rents
• the location of high-rise peripheral estates, increasing densities at the margins of the urban area
(Figure 1.77e)
• ‘green-belt’ restrictions, which artificially raise population densities in the suburbs.
Population densities tend to change over time, with peak densities decreasing and average densities
increasing.
The pattern of population density declining with distance can be observed in many cities, but this pattern also
changes over time. After a period of expansion, city centres start to decline following suburbanisation. This is
sometimes followed by a repopulation of the inner city if the centre is redeveloped.

Figure 1.76 The core–frame model

 Figure 1.77 Contrasting residential patterns: (a) inner city housing, Stratford, London; (b) inner city housing,
Little India, Singapore; (c) suburban housing, Oxford; (d) water village, Bandar Seri Bagawan, Brunei; (e) high-
density, suburban housing, Singapore

Case study: Gentrification and relocation in Cape Town,

South Africa
In South Africa, the phenomenon of gentrification is commonly associated with the resurrection
of downtown Johannesburg and the rebirth of Woodstock in Cape Town. Both areas share a
common denominator for gentrification: a growing middle class with disposable incomes and a taste
for all things ‘designer’.
Site
Woodstock is an inner-city suburb of Cape Town, South Africa. It is located between the docks of
Table Bay and the lower slopes of Devil’s Peak, about 1 km east of the centre of Cape Town (Figure
1.78). Woodstock covers an area of less than 5 km2 and has a population of over 11, 500.
This gives it a population density of approximately 2300 per km2.
 Figure 1.78 Location of Woodstock and Blikkiesdorp, Cape Town
History
In the middle of the nineteenth century, notably after the arrival of the railway line, Woodstock
became a fashionable seaside suburb with a beach that stretched as far as the Castle of Good Hope.
However, in the 1870s and 1880s Woodstock grew rapidly due to ease of access to the harbour,
improved transport and increased industrialisation. The first glass manufactured in South Africa was
made at the Woodstock Glass Factory in 1879.
By the 1950s Woodstock had ceased to be a seaside resort. However, many people began to
move into Woodstock during the 1970s and 1980s, creating the foundation for the urban renewal
that was to start in the late 1990s (Figure 1.79).
Urban renewal
Many of the lower parts of Woodstock became run down in the second half of the twentieth
century, and litter, crime and drugs became serious issues (compare this with some of the issues in
Detroit — see pages 67–68). But young professional workers took advantage of affordable Victorian
semi-detached homes, many of these being renovated and restored. Fashionable restaurants, ICT
and other businesses and offices have sprung up in converted warehouses, abandoned
buildings and even in the former Castle brewery (Figure 1.80).
 Figure 1.79 Road network in Woodstock

Figure 1.80 Services in Woodstock

Contrasting views of gentrification
There are different views on the regeneration of this part of Cape Town. Some claim that any
upgrading or regeneration will be labelled ‘gentrification’, with negative connotations of less wealthy
local people being forced out by profit-hungry developers. However, another view is that these early
developers are out-of-work young professionals who, seeing an opportunity, through hard work make
the best of their creativity and contacts. Neighbourhoods with the right mix of potential and urban
decay attract students, young professionals and artists in search of cheap accommodation. Once
they have made the area acceptably safe and more economically viable, the area can become the
target for property developers to enter the market. This causes the rents and the price of land to rise,
forcing the poorer residents to cash in and sell their properties. Cape Town’s ‘design community’
has recently made Woodstock its home. Here, artists and young designers still manage to
retain a foothold, though they may have to settle for smaller studios and higher rents.
Often, the problem with gentrification is as much about the people who are displaced as it is
about those who manage to stay on but feel increasingly alienated by the changing image of their
neighbourhood. For those who stay on, the problems of traffic congestion and car security issues
increase. But there is much more at stake for many local residents than the loss of parking.
According to the Anti-Eviction Campaign, some families have not been able to afford the
escalating rates of Woodstock and other central areas, leading to their eviction and removal to such
locations as Blikkiesdorp.
Relocating the urban poor: Blikkiesdorp, Cape Town
Blikkiesdorp, which is Afrikaans for ‘Tin Can Town’, was given its name by residents because of
the row-upon-row of tin-like, one-room structures throughout the settlement (Figure 1.81). It was built
in 2007 and comprises approximately 1600 one-room structures. Its population today is
estimated at around 15,000.
 Figure 1.81 Living conditions in Blikkiesdorp
The official name of Blikkiesdorp is ‘Symphony Way Temporary Relocation Area’. It is a
relocation camp made up of corrugated iron shacks. The structures have walls and roofs made of
thin tin and zinc sheets. Washing, sanitation and water facilities are shared between four of these
structures.
Conditions and criticisms
Blikkiesdorp is regarded as unsafe and it has a high crime rate and substandard living conditions.
Extremes of weather mean that it can be extremely hot or cold, and sometimes very windy, blowing
sand through the shacks. Residents have been reported to be suffering from depression.
Case study analysis
1 Compare the site and situation of Woodstock and Blikkiesdorp, as shown in Figure 1.78.
2 Describe the pattern of roads as seen in Figure 1.79.
3 Identify and comment on the types of service shown in Figure 1.80.
4 Describe the living conditions as suggested by Figure 1.81.

Industrial areas
There are a number of industrial zones in most cities in developed countries. These include:
• traditional inner-city areas close to railways and/or canals
• industries needing access to skilled labour, such as medical instruments; those needing access to the
CBD, such as fashion accessories; and those that require an urban market for distribution, for example
newspapers and bakeries — these industries have traditionally located close to the CBD
• areas that require access to water — for example, where industries such as imports and exports are
located close to docks
• radial transport routes, for example Samsung electronics at Suwon, South Korea
• areas where there is good access and good availability of land, for example the Hyundai car works at
Busan, South Korea
• edge-of-town/greenfield suburban sites close to airports.
 Activity
1 Outline the advantages of the industrial sites shown in Figure 1.82.

Figure 1.82 Industrial location in cities: (a) Hyundai car works, Busan; (b) the port of Barcelona

Large cities are attractive for industries for many reasons:

• many capital cities, such as Paris and Moscow, are the major manufacturing centres of their country
• cities are large markets
• port cities have excellent access to overseas markets and goods
• cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and fashion
• a variety of labour is already available, including skilled and unskilled workers, decision makers,
politicians and innovators.

Open spaces
In general, the amount of open space increases towards the edge of town. This is because the value of land is
lower towards the edge, and there is more land available. Nevertheless, there are important areas of open space in
many urban areas. Central Park in New York is a good example. In the centre, any areas of open land tend to be
small. Many of the open spaces are related to areas that are next to rivers or formerly belonged to wealthy
landowners.

Transport routes
Most city centres are characterised by small, congested roads. As the roads were built when the cities were
still small, they are quite small. Now, as private transport is the main form of transport, the volume of traffic for
the roads is too great. In contrast, towards the edge of town there are larger motorways and ring roads. These take
advantage of the space available. Natural routeways, such as river valleys, are important for the orientation of
roads. However, given that many cities are in lowland areas, constraints of the natural environment are generally
not great.

The rural–urban fringe

The rural-urban fringe is the area at the edge of a city where it meets the countryside. There are many
pressures on the rural–urban fringe. These include:
• urban sprawl
• more housing
 • industrial growth
• recreational pressures for golf courses and sports stadia
• transport
• agricultural developments.
The nature of the pressure depends on the type of urban fringe (Table 1.15). For example, an area of growth,
such as Barra de Tijuca outside Rio de Janeiro, can be contrasted with an area of decline, such as some parts of
Detroit.

Table 1.15 Issues in the urban fringe

Land use Positive aspects Negative aspects
Agriculture Some areas have well- Farms often suffer litter, trespass and
managed farms and vandalism; some land is left derelict in
smallholdings. the hope that planning permission for
development will be granted.
Development Some developments Some developments, such as out-of-
are well sited and town shopping areas, cause serious
landscaped, such as pollution. Many businesses are
business and science unregulated, e.g. scrap metal/caravan
parks. storage.
Urban Some, such as Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill
services reservoirs or sites and Sunday markets (car boot
cemeteries, may be sales) can be unattractive and polluting.
attractive.
Transport Some cycleways Motorways destroy countryside,
infrastructure improve access and especially near junctions.
promote new
development.
Recreation Country parks, sports Stock car racing and scrambling erode
and sport fields and golf courses ecosystems and create localised litter
can lead to and pollution.
conservation.
Landscape Conservation areas There may be degraded land, e.g. land
and nature may be included at the ruined by fly-tipping; many conservation
conservation edge of the city. areas are under threat.

The growth of out-of-town shopping centres

Shopping in many more developed countries has changed from an industry dominated by small firms to one
being led by large companies. The retailing revolution has focused on superstores, hypermarkets and out-of-
town shopping centres (Figure 1.83 and Table 1.16). These are located on ‘greenfield’ suburban sites with good
accessibility and plenty of space for parking and future expansion. The increasing use of out-of- town shopping
centres, and the trend for less frequent shopping, has led to the closure of many small shops that relied on regular
sales of daily items.
 Figure 1.83 An out-of-town shopping centre in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
The changes in retailing have been brought about by:
• suburbanisation of more affluent households
• technological change, for example more families own a deep-freezer
• economic change, with higher standards of living, especially including car ownership
• traffic congestion and inflated land prices in city centres
• social changes, such as more working women.
The initial out-of-town developments came in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20 per cent of
shopping expenditure in developed countries takes place in out-of-town stores.

Table 1.16 The advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres

Advantages Disadvantages
There is plenty of free parking They destroy large amounts of
undeveloped greenfield sites
There is lots of space, so shops are not They destroy valuable habitats
cramped
They are new developments, so are They lead to pollution and
usually quite attractive environmental problems at the edge of
town
They are easily accessible by car An increase in impermeable surfaces
(shops, car parks, roads etc.) may lead
to an increase in flooding and a
decrease in water quality
Being large means the shops can sell They only help those with cars (or those
large volumes of goods and often at lucky enough to live on the route of a
slightly lower prices courtesy bus) — people who do not
benefit might include the elderly and
those without a car or who cannot drive
Individual shops are larger, so can offer Successful out-of-town developments
a greater range of goods than smaller may take trade away from city centres
shops and lead to a decline in sales in the
CBD
Being on the edge of town means the Small businesses and family firms may
land price is lower, so the cost of not be able to compete with the large
development is kept down multinational companies that dominate
out-of-town developments — there may
be a loss of the ‘personal touch’
Developments on the edge of town They cause congestion in out-of-town
reduce the environmental pressures areas
and problems in city centres
Many new jobs may be created both in Many of the jobs created are unskilled
the short term (construction industry)
and in the long term (retail industry and
linked industries such as transport,
warehousing, storage, catering etc.)

Activities
Study Figure 1.84.
1 What are the advantages of this site for the supermarket?
2 Which population groups benefit from out-of-town developments such as the one shown in
the photograph? Give reasons for your choice.
 3 Describe the land uses shown in Figure 1.85a–d, which show contrasting areas in Bandar
Seri Begawan, Brunei. Identify each of the main land uses and their likely location in the city.

Figure 1.84 An out-of-town shopping centre near Oxford, UK

Figure 1.85 Land use in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei

Edge towns: a new form of development on

the rural–urban fringe
Case study: Barra da Tijuca — an ‘edge city’ in Brazil
Barra da Tijuca is a recent ‘edge city’ — an exclusive edge-of-town development — and is now a
key Olympic site. Land in southern Rio de Janeiro was already fully developed by the early 1960s. At
that time, Lucio Costa, a French-born urban planner, produced a plan to develop the area known as
Jacarepagua, with Barra da Tijuca as its centre.
Barra da Tijuca holds many attractions for Rio’s expanding rich middle class, with a pleasant
environment, mountain views, forests, lagoons and 20 km of beaches — but it is still only 30 minutes
away by motorway from the increasingly congested and polluted city centre. The area expanded
from 2500 inhabitants in 1960 to 98,000 in 1991, growing by 139 per cent during the 1980s. Barra is
the most recent example of the decentralisation of Rio’s wealthy population.
By contrast, the lowlands of Jacarepagua are an area of flat scrub, marshland, lagoons and
coastal spits, but it had the potential for enlarging the urban area by a further 122 km2. Its
neighbourhoods include Anil, Gardenia Azul and Cidade de Deus, and the area was developed from
the 1960s onwards. However, it still suffers from a lack of public transport and services, difficult
access, overcrowding and poor maintenance.
The 2016 Olympic Park was built on the lowlands of Jacarepagua to the west of Barra.
Improving sanitation systems to reverse long-term pollution of the surrounding lagoons and canals
was the first stage. Power lines were laid underground. The site of the athletes’ village for Rio 2016,
‘Ilha Pura’, became a new neighbourhood after the games. Thirty-one apartment blocks were built —
larger than London’s athletes’ village — and families were able to move into these after the event.
However, the existing Jacarepagua race track and fishing community were demolished, as the
infrastructure for the 2016 Olympic Games was built.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the situation of Barra da Tijuca.
2 Comment on population changes in Barra since 1961.
3 Suggest how the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games influenced the development of
Barra.

Case study: Land use in New York

New York City’s land area covers about 825 km2. The distribution of commercial land use is
dominated by two areas, Midtown Manhattan and Downtown (Lower) Manhattan (Figure 1.86a–c).
Lower Manhattan is the centre for finance and banking, containing Wall Street and the Stock
Exchange. In contrast, midtown Manhattan has the main shops (Fifth Avenue), theatres (Broadway),
hotels and landmark buildings such as the Rockefeller Centre and the Empire State Building.
Commercial areas occupy less than 4 per cent of the city’s land, but they use space intensively. Most
of the city’s 3.6 million jobs are in commercial areas, ranging from the office towers of Manhattan and
the regional business districts of downtown Brooklyn, to the local shopping corridors throughout the
city.
 Figure 1.86a Commercial land use in New York
Industrial uses — warehouses and factories — occupy 4 per cent of the city’s total lot area. They
are found primarily in the South Bronx, along either side of Newtown Creek in Brooklyn and Queens,
and along the western shores of Brooklyn and Staten Island. Riverfront locations are very important.
Low-density residences, the largest use of city land, are found mostly in Staten Island, eastern
Queens, southern Brooklyn, and northwest and eastern Bronx (Table 1.17). In contrast, medium-to
high-density residential buildings (three or more dwelling units) contain more than two-thirds of the
city’s housing units but occupy 12 per cent of the city’s total lot area. The highest-density residences
are found mainly in Manhattan, and 4-to 12-storey apartment houses are common in many parts of
the Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens.
 Figure 1.86b Industrial land use in New York
Public facilities and institutions — including schools, hospitals and nursing homes, museums and
performance centres, places of worship, police stations and fire houses, courts and detention centres
— are spread throughout the city and occupy 7 per cent of the city’s land.
Approximately 25 per cent of the city’s lot area is occupied by public parks, playgrounds and
nature preserves, cemeteries, amusement areas, beaches, stadiums and golf courses.
Approximately 8 per cent of the city’s land is classified as vacant. Staten Island has the most vacant
land, with more than 2145 hectares; Manhattan has the least, with less than 160.
Figure 1.86c Residential land use in New York
Table 1.17 Land use (%) in New York City by borough

Case study analysis

Refer to Figure 1.86 and Table 1.17.
 1 Describe the distribution of commercial land in New York City.
2 Comment on the distribution of industrial land.
3 Compare the distribution of low-density residential areas with that of high-density
residential areas. How do these compare with the distribution of apartments?
4 Compare and contrast the main land uses in Manhattan with those in Queens.

Activities
Table 1.18 Urban land use in Seoul (%)
Urbanised area
Residential 18.9
Commercial and business 5.9
Mixed residential and business 13.0
Industrial 1.2
Public facilities 5.1
Transport 10.5
Urban infrastructure 1.1
Derelict 1.8
Total 57.5
Forest and open space
Rivers and lakes 8.1
Forest 31.9
Inaccessible (steep slopes) 2.5
Total 42.5
 Figure 1.87 Land use in Seoul

Figure 1.88 Land-use in downtown Seoul

1 a Using the data in Table 1.18, draw a pie chart to show land uses in Seoul.
b Comment on the results you have drawn.
2 Refer to Figure 1.87 and 1.88.
a Describe the distribution of industrial land use on the map and the photo.
b Describe, and suggest reasons for, the distribution of open space (green, parks and
green belt).
c Describe the distribution of commercial land use.

Problems associated with urban growth

 A number of problems are associated with the growth of urban areas. These include:
• pollution (air, noise, water, light)
• inequality
• housing issues
• traffic congestion
• conflicts over land-use change.
These problems are found in most large cities worldwide. Cities in developing countries have the added
problems of shanty housing and squatter settlements.

Air pollution
Poor air quality affects half the world’s urban population. Each year thousands of people die because of poor
air quality, and many more are seriously affected. The problem is increasing as population growth increases in
urban areas, with industrial development and the increase in the number of vehicles worldwide. The world’s
population is growing by about 90 million people each year. This increases the demand for energy, transport,
heating and so on. More and more people are living in urban areas. In low-income countries (LICs) population
growth is very rapid, and cities have fewer resources to cope than cities in high-income countries (HICs).
In many LICs, indoor air pollution is high due to the burning of fuelwood and paraffin for cooking and
heating. Up to 700 million people in LICs and newly industrialising countries (NICs) are thought to be at risk of
high levels of indoor air pollution, especially those living in slums.
LICs and NICs have weaker economies and so investment in pollution control is minimal. Instead, such
countries favour industrialisation and the use of cheap, inefficient energy resources, such as lignite and low-
grade coal, as a source of energy. By contrast, HICs — which may have gone through the process of
deindustrialisation — have the capital and the technology to tackle air pollution.
One of the major sources of pollution is motor vehicles. At present, LICs/NICs account for about 10 per cent
of the world’s motor vehicles and about 20 per cent of the world’s cars, but some countries, such as India and
China, are expanding their car industries as a key part of their economic development. Cars and other vehicles in
LICs tend to be less fuel-efficient and produce more pollution because they are older, poorly serviced and lack
clean, environmentally friendly technology.

Noise pollution
Road traffic noise is related to traffic volume, traffic composition, speed, reflection of noise from barriers,
retaining walls or mitigation techniques, weather conditions, terrain and road surface. Noise disturbance may
cause people in urban areas to move or consider moving from cities of high population density to quieter
environments. Noise from road traffic and other sources has been associated with raised blood pressure, coronary
heart disease, psychological stress and annoyance, and sleep disturbance.

Water pollution
Water pollution is a major problem in many cities as a result of the large number of people, industries and
vehicles that might discharge pollutants into rivers. Some rivers and lakes have become so polluted that they
have even caught fire. The most famous case is the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, USA, which caught fire in
1969, but there have been recent cases in China in 2014, for example when a river in Wenzhou, Zhejiang
Province caught fire, and in 2017 when the Bellandur Lake in Banglalore, India caught fire. It regularly forms a
froth due to the amount of pollution in it (Figure 1.89).
 Figure 1.89 Toxic froth from Bellandur Lake, Bangalore

Light pollution
Light pollution (Figure 1.90) refers to excessive artificial lighting. It is common in large urban and
industrial areas, and can have an impact on human health, leading to loss of sleep and headaches, and is
disruptive to nocturnal animals. It is also a waste of energy.

Figure 1.90 Light pollution in Singapore’s CBD

Inequality
In all cities there is inequality. There are contrasts between the rich and the poor. In most HICs, the poor are
located in inner-city areas, edge-of-town estates and high-rise flats, whereas, in LICs, the poor tend to be located
in shanty towns or informal settlements. There are important variations in terms of educational achievements,
access to healthcare, employment opportunities and so on. One way of showing inequality is a Lorenz curve.
This shows the proportion of income that the rich and the poor have. Figure 1.91 shows a Lorenz curve for
inequality in Brazil. It shows that the top 10 per cent of households have 40 per cent of the wealth and that the
bottom 25 per cent have less than 5 per cent of the wealth.

Figure 1.91 Lorenz curve to show inequality in Rio de Janeiro

Housing issues
Provision of enough quality housing is also a major problem in LICs. There are at least four aspects to the
management of housing stock:
• quality of housing — with proper water, sanitation, electricity and space
• quantity of housing — having enough units to meet demand
• availability and affordability of housing
• housing tenure (ownership or rental).
Increased demand for housing is generated by:
 • people moving to urban areas in search of work and a higher standard of living
• longer life expectancy
• young people leaving home earlier
• more families splitting up and moving into separate homes
• more people preferring modern houses with good facilities.

Greenfield and brownfield sites

A greenfield site is a site that has not previously been developed. Most greenfield sites are on the edge of
town, although not necessarily so. A brownfield site is a site that has previously been used, and has become
derelict. It has to be made safe before it can be used for housing or other development (Figure 1.92).

Figure 1.92 A brownfield site: Stratford, London before the 2012 Olympic Games

Traffic congestion
Traffic congestion has many impacts. It can delay journeys and make people late for work, appointments,
school etc. It increases fuel consumption and adds to vehicular emissions of greenhouse gases and other
pollutants. It may lead to frustration and ‘road rage’, and it can have a negative impact on people’s health (stress
and poor air quality). In 2013 the World Health Organization announced that air pollution could cause cancer.
Diesel fumes are carcinogenic, and air pollution has a causal link with respiratory diseases.

Conflicts over land-use change

The Dharavi slum in Mumbai is a prime site for development. The Indian property developer Mukesh Mehta
wants to develop Dharavi into an international business destination. However, to do this would displace up to 1
million people to the edge of the city, in places that offer few economic prospects.
Dharavi is home to thousands of small-scale, informal industries, which generate around $650 million
annually. For many people, working in Dharavi is a means of escaping poverty. The informal economy accounts
for the overwhelming majority of India’s economic growth and as much as 90 per cent of employment.
Table 1.19 Greenfield and brownfield sites compared
 Case study: Urban problems in New York and Detroit
New York
New York’s population is declining and changing:
• The total population has fallen by over 10 per cent in the last decade.
• The white population has fallen from 87 per cent to 65 per cent since 1950.
• The middle-class population has fallen by 2 million in the past 20 years.
• The number of elderly residents has risen by 21 per cent since 1950.
• New York has one of the largest black populations in the country, making up 9.1 per cent of
the population.
• The population of the South Bronx has declined by nearly 50 per cent.
• Almost 1 million New Yorkers depend on welfare payments.
The inner areas are declining both in terms of population and employment. Much of the
housing and industry is dated (Figure 1.93). By contrast, the suburban periphery has expanded in
terms of population and employment. Only 20 per cent of the workers in Westchester County (a New
York suburb and one of the wealthiest counties in the USA) now commute into the city for their work.

Figure 1.93 Old tenement housing in New York

Up to 25 per cent of its citizens now live in poverty. A good example of an inner city area is the
South Bronx. There, the average income is 40 per cent that of the country as a whole, and one- third
of residents are on welfare support.
New York’s problems arise from:
• changes in the composition of the labour force
• the high living standards that the US economy guarantees for most citizens
 • the social strains set up by the continuing existence of an undereducated, unskilled,
underpaid and underprivileged minority
• the massive outward movement of the middle class, spurred on by good roads and
increased living standards
• the counter-movement of lower-income families into the inner city.
Urban decline in Detroit
Detroit was once the USA’s fourth largest city. Indeed, in 1960 it had the highest per capita
income in the USA. Now up to 104 km2 of the 360 km2 inner city have been reclaimed by nature. Up
to 40,000 buildings and parcels of land are vacant (Figure 1.94). Property prices have fallen by 80
per cent or more. In 2013 there was a three-bedroom house on Albany Street for sale at
$1.Detroit is the largest US city to declare bankruptcy. Its long-term debts are estimated at over
$18 billion, or $27,000 for every resident.
Between 1900 and 1950, Detroit prospered. General Motors (GM), Ford and Chrysler made most
of the cars sold in the USA. Detroit’s population increased from about 300,000 in 1900 to 1.8 million
in 1950, but fell to just 700,000 in 2013 (Figure 1.95).

Figure 1.94 Detroit — a forsaken city

Figure 1.95 Population change in Detroit

Many of the people are poor and relatively poorly educated — over 80 per cent have no more
than a high school diploma. Delivering services to sparsely populated neighbourhoods would be
difficult even if the city could afford it.
The causes of Detroit’s troubles are complex. They include:
• fading car sales and therefore less tax revenue from the city’s large firms
• a shrinking population — many of the richer people have moved away from the city
• very high pension and social welfare costs — the city has an ageing population.
Detroit has paid the price for being too dependent on a single industry — the motor car. It
attracted many black workers from the American south to work in its factories, and inequalities in
working conditions and living conditions led to race riots in 1943 and 1967. Many white people
abandoned the city during the ‘white flight’ of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.
Only 30 per cent of the jobs available in the city are taken by Detroit residents. Over 60 per cent
of Detroit’s population who work, do so outside of the city. Unemployment had reached 30 per cent
by 2013. Over 33 per cent of Detroit’s population and nearly 50 per cent of its children live below the
poverty line. Nearly 50 per cent of Detroit adults are ‘functionally illiterate’ and 29
schools closed down in 2009 alone. Detroit’s population is now 81.6 per cent Afro-American.
According to a report in The Economist, law and order has completely broken down in the inner
city, and drugs and prostitution are commonplace. Detroit’s murder rate is at a 40-year high. Of the
city’s 85,000 street lights, half are usually out of service because thieves have stripped them for
copper. Only one-third of its ambulances are in working order.
However, there is some hope. Urban farms are appearing. Young people — especially artists and
musicians — are moving into Detroit to make use of the abandoned and affordable urban spaces.
Policies set in place, such as low rents, good universities and tax breaks, are attempting to attract
businesses back to the city.

Figure 1.96 Change in manufacturing employment in Detroit

Case study analysis
1 a Suggest reasons for Detroit’s growth between 1900 and 1950.
b Suggest why Detroit’s population declined after 1950.
c Suggest the likely impacts of a falling population size.
2 Describe the trend in manufacturing employment in Detroit between 1990 and 2010 (Figure
1.96). Suggest the likely impacts of the changes you have described.

Case study: Problems in Seoul

Housing shortage
Seoul’s population grew from 2.5 million in 1960 to over 10 million in 1990 and over 20 million in
the Greater Seoul region by 2005. In-migration and the trend towards nuclear families (two
generations) rather than the extended family (three generations in the one house) have created a
major housing shortage, despite massive building programmes (Figure 1.97). Less than 45 per cent
of the land around Seoul is available for urban development due to the steep terrain and surrounding
mountains.
The type of housing is changing too. The typical one-storey, one-family house with an inner
courtyard is being replaced by high-rise apartment blocks. Such flats have increased from 4 per cent
of housing in 1970 to 35 per cent in 1990 and 50 per cent in 2005. Until recently most of the housing
was to the north of the river, but a number of satellite towns have been built to the south of the river.
This has evened out population density, which on average is over 16,000 people per km2 (Table
1.20).
 Figure 1.97 High-rise buildings in Seoul

Table 1.20 Population densities in selected cities

City Population/km2
Seoul 16,364
Tokyo 13,092
Beijing 4,810
Singapore 4,773
London 4,671
Paris 8,084
New York 9,721
Los Angeles 3,037

Traffic congestion
Like New York, Seoul experiences massive traffic congestion. In 1975 Korea manufactured fewer
than 20,000 cars. By 1994 there were over 2 million cars registered in the Seoul area. Despite
improvements to the motorway network, the increase in the population of Seoul and the number of
cars in the area mean that congestion has increased. In addition, many of the roads in central Seoul
are relatively small and unable to handle the large volumes of traffic.
Pollution
As Seoul has grown the amount of air and water pollution has increased. A good example is the
Cheong Gye Cheon River in central Seoul (Figure 1.98a). It had become heavily polluted with lead,
chromium and manganese, and was a health risk. Restoration of the river has been a central part of
the regeneration of central Seoul (Figure 1.98b). Previously, up to 87 per cent of the city’s sewage
flowed untreated into the Hangang River. Now Seoul has the capacity to treat up to 3 million tonnes
of sewage each day.
 Figure 1.98 The Cheong Gye Cheon River in central Seoul: (a) in the 1950s; (b) natural section following
restoration

Activities
1 Suggest several different reasons why there is poverty in New York.
2 Why is air pollution a problem in large cities?
3 Describe the conditions in Cheong Gye Cheong, as shown in Figure 1.98.

Key questions
• What is urbanisation?
• What are the reasons for rapid urban growth?
• What are the impacts of urban growth on both urban and rural areas?
• What are the strategies to reduce the negative impacts of urban growth?

1.7 Urbanisation
 Figure 1.99 Glenmore, South Africa
Urbanisation is an increase in the percentage of a population living in urban areas. It is one of the most
significant geographical phenomena of the twentieth century. Urbanisation takes place when the urban
population is growing more rapidly than the population as a whole. It is caused by a number of interrelated
factors, including:
• migration to urban areas
• higher birth rates in urban areas due to the youthful age structure
• higher death rates in rural areas due to diseases, unreliable food supply, famine, natural hazards,
decreased standard of living in rural areas, poor water, hygiene and medication
• rural areas being reclassified as urban areas (this would normally accompany the above factors).
Urbanisation can lead to a decline in population in rural areas and a change in age structure. Many of those
who leave are young adults, and so the population in rural areas ages. In addition, there is a ‘brain-drain’
whereby more of the most able and innovative of the population move in search of a better life. The rural area
may benefit from less pressure on resources and from the remittances that the migrants send home. On the other
hand, there may not be enough people to keep services running, and agricultural productivity may decline.
Urbanisation may lead to people becoming better off. The growth of China’s cities and industries since the
1990s has led to millions of people becoming richer and having a higher standard of living than before. On the
other hand, if there are insufficient jobs, housing and other services, people’s lives may be quite poor.
Unemployment, underemployment, overcrowding and pollution are common in informal (squatter) settlements.
In the rural areas, land may be abandoned and farm productivity declines (due to loss of young labourers), while
in farmland close to the city, it may be converted to urban land use.
More than two-thirds of the world’s urban population is now in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean. The population in urban areas in developing countries will grow from 1.9 billion in 2000 to 3.9
billion by 2030. In developed countries, however, the urban population is expected to increase very slowly, from
0.9 billion in 2000 to 1 billion in 2030.
The overall population growth rate for the world for that period is 1 per cent, while the growth rate for urban
areas is nearly double, at 1.8 per cent. At that rate, the world’s urban population will double in 38 years. Growth
will be even more rapid in the urban areas of developing countries, averaging 2.3 per cent per year,
with a doubling time of 30 years.
The urbanisation process (Figure 1.100) in developed countries has stabilised, with about 75 per cent of the
population living in urban areas. Latin America and the Caribbean were 50 per cent urbanised by 1960 but here
urbanisation is now about 75 per cent. Africa is still predominantly rural, with only 37.3 per cent living in urban
areas in 1999, but with a growth rate of 4.87 per cent, the continent of Africa has the fastest rate of urbanisation.
By 2030, Asia and Africa will each have more urban dwellers than any other major area of the world. Two
aspects of this rapid growth have been the increase in the number of large cities and the historically
unprecedented size of the largest cities.

Figure 1.100 The process of urbanisation

A megacity is a city with more than 10 million people. In 1950 there were only two megacities: New York
City and Tokyo. In 2000 there were 18 megacities, 424 cities with a population of 1 to 10 million, and 433 cities
in the 0.5 to 1 million category. By 2016, there were 31 cities with a population over 10 million and, of these, 24
were in developing countries (Table 1.21).
Most of the world’s megacities had slower population growth rates during the 1980s and 1990s, and most of
the larger cities are significantly smaller than had been expected. For instance, Mexico City had around 18
million people in 2000 — not the 31 million predicted in 1980. Kolkata in India had around 13 million
inhabitants in 2000, not the 40–50 million people predicted in the 1970s.
Several factors help to explain this:
• In many cities in the developing world, slow economic growth (or economic decline) attracted fewer
people.
• The capacity of cities outside the very large metropolitan centres to attract a significant proportion of
new investment was limited.
• Lower rates of natural increase have occurred, as fertility rates have come down.
However, there were some large cities whose population growth rates remained high from the 1980s through
to the 2010s, for example Dhaka in Bangladesh and many cities in India and China. Strong economic
performance by such cities is the most important factor in explaining this. This growth attracts many young
migrants, for whom birth rates are higher in urban areas, and death rates are lower there too.
Given the association between economic growth and urbanisation, a steady increase in the level of
urbanisation in low-income nations is only likely to take place if they also have a steadily growing economy.

The characteristics of squatter settlements

(slums)
The UN defines a slum household as one or a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban
area, lacking one or more of the following five amenities:
1 durable housing — a permanent structure providing protection from extreme climatic conditions
2 sufficient living space — no more than three people sharing a room
3 access to improved water — water that is sufficient, affordable and can be obtained without extreme
effort
4 access to improved sanitation facilities — a private toilet or a public one shared with a reasonable
number of people
5 secure tenure — protection against forced eviction; most squatter settlements are illegal and have no
legal basis.
The total number of slum dwellers in the world stood at about 980 million people in 2015. This represents
about 32 per cent of the world’s urban population, but 78.2 per cent of the urban population is in LICs. Slums are
typically located on land that planners do not want: steep slopes, floodplains, edge-of-town locations and/or close
to major industrial complexes.
Despite the success of the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG 1), ‘Reduce extreme
poverty by half’, more than 200 million people in sub-Saharan Africa and more than 190 million in south and
east Asia still live in slums (Table 1.22).
Table 1.21 Populations of the world’s megacities, 1950–2030 (millions)
 Table 1.22 Urban populations and slum populations in the world’s major regions (per cent), 1990, 2005 and
2014
 Interesting note

Some of the world’s largest slums could be ‘millionaire’ cities. Neza-Chalco-Itza in Mexico City
has a population of 4 million people. Orangi Town in Karachi has an estimated population of 1.5
million and Dharavi in Mumbai has a population of over 1 million residents. Khayelitsha in Cape
Town had 400,000 in 2005, and Kibera in Nairobi has a population of between 200,000 and 1 million.
Activities
1 a Choose an appropriate method to show the global distribution of people living in
slums (Table 1.22).
b Where is the frequency of slum dwellers highest? Where is it lowest?
c Comment on your conclusions.
2 Describe one environmental problem that is the result of rapid urban growth.
3 Explain why natural hazards may have a major impact in areas of slum housing.

Slum upgrading
The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include one specifically for urban areas: SDG 11 —
‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’. Target 11.1 states: ‘By 2030,
ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums’. Other
relevant SDGs include:
• SDG 1 — End poverty in all its forms everywhere
• SDG 6 — Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

The housing crisis in developing countries

Provision of enough quality housing is another a major problem in developing countries. There are at least
four aspects to the management of housing stock:
• quality of housing — with proper water, sanitation, electricity and space (Figure 1.101 and 1.102)
• quantity of housing — having enough units to meet demand
• availability and affordability of housing
• housing tenure (ownership or rental).
 Figure 1.101 Poor-quality housing in Oisins, Barbados

Figure 1.102 Derelict housing in Cuba

There are a variety of possible solutions to the housing problem:
• government support for low-income, self-built housing
• subsidies for home building
• flexible loans to help shanty town dwellers
• slum upgrading in central areas
• improved private and public rental housing
• support for the informal sector/small businesses operating at home
• site and service schemes
• encouragement of community schemes
• construction of health and educational services.

Housing the urban poor

Governments of developing countries are unable to solve their housing problems. The best that they could be
expected to do in an environment of general poverty is to improve living conditions. They could try to:
• reduce the number of people living at densities of more than 1.5 individuals in each room
• increase access to electricity and drinking water
• improve sanitation
• prevent families from moving into areas that are physically unsafe
• encourage households to improve the quality of their accommodation.
A sensible approach is to destroy slums as seldom as possible, on the grounds that every displaced family
needs to be rehoused, and removing families is often disastrous. Governments should also avoid building formal
housing for the very poor. Sensible governments will attempt to upgrade inadequate accommodation by
providing infrastructure and services of an appropriate standard.
There are no easy solutions to housing problems in developing countries because poor housing is merely one
manifestation of general poverty. Decent shelter can never be provided while there is widespread poverty.
 Case study: Squatter settlements in Rio de Janeiro

Figure 1.103 Slums in Rio de Janeiro

Millions of people have migrated from rural areas and other urban areas in Brazil to Rio de
Janeiro in search of work and a better standard of living. The problem is that there are neither
enough jobs nor houses for everyone. Therefore, many migrants are forced to make their own
homes (on land they do not own) and get whatever casual work they can, often in the informal sector.
Rio de Janeiro has many slum communities or comunidade. The natural increase in population is
much higher in the most recent favelas (squatter settlements, largely in the outer suburbs and the
rural–urban fringe). As spontaneous settlements are forced to develop on available land, most of the
sites have been used in the central and inner urban areas. Many favelas were moved to outer
suburban areas. In inner urban areas, newly established favelas were frequently forced to develop
on steep hillsides, where landslides are a threat. About 40 per cent of Rio’s population are favela-
dwellers. They occupy just 6.3 per cent of Rio’s land area (Figure 1.103).
There are four main types of slum in Rio:
• squatter settlements or favelas — dense invasions of land, with self-built housing, on land
lacking in infrastructure
• illegal subdivisions of land and/or housing
• invasions — irregular occupations of land still in the process of becoming fully established,
generally found in ‘risky’ areas such as around and beneath viaducts, under electricity lines, on
the edge of railways or in public streets and squares
• corticos — old decaying housing that has been rented out without any legal basis; these
are mainly located in the central areas and the port area.
Population growth is very rapid in some slums. For example, Rio das Pedras, located in a flooded
swamp area, grew to 18,000 within its first 2 years.
The steep mountains that surround the narrow, flat coastal strips of land have affected the
physical growth of Rio. The mountainous relief limits the space for building and makes the
development of an effective transport network more difficult. The few existing transport routes have
to be used by everyone, which leads to traffic congestion. The mountains surrounding the city trap
photochemical smog created by exhaust fumes, resulting in poor air quality.
Raw sewage has been draining straight into the bay, with population growth and industrial growth
in Rio worsening the problems this causes. Today there is no marine life left in much of the bay,
commercial fishing has decreased by 90 per cent in the last 20 years, and swimming from beaches
in the interior of the bay is not advisable. The Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas is the lake inland from
Ipanema and Leblon. Here, in February 2000, the release of raw sewage led to algal blooms and
eutrophication, which resulted in the death of 132 tonnes of fish.
Managing the housing problem in Rio
Areas of spontaneous housing in Rio de Janeiro used to be bulldozed without warning. However,
the authorities were unable to offer enough alternative housing with the result that the favelas grew
again. The authorities have now allowed these areas to become permanent.
The Favela Bairro Project (Favela Neighbourhood Project) began in Rio in 1994. It aimed to
recognise the favelas as neighbourhoods of the city in their own right and to provide the inhabitants
with essential services. Approximately 120 medium-sized favelas (those with 500–2500 households)
were chosen. The primary phase of the project addressed the built environment, aiming to provide:
• paved and formally named roads
• water supply pipes and sewerage/drainage systems
• crèches, leisure facilities and sports areas
• relocation for families who were living in high-risk areas, such as areas subject to frequent
landslides
• channelled rivers to stop them changing course.
The second phase of the project aimed to bring the favela dwellers into mainstream society and
keep them away from crime. This is being done by:
• generating employment, for example by creating cooperatives of dressmakers, cleaners
and construction workers, and helping them to establish themselves in the labour market
• improving education and providing relevant courses such as ICT
• giving residents access to credit so that they can buy construction materials and improve
their homes.
The project has been used as a model of its type. The government is also helping people to
become home-owners.
The mountainous relief of Rio means there is not a great amount of building space available.
Development has consequently moved out (decentralised) to create ‘edge towns’ such as Barra da
Tijuca. Barra is an example of decentralisation of the rich and upper classes.
A number of developments have taken place to try to improve the quality of the education system.
Amigos da Escola (school friends) encourages people from the community to volunteer their skills to
improve opportunities offered by their local schools. Bolsa Escola (school grants) gives monthly
financial incentives to low-income families to keep their children at school. Rocinha is a central favela
with a population of about 200,000 inhabitants (Figure 1.104). Over 90 per cent of the buildings are
now constructed from brick and have electricity, running water and sewerage systems. Rocinha has
its own newspapers and radio station. There are food and clothes shops, video rental shops, bars, a
travel agent and there was even a McDonald’s at one stage.

Figure 1.104 Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro

Many of these improvements and developments are the result of Rocinha’s location close to
wealthy areas such as São Conrado and Copacabana. Many of the residents work in these wealthy
areas that surround Rocinha, and although monthly incomes are low, they are not as low as
elsewhere in the city and in Brazil. These regular incomes have allowed improvements to be carried
out by the residents themselves.
Case study analysis
1 What proportion of Rio’s population live in slums?
2 How much of Rio’s land is occupied by slums?
3 Describe the different types of slum in Rio.
4 Suggest why there is a housing shortage in Rio.

New cities
For more developed countries there are more options. At one end of the scale are new towns and cities, such
as Brasilia in Brazil, Canberra in Australia and Gongju-Yongi in South Korea. Gongju-Yongi is a 42 billion-
dollar scheme to reduce the importance of Seoul as Korea’s capital by 2020 (Figure 1.105). The relocation is
necessary to ease chronic overcrowding in Seoul, redistribution of the state’s wealth and to reduce the danger of a
military attack from North Korea. Previous developments have concentrated huge amounts of money, power and
up to half of Korea’s population in Seoul. Construction of Gongju-Yongi began in 2007. Another impressive
scheme is the Malaysian new town of Putrajaya (Figure 1.106).

Figure 1.105 Gongju-Yongi — the proposed new capital for South Korea: planning board (top) and the scene
in 2007 (bottom)
 Figure 1.106 Putrajaya. (a) Landscaping, (b) new buildings and roads, (c) the mosque

Strategies to reduce the negative impacts

of urbanisation
Managing environmental problems
Environmental issues that most cities have to deal with include:
• water quality
• dereliction
• air quality
• noise
• environmental health of the population.
There are a range of environmental problems in urban areas (Table 1.23). These vary over time as economic
development progresses. The greatest concentration of environmental problems occurs in cities experiencing
rapid growth (Figure 1.107). This concentration of problems is referred to as the Brown Agenda. It has two main
components:
• issues caused by limited availability of land, water and services
• problems such as toxic hazardous waste, pollution of water, air and soil, and industrial ‘accidents’
such as that at Bhopal in 1985.
Attempts to turn cities green can be expensive. Increasingly local governments are monitoring the
environment to check for signs of environmental stress, and then applying some form of pollution management,
integrated management or conservation in order to protect the environment.

Managing transport in cities

Air quality in many urban areas is declining due to a mix of increased number of vehicles (Table 1.24),
industrial emissions and large numbers of people cooking over open fires indoors. Most attempts to deal with air
quality focus on vehicles (Table 1.25), although there is some evidence of factories being relocated to improve
air quality, such as before the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008.

Table 1.23 Environmental problems in urban areas

Problems (and Causes Possible solutions
examples)
Waste products and • Solids from • Improved public
waste disposal — 25 paper, packaging and awareness: recycling, landfill
per cent of all urban toxic waste increase sites, incineration plants
dwellers in developing as numbers and living • Development of
countries have no standards rise effective sanitation systems
adequate sanitation • Liquid sewage and treatment plants,
and no means of and industrial waste including recycling of brown
sewage disposal both increase water for industrial use
exponentially • Rubbish management
• Contamination
and health hazards
from poor systems of
disposal, e.g. rat
infestation and
waterborne diseases
Air pollution — air in • Traffic, factories, • Closure of old factories
Mexico City is waste incinerators and and importation of clean
‘acceptable’ on fewer power plants produce technology, e.g. filters
than 20 days annually pollutants • Use of cleaner fuels
• Some specialist • Re-siting of industrial
chemical pollution plants, e.g. oil refineries in
• Issues of acid areas downwind of
deposition settlements
 Water pollution • Leaking sewers, • Control of sources of
(untreated sewage landfill and industrial pollution at source by
into the Ganges from waste regulation and fining;
cities such as • In some development of mains
Varanasi) developing countries, drainage systems and
agricultural pollution sewers
from fertilisers and • Removal of
manure is a problem contaminated land sites
Water supply • Aquifer • Construction of
(overuse of depletion, ground reservoirs, pipeline
groundwater led to subsidence and low construction from long-
subsidence and flow of rivers distance catchment,
flooding in Bangkok) desalination of salt water
• Water conservation
strategies
Transport-related • Rising vehicle • Introduction of cleaner
issues (average ownership leads to car technology (unleaded
speed of traffic in São congestion, noise petrol and catalytic
Paulo is 3 km/hour) pollution, accidents converters); monitoring and
and ill-health due to guidelines for various
release of carbon pollution levels; movement
monoxide, nitrogen from private cars to public
oxide and, indirectly, transport; green transport
low-level ozone planning
• Photochemical • Creation of compact
smog formation and more sustainable cities
closely related to
urban sprawl

Figure 1.107 Environmental problems: (a) Seoul — a city experiencing rapid economic growth; (b) Castries
— a city in a developing country

Table 1.24 Traffic problems in cities

Developed world Developing world
 Increased number of motor vehicles Private car ownership is lower
Increased dependence on cars as Less dependence on the car, but
public transport declines growing
Major concentration of economic Many cars are poorly maintained and
activities in CBDs are heavy polluters
Inadequate provision of roads and Growing centralisation and
parking development of CBDs increases traffic in
Frequent roadworks urban areas
Roads overwhelmed by sheer Heavy reliance on affordable public
volume of traffic transport
Urban sprawl results in low- Journeys are shorter but getting
density built-up areas, and longer
increasingly long journeys to work Rapid growth has led to enormous
Development of out-of-town retail urban sprawl and longer journeys
and employment leads to cross-city Out-of-town developments are
commuting beginning as economic development
occurs, e.g. Bogota, Colombia

Table 1.25 Attempts to manage the transport issue

‘Carrots’ ‘Sticks’
Park-and-ride schemes — parking at the High car parking charges in city
terminal for a major bus or train route, e.g. centres, e.g. Copenhagen
Oxford (UK), Brisbane (Australia) (Denmark), London
Subsidised public transport systems, Restricted city-centre parking,
e.g. Zurich (Switzerland), Brisbane e.g. Copenhagen
Modern electronic bus systems with Road tolls and road pricing:
consumer information on frequency, e.g. congestion charges, e.g. Bergen
Curitiba (Brazil); rapid transit systems — (Norway) and central London, so
supertrams on dedicated tracks, e.g. that people have to pay to drive
Zurich, or underground trains, e.g. Cairo through congested areas of the city
(Egypt) centre
Providing bus lanes to speed up buses,
e.g. Oxford, London

Urban agriculture
Urbanisation leads to a decline in the amount of agricultural land available, and at the same time results in an
increased demand for food from the urban population. The phrase ‘urban agriculture’ initially sounds like a
contradiction in terms. However, the phenomenon has grown in significance in cities in the developing world
over the past 20 years. Evidence suggests that, in some cities, urban agriculture may already occupy up to 35 per
cent of the land area, may employ up to 36 per cent of the population, and may supply up to 50 per cent of urban
fresh vegetable needs.
Food produced locally in urban areas may have several added benefits. First, it employs a proportion of the
city’s population. In Addis Ababa dwellers can save between 10 and 20 per cent of their income through urban
cultivation. It also diversifies the sources of food, resulting in a more secure supply (Table 1.26).

Table 1.26 Urban agriculture issues

Advantages Concerns
 Vital or useful supplement to Conflict over water supply, particularly in arid or
food procurement strategies semi-arid areas
Various environmental Health concerns, particularly from use of
benefits contaminated wastes
Employment creation for the Conflicting urban land issues
jobless
Provides a survival strategy Focus on the urban cultivation activities rather
for low-income urban than in relation to broader urban management
residents issues
Urban agriculture makes use Urban agriculture can benefit only the wealthier
of urban wastes city dwellers in some cases

Activities
1 Describe the environmental problems shown in Figure 1.107.
2 a Outline the causes of environmental problems in cities.
b Suggest why these problems might be increasing.
c Suggest reasons why the potential solutions might not work.

Sustainable development in Curitiba

Curitiba, a city in southwest Brazil (Figure 1.108), is an excellent model for sustainable urban development.
It has experienced rapid population growth, from 300,000 in 1950 to over 2.1 million in 1990, but has managed
to avoid all the problems normally associated with it. This success is largely due to innovative planning:
• Public transport is preferred over private cars.
• The environment is used rather than changed.
• Cheap, low-technology solutions are used rather than high-technology ones.
• Development occurs through the participation of citizens (bottom-up development) rather than top-
down development (centralised planning).

Figure 1.108 Location of Curitiba in Brazil

Table 1.27 Sustainable solutions to flooding in Curitiba
Problems (1950s/60s) Solutions (late 1960s onwards)
Many streams had been covered to Natural drainage was preserved —
form underground canals which these natural floodplains are used as
restricted water flow parks
 Houses and other buildings had been Certain lowlying areas are off-limits
built too close to rivers
New buildings were built on poorly Parks have been extensively planted
drained land on the periphery of the city with trees; existing buildings have been
converted into new sports and leisure
facilities
An increase in roads and concrete Bus routes and cycle paths integrate
surfaces accelerated runoff the parks into the urban life of the city

Transport
Transport in Curitiba is highly integrated. The road network and public transport system have structural axes.
These allow the city to expand but keep shops, workplaces and homes closely linked. There are five main axes to
the three parallel roadways:
• express routes — a central road with two express bus lanes
• direct routes
• local roads.
Curitiba’s mass transport system is based on the bus. Interdistrict and feeder bus routes complement the
express bus lanes along the structural axes. Everything is geared towards the speed of the journey and
convenience of passengers:
• A single fare allows transfer from express routes to interdistrict and local buses.
• Extra-wide doors allow passengers to crowd on quickly.
• Double-and triple-length buses allow for rush hour loads.
The rationale for the bus system was economic as well as sustainability. A subway would have cost up to
$80 million per km whereas the express busways were only $200,000 per km. The bus companies are paid by the
kilometre of road they serve, not the number of passengers. This ensures that all areas of the city are served.
Case study: Urban change in Shanghai
For 700 years Shanghai has been one of Asia’s major ports, and it has a varied history. It thrived
until 1949, when China closed itself to trade with the west. This changed Shanghai from an
international centre of production and trade to an inward-looking city. During the 1970s, China began
slowly reopening its economy to the world, and Shanghai was designated one of 14 open cities. The
Shanghai Economic Zone was established in 1983, and in the early 1990s an ambitious major
programme of redevelopment was started, especially in the eastern hinterland around Pudong
(Figure 1.109). The neighbouring cities of Suzhou and Wuxi have slowly merged with Shanghai to
create one continuous megalopolis. Over 7700 km2 of the Yangtze River Delta Economic
Zone became urban between 2000 and 2010.
Since economic reforms began in China in 1978, between 150 million and 200 million Chinese
have migrated from rural to urban areas. This may be the largest population movement in human
history. China now has over 100 millionaire cities. Shanghai has a population of over 17 million and
it is expected to reach 23 million by 2020. In 2015, there were over 13 million workers in the city.
Site
Shanghai developed on a flat, lowlying alluvial plain on the banks of the Yangtze river (Figure
1.110). Shanghai is also located at the confluence of the Huangpu and Suzhou rivers — so it has an
excellent location for shipping and trade. From 1844, British, French, American and Japanese
traders owned land in Shanghai. By 1920, it was China’s largest and most important city but after the
end of the Second World War and following the Communist Revolution in 1949, the foreign influence
declined.
 Figure 1.109 Housing in Pudong, Shanghai

Figure 1.110 The situation of Shanghai in China

Economic change
Between 1949 and 1976, political influences, such as the Great Leap Forward (1958–60) and the
Cultural Revolution (1966–76), focused attention away from rural areas, foreign influence and
capitalist development. During this period one million people were returned to the countryside.
However, in 1979, the first generation of Special Economic Zones was created. Although
Shanghai was not one of them, it benefited from relaxed housing restrictions such as the subdivision
and subletting of housing.
In 1984, Shanghai was declared open to foreign development. For much of the next 20 years,
Shanghai’s economic growth rate was over 12 per cent per annum. In 1990, a new CBD was created
in the Pudong area (Figure 1.111). Banks, stock exchanges and insurance companies moved in. By
2000, over 3000 skyscrapers had been built, including the Shanghai Financial Centre.
 Figure 1.111 Land use in Shanghai
Having by 1990 established a strong industrial base, the city was well placed to take advantage
of the new opportunities offered by globalisation. It became a major centre for export manufacturing
based on automobiles, biotechnology, chemicals and steel, and its service industry sector (trade,
finance, real estate, tourism, e-commerce) helped to diversify its economy. Between 1990 and 2000,
Shanghai began to re-emerge as a world city. Foreign investment was attracted. Over half the
world’s top 500 transnational corporations and 57 of the largest industrial enterprises set up in
Shanghai, contributing to an annual regional growth rate of over 20 per cent — more than twice the
national average. In 2009, Shanghai was ranked the seventh largest city in the world, with a
population of 15 million.
Since 1990, the city’s manufacturing sector has steadily contracted, shedding almost a million
jobs, while the business services, finance and real estate sectors have expanded. Rising demand for
highly skilled labour has led to further in-migration, resulting in an increasing disparity in wealth
between rich and poor. Shanghai’s experience does lend support to the general hypothesis that
world city status inevitably leads to a widening gap between rich and poor.
In 2006, Yangshan deepwater port was opened in order to accommodate larger ships than could
enter the Huangpu and Suzhou rivers. Yangshan was built on an island about 40 km
southeast of Shanghai and connected by a 35 km bridge. It is now the world’s largest port. In 2015, it
handled over 36 million containers, compared with 31 million in Singapore (the world’s second
largest port).
Today, Shanghai is a city-state within China. It is part of the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone,
the fastest-growing urban area in the world, containing 16 megacities including Shanghai. The region
has 75 million people and earns 25 per cent of China’s GNP — 50 per cent of its foreign direct
investment. The city has been described as the largest construction site in the world: 4000 buildings
with more than 24 storeys were under construction in 2010.
Housing and demographic issues
Housing shortages and overcrowding problems are acute. Almost half the population lives in less
than 5 per cent of the total land area, and in central Shanghai population density reaches
40,000–160,000 people per square kilometre (Figure 1.112). Population pressure is caused by in-
migration, overcrowding, disparities in wealth and the social insecurity of Shanghai’s poor ‘floating
population’. From the 1990s, whole neighbourhoods were demolished. Over two million residents
were moved to the outer suburbs to live in better-quality accommodation. Many poorer people are
unaware of their property rights. As property prices increase, they are given insufficient
compensation. They cannot afford alternative housing in their old neighbourhoods.
The Shanghai government has established a series of important policies to address these
problems:
• a combination of widespread family planning and medical care, which has controlled fertility
levels among the young immigrant population
• compulsory work permits
• educational initiatives to improve immigrant job opportunities.

Figure 1.112 Population density in Shanghai

These initiatives have reduced population density in the heart of the city and increased it in the
suburban satellite cities such as Songjiang. This has been a successful strategy, although for many
who have been moved out under the decentralisation policy, the journey back to the centre for work
is no advantage.
Economic growth has attracted an increasing number of Chinese living overseas and foreign
migrants to live in Shanghai. Many of these live in luxury, gated apartments.
Water and air quality
Water quality in Shanghai is a concern: less than 80 per cent of waste water and storm water is
treated, although this is set to rise to 90 per cent by 2020. The construction industry generates
30,000 tonnes of building waste per day, and municipal landfill sites have almost reached capacity.
Nevertheless, since the 1990s there have been marked improvements in sanitation, and almost all
households have access to piped water, electricity and a means of waste disposal. Over 99 per cent
of the population have access to tap water, although the average daily intake is just over 100 litres of
water per person per day.
The amount of garbage produced in Shanghai has risen from over two million tonnes in 1978 to
over 107 million tonnes in 2015. Shanghai had less than 4000 km of sewerage pipes in 2000, but by
2015 this had risen to over 20,000 km. In 2000, less than 50 per cent of urban sewage was
treated but, by 2015, approximately 90 per cent of urban sewage was treated. Municipal organic
waste is now used as fertiliser in the surrounding rural areas (Figure 1.113).
 Figure 1.113 Shanghai’s rural–urban fringe
Shanghai has the highest cancer mortality rate in China, and until recently had the reputation of
being the tenth most polluted city in the world. Industry generated over 72 per cent of carbon dioxide
emissions, 9 per cent coming from transport systems, and the remainder from domestic use. Coal-
fired power stations provide 75 per cent of China’s electricity, but contribute to serious emissions of
suspended particulate matter, nitrous oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Motor vehicle emissions are particularly harmful in the presence of strong sunlight, when
photochemical smog is formed. A product of this is low-level ozone, a harmful irritant responsible for
breathing difficulties. Efforts to reduce air pollution levels have been moderately successful:
emissions of nitrous oxides have fallen from around 40 ppm to 32 ppm, and sulfur dioxide emissions
from 50 ppm to around 32 ppm over the same period. Reducing particulate matter has proved to be
a much more difficult task.
The government has responded to pollution problems by upgrading the city’s transport systems
and attempting to limit the growth in car ownership.
Transport
The Shanghai authorities have invested heavily in transport. Eight tunnels and four bridges have
been built over/under the Huangpu river. Shanghai’s underground system, with a daily
capacity of 1.4 million, is now linked to Pudong airport by the world’s fastest commercial magnetic
levitation train — MAGLEV — capable of reaching 431 km per hour. Other strategies to improve
safety have been pedestrianisation and a reduction in the number of bicycles, currently estimated at
9 million and a cause of many road accidents.
Bus lanes have been introduced and over 150 km of cycle/moped lanes have been created.
Shanghai developed a metro system in 1995. An international airport was built in 1999 and a second
terminal added in 2008. It was planned to expand this fourfold by 2015.
Rail transport is the key feature of Shanghai’s public transport. The urban rail network developed
in less than 20 years and carries 5 million passengers daily. Approximately 25 per cent of the city is
covered by railways, serving 40 per cent of the city’s population.
Coastal flooding
Like many global ports, Shanghai is under threat from coastal flooding, partly due to its low
elevation at only 4 metres above sea level, but also from monsoons and tropical cyclones. Future
hazard events will be aggravated by climate change and the possibility of a rise in sea level. The
problem is compounded by subsidence, which has been caused by over-abstraction of
groundwater and the weight of high-rise buildings. Shanghai sank by 2.6 metres between 1921 and
1965, and in 2002 alone by 10.22 millimetres.
Shanghai master plan
In 2000 Shanghai introduced the New Master Plan for Shanghai (2000–20). This includes the
whole area and the development of three satellite cities (new towns). This is to reduce congestion
and high population densities in central Shanghai.
Dongtan is located on the alluvial island of Chongming. It is a new city planned to produce zero
waste, and to use energy from clean renewable sources such as wind, solar and biofuels. Grasses
will be grown on rooftops and rainfall will be harvested. The city was planned to be compact and car-
free — its residents cycling or walking to school/work or to the shops and services. Links to
downtown Shanghai — over 50 km away — include new bridges and tunnels.
However, these links threaten to replace the sustainable eco-city with a middle-class suburb for
Shanghai workers. It could also attract holiday homes and retirement homes.
Advantages of Dongtan:
• Housing will include affordable housing as well as luxury flats.
• Waste will be treated, rather than discharged into the Yangtze. Landfills are to be allowed,
and sewage will be processed for irrigation and composting.
• Renewable energy will be used — especially solar panels and wind turbines.
• Food will be locally sourced from local farmers and fishermen — about one-third of the land
in Shanghai is currently used for food production and about one million people still work on the
land there.
• Farming will be made more efficient by the introduction of organic fertilisers.
• Direct links between farmers and Shanghai restaurants are being developed.
• Farm tourism is being encouraged through weekend breaks.
Problems associated with Dongtan:
• There may be conflicts over water resources — planned golf courses may use vast
amounts of water.
• Dongtan’s first phase — by 2010 — housed mainly tourist industries: hardly a sustainable
use.
• Commuting to Shanghai is inevitable, leading to a ‘middle-class’ ghetto.
• The extensive natural areas of freshwater marshes, saltmarshes and tidal creeks will
experience major pressures for development.
The rapid development of Shanghai has presented the government and planners with some
challenging problems, only some of which have been resolved. The question is whether Shanghai
can maintain the principles of sustainability while growing at such a rapid pace.
Case study analysis
1 On what river is Shanghai situated?
2 What are the advantages of Shanghai’s site for its economic development?
3 Describe the situation of Shanghai as shown in Figure 1.109.
4 Suggest reasons to help explain the rapid growth of Shanghai’s population.
5 Explain why Shanghai has a problem with air quality and water quality.

End-of-theme questions
Topic 1.1 Population dynamics

Figure 1.114 Population by world region, 2013 and 2050

1 a Describe the distribution of the world’s population by region in 2013 (Figure 1.114).
b Using the data provided, calculate the total population of the world in 2013 and the
world’s projected population in 2050.
c What is the total increase in population forecast to be?
2 a To what extent does the projected population growth to 2050 vary by world region?
b Discuss the reasons why population growth is forecast to be much higher in some
world regions than in others.
3 Suggest why these population forecasts might turn out to be inaccurate.
Topic 1.2 Migration
Figure 1.115 Main international migration corridors, 2013 (total migrant populations in millions)
1 a Define the term ‘international migration’.
b Identify the three largest flows of migrants to destinations in developing and in
developed countries (Figure 1.115).
2 a Which country is the major destination for international migrants?
b What are the reasons for the popularity of this destination country?
c Suggest why India appears as both a country of origin and destination.
3 a What is a refugee?
b Suggest and justify one migration corridor that has been a route for refugees.
4 Discuss the barriers to international migration.
Topic 1.3 Population structure

Figure 1.116 Changes in US population (in thousands) by age group 2000–2001, 2005–2006, 2010–2011
1 a Study Figure 1.116. By how much did the total population of the USA increase
between:
i 2000 and 2001
ii 2005 and 2006
iii 2010 and 2011?
2 a To what extent did population change vary between the three age groups? b
What demographic trend do the data and your analysis of them illustrate? c
Explain the reasons for this trend.
3 a Explain a simple calculation/ratio that could be used to compare the working and
non-working populations of the USA.
b What concerns might the US government have about the changing population
 structure of the country?
Topic 1.4 Population density and distribution

Figure 1.117 Population density and distribution in Bangladesh

Figure 1.118 Increase in population density in Bangladesh

1 a Define the terms:
i population density
ii population distribution.
b Describe the population density and distribution in Bangladesh (Figure 1.117).
c Suggest likely reasons for the variations in population density.
2 a Describe the changes in the average population density in Bangladesh between
1961 and 2011 (Figure 1.118).
b Discuss the reasons for such significant change in population density.
c Suggest where the largest increases in population density occurred.
Topic 1.5 Settlements and service provision
Figure 1.119 Map of Kenmare
a Suggest why a settlement developed at Kenmare (Figure 1.119: 9070, 9171)
b What type of settlement is Kenmare?
c Describe the nature of the settlement in 9075. Suggest reasons for this.
d Identify the services that are found in Kenmare.
e Suggest a simple hierarchy (with three layers) of settlements in the Kenmare area.
Topic 1.6 Urban settlements
Figure 1.120 1:50,000 map of part of Kowloon and Hong Kong Island
1 Give a four figure square reference for the central business district, Hong Kong Island
(Figure 1.120).
2 Describe the location of the built environment on Hong Kong Island.
3 Describe the road pattern (network) in grid square 0869.
4 Suggest two contrasting ways in which physical geography has influenced the
development of Hong Kong.
5 Identify two forms of recreational activity shown on the map.
6 a Identify an area that is likely to have industrial activity.
b Suggest why this area has potential for economic activity.
Topic 1.7 Urbanisation
Figure 1.121 Urban population and urbanisation in South Korea, 1970 and 2000
1 Define the term ‘urbanisation’.
2 a Describe the changes in urbanisation in South Korea between 1970 and 2000 (Figure
1.121).
b Describe the changes in urban growth in South Korea between 1970 and 2000.
3 What factors led to an increase in urbanisation?
4 Outline the positive economic and social effects of urbanisation.
5 Comment on the negative effects of urbanisation.
THEME 2 The natural environment
 Topics
2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
2.2 Rivers
2.3 Coasts
2.4 Weather
2.5 Climate and natural vegetation
This theme investigates aspects of physical geography. It looks at the distribution and impacts
of earthquakes and volcanoes, and the attempts to manage them. It considers the work of rivers —
their processes and resulting landforms — and the hazards and potential benefits that they offer to
people. Coastal processes and landforms are analysed, and the opportunities and potential
hazards of living in a coastal environment are considered. This theme also looks at the features
that make up the weather. It also explains how they can be measured and recorded. The
interaction between climate, vegetation and soils is considered with regard to equatorial and hot,
desert environments.

Key questions
• What are the main types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes?
• Where do earthquakes and volcanoes occur?
• What are the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and what is their effect on
people and the environment?
• What are the hazards and opportunities posed by volcanoes?
• What can be done to reduce the impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes?

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes

Figure 2.1 Impacts of the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat

Types and features of volcanoes and

earthquakes
Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which hot molten magma (lava), molten rock and ash
are erupted onto the land. Most volcanoes are found at plate boundaries although there are some exceptions, such
as the volcanoes of Hawaii, which are located at an isolated hotspot. Some eruptions let out so much material
that the world’s climate is affected for a number of years. Magma refers to molten materials inside the Earth’s
interior. When the molten material is ejected at the Earth’s surface through a volcano or a crack at the surface, it
is called lava.
Interesting notes
• The greatest volcanic eruption in historic times was Tambora in Indonesia in 1815. Some
50–80 km3 of material was blasted into the atmosphere.
• In 1883 the explosion of Krakatoa was heard from as far away as 4776 km.
• The world’s largest active volcano is Mauna Loa in Hawaii, which is 120 km long and over
100 km wide.

Types of volcano
The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava it contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently sloping
shield volcanoes, while thick material produces cone volcanoes (Figure 2.2). These may be the result of many
volcanic eruptions over a long period of time. Part of the volcano may be blasted away during an eruption. The
shape of the volcano also depends on the amount of change there has been since the last volcanic eruption. Cone
volcanoes are associated with destructive plate boundaries, whereas shield volcanoes are characteristic of
constructive boundaries and hotspots (areas of weakness in the middle of a plate).
The chamber refers to the reservoir of magma located deep inside the volcano. A crater is the depression at
the top of a volcano following a volcanic eruption. It may contain a lake. A vent is the channel that allows
magma within the volcano to reach the surface in a volcanic eruption.

Figure 2.2 Two types of volcano

Active volcanoes are those that have erupted in recent times, such as Mt Pinatubo in 1991 and Montserrat in
1997, and could erupt again. Dormant volcanoes are volcanoes that have not erupted for many centuries, but
may erupt again, such as Mt Rainier in the USA. Extinct volcanoes are not expected to erupt again. Kilimanjaro
in Kenya is an excellent example of an extinct volcano. The Le Puys region of France is an area of extinct
volcanoes, which continue to influence settlements and tourism.

Earthquakes
Earthquakes involve sudden, violent shaking of the Earth’s surface. They occur after a build-up of
pressure causes rocks and other materials to give way. Most of this pressure occurs at plate boundaries when one
plate is moving against another. Earthquakes are associated with all types of plate boundary. The focus refers to
the place beneath the ground where the earthquake takes place. Deep-focus earthquakes are associated with
subduction zones. Shallow-focus earthquakes are generally located along constructive boundaries and along
conservative boundaries. The epicentre is the point on the ground surface immediately above the focus.
Some earthquakes are caused by human activity, such as:
 • nuclear testing
• building large dams
• drilling for oil/natural gas (fracking)
• coal mining.

Earthquake intensity: the Richter and Mercalli scales

In 1935, Charles Richter of the California Institute of Technology developed the Richter scale to measure
the magnitude (strength or force) of earthquakes (Table 2.1). These are measured on a seismometer and shown
on a seismograph (Figure 2.3). By contrast, the Mercalli scale (Table 2.2) relates ground movement to things
that you would notice happening around you. Its advantage is that it allows ordinary eyewitnesses to provide
information on the strength of the earthquake. The Richter scale is logarithmic. This means that an earthquake of
6.0 is ten times greater than one of 5.0, and one hundred times greater than one of 4.0.

Table 2.1 The world’s largest earthquakes of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Richter
scale)
Place Date Strength
Chile 1965 9.5
Alaska 1961 9.2
Southeast Asia 2004 9.1
Honshu, Japan 2011 9.0
Kamchatka, Russia 1952 9.0
Chile 1960 8.9
Kansu, Japan 1920 8.6
Tokyo, Japan 1923 8.3
Mexico City 1985 8.1
Tangshen, China 1976 8.0
Erzincan, Turkey 1939 7.9
North Peru 1970 7.7
Izmit, Turkey 1999 7.2

Figure 2.3 A seismograph reading

Table 2.2 The Mercalli scale

Strength Observations
I Rarely felt
II Felt by people who are not moving, especially on upper floors of
buildings
Hanging objects may swing
III The effects are noticeable indoors, especially upstairs
The vibration is like that experienced when a truck passes
IV Many people feel it indoors; a few outside
Some are awakened at night
Crockery and doors are disturbed, and standing cars rock
V Felt by nearly everyone — most people are awakened
Some windows are broken, plaster becomes cracked and unstable
objects topple
Trees may sway and pendulum clocks stop
VI Felt by everyone — many are frightened
Some heavy furniture moves, plaster falls
Structural damage is usually quite slight
VII Everyone runs outdoors
Noticed by people driving cars
Poorly designed buildings are damaged
VIII Damage to ordinary buildings — many collapse
Well-designed ones survive but suffer slight damage
Heavy furniture is overturned and chimneys fall
IX Damage occurs even to buildings that have been well designed
Many are moved from their foundations
Ground cracks and pipes break
X Most masonry structures are destroyed; wooden ones may survive
Railway tracks bend and water slops over banks
Landslides and sand movements occur
XI No masonry structure remains standing; bridges are destroyed
Large cracks occur in the ground
XII Total damage
Waves are seen on the surface of the ground and objects are
thrown into the air

Activities
1 Describe the main characteristics of:
a a shield volcano
b a cone volcano.
2 What is the difference between an active volcano and a dormant volcano?
3 What are the advantages of the Richter scale over the Mercalli scale? What are the
advantages of the Mercalli scale over the Richter scale?
4 The Richter scale is logarithmic. How much stronger is an earthquake of 7.0 compared
with one of 5.0 on the Richter scale?
Distribution of earthquakes and
volcanoes
The distribution of the world’s volcanoes and earthquakes is very uneven (Figure 2.4). They are mostly along
plate boundaries which are regions of crustal instability and tectonic activity. About 500,000 earthquakes are
detected each year by sensitive instruments. Most of the world’s earthquakes occur in linear chains (such as
along the west coast of South America) along all types of plate boundary. Some earthquakes appear in areas
away from plate boundaries, such as in the mid-west of the USA. These earthquakes could still be related to plate
movement as the North American plate is moving westwards. Some earthquakes are the result of human activity.
The building of large dams and deep reservoirs increases pressure on the ground. Mining removes underground
rocks and minerals, which may cause collapse or subsidence of the overlying materials. Testing of nuclear
weapons underground has been known to trigger earthquakes too.
There are over 1300 active volcanoes in the world, many of them under the ocean. Three-quarters of the
world’s active volcanoes are located in the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, the area around the Pacific Ocean. Good
examples include Mt Pinatubo (Philippines), Krakatoa (Indonesia) and Popacatapetl (Mexico). These volcanoes
are related to plate boundaries, notably destructive plate boundaries (for example, Mt St Helens in the USA and
Soufrière in Montserrat in the Caribbean) and constructive boundaries (for example, Eldfell volcano on Heimaey,
Iceland). The continuing eruption of Soufrière in Montserrat occurs at the boundary of the North American and
Caribbean plates. Some volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa and Kilauea in Hawaii, and Teidi on Tenerife, are located
over hotspots. These are isolated plumes of rising magma that have burned through the crust to create active
volcanoes.

Figure 2.4 World distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes

Activities
1 Describe the global distribution of earthquakes as shown in Figure 2.4.
2 What is the difference between shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes?

Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is a set of ideas that describe and explain the global distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes,
fold mountains and rift valleys. The cause of earth movement is huge convection currents in the Earth’s interior,
which rise towards the Earth’s surface, drag continents apart and cause them to collide. These events happen
because the Earth’s interior consists of semi-molten layers (magma), so the Earth’s surface or crust (composed of
plates) moves around on the magma. There are seven large plates (five of which carry continents) and a number
of smaller plates (Figure 2.5). The main plates are the Pacific, Indo-Australian, Antarctic, North American, South
American, African and Eurasian plates. Smaller ones include the Caribbean, Iranian, Arabian and Juan de Fuca
plates. These move relative to one another, and when they collide create tectonic activity and new landforms.
 Figure 2.5 The world’s main tectonic plates

The structure of the Earth

There are four main layers within the Earth (Figure 2.6):
• The inner core is solid. It is five times denser than surface rocks.
• The outer core is semi-molten.
• The mantle is semi-molten and about 2900 km thick.
• The crust is a solid and is divided into two main types: oceanic crust and continental crust. The depth
of the crust varies between 10 km and 70 km. Continental crust is mostly formed of granite. It is less dense
than the oceanic crust. Because it is more dense the oceanic crust plunges beneath the continental crust when
they come together.

Plate movement and boundaries

There are a number of different types of plate boundary (Figure 2.7 and Table 2.3). These include:
constructive boundaries, in which new oceanic crust is being created; destructive boundaries, in which older
crust is destroyed; collision zones, where plates are folded and crumpled; and conservative plates, where plates
slip past each other, causing earthquakes to occur. Different plate boundaries are associated with different
tectonic activities: volcanic eruptions, folding and earthquake activity (Figure 2.8).

Figure 2.6 The structure of the Earth

 Figure 2.7 Types of plate boundary

Table 2.3 Types of plate boundary

Constructive/divergent Two plates move apart from each other causing sea-
boundary floor spreading; new oceanic crust is formed, creating
mid-ocean ridges; volcanic activity is common, e.g.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Europe is moving away from North
America)
Convergent The oceanic crust moves towards the continental crust
(destructive) boundary and sinks beneath it due to its greater density; deep-
sea trenches and island arcs are formed; the
continental crust is folded into fold mountains; volcanic
activity is common, e.g. Nazca plate sinks under the
South American plate
Convergent (collision) Two continental crusts collide; as neither can sink they
boundary are folded up into fold mountains, e.g. The Indian plate
collided with the Eurasian plate to form the Himalayas
Conservative Two plates slip sideways past each other but land is
boundary neither destroyed nor created, e.g. San Andreas fault in
California
Activities
1 Name the type of plate boundary located:
a off the west coast of central America
b in the south Atlantic Ocean
c where the Arabian plate meets the Iranian plate.
2 Where in the world is plate movement most rapid?
Figure 2.8 Tectonic activities: (a) folded landscape, Himalaya foothills; (b) Thingvellir rift valley, Iceland; (c)
volcanic eruption of Soufrière, Montserrat with the former capital city Plymouth in the foreground; (d) tourists
standing by the boiling mud springs, Soufrière, St Lucia

Causes of earthquakes and volcanoes

Earthquakes are caused by the build-up of pressure that results from plate movement. Consequently many
earthquakes are found close to plate boundaries. This is illustrated clearly by tectonic activity in the Caribbean
(Figure 2.9). The Caribbean plate is one of the smaller surface plates of the Earth. Earthquakes occur all around
its periphery, and volcanoes erupt on its eastern and western sides (Figure 2.10). The Caribbean plate moves
more slowly, at about 1–2 cm a year, while the North American plate moves westward at about 3–4 cm a year.
Many earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred in the northeastern Caribbean region, where the
movement of plates is rapid and complicated. There are a number of hazards related to earthquakes (see Table
2.7 on page 99) and the impact on the death rate has been significant (Table 2.4).
There are 25 potentially active volcanoes in the Caribbean, all of them in the eastern region. There have been
17 eruptions here in recorded history: Mt Pelée (1902) accounted for most deaths and the Soufrière Hills volcano
has been active since 1995. Kick ‘em Jenny is an active submarine volcano, north of Grenada. All of the
volcanoes are associated with subduction zones.
Figure 2.9 St John’s Cathedral, Antigua, rebuilt following the devastating earthquake of 1843

Figure 2.10 Distribution of plates and tectonic hazards in the Caribbean

Table 2.4 Major earthquakes in the Caribbean
 Volcanic eruptions eject many different types of material. Pyroclastic flows are superhot (700°C) flows of
ash and pumice (volcanic rock) moving at speeds of over 500 km/hr. In contrast, ash is very fine-grained but very
sharp volcanic material. Cinders are small rocks and coarse volcanic materials. The volume of material ejected
varies considerably from volcano to volcano (Table 2.5).

Table 2.5 The world’s biggest volcanic eruptions

Eruption Date Volume of material ejected (km3)

Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010 0.14

Mt St Helens, USA 1980 1
Vesuvius, Italy 79 3
Mt Katmai, USA 1912 12
Mt Pinatubo, Philippines 1991 5
Krakatoa, Indonesia 1883 18
Tambora, Indonesia 1815 80

Volcanic strength
The strength of a volcano is measured by the volcanic explosive index (VEI). This is based on the amount of
material ejected in the explosion, the height of the cloud it causes, and the amount of damage caused. Any
explosion above level 5 is considered to be very large and violent.
A supervolcano is a volcano of VEI 8. The scale is logarithmic, so VEI 8 is 10 times more powerful than
VEI 7, 100 times more powerful than VEI 6 and 1000 times more powerful than VEI 5 (Mt Pinatubo, 1991). The
last VEI 8 was 74,000 years ago (Mt Toba, Indonesia).
Supervolcanoes tend to be much larger than ‘normal’ volcanoes — the Yellowstone magma chamber, for
example, is over 50 km wide. The likely impacts of a VEI 8 eruption include:
• almost complete loss of life within about 1000 km of the eruption
• destruction of all crops and livestock, leading to a global famine

• economic and social devastation.

 Activities
1 Study Figure 2.10.
a What are the two plates responsible for tectonic activity in Montserrat?
b Which two plates are likely to have caused the earthquake that affected Mexico City
in 1985?
c Describe what happens when the North American plate meets the Caribbean plate.
2 a Choose a suitable diagrammatic method to show the relationship between the
magnitude of an earthquake and the loss of life, as shown in Table 2.4.
b Describe the relationship shown in your diagram.
c Suggest reasons for the relationship (or lack of one) shown in your answer to 2a.

Natural hazards
All natural environments provide opportunities and challenges for human activities. Some of the challenges
can be described as ‘natural hazards’. A natural hazard is a natural event that causes damage to property and/or
disruption to normal life, and may cause loss of life. Natural hazards involve hydrological, atmospheric and
geological events. They are caused by the impact of natural events on the social and economic environment in
which people live. Some groups of people are more vulnerable to natural hazards and have greater exposure to
them.
Since the 1960s more people have been affected by natural hazards. Reasons for this include:
• a rapid increase in population, especially in developing countries
• increased levels of urbanisation, including more shanty towns, which are often located in hazardous
environments
• changing land use in rural areas, which results in flash floods, soil erosion and landslides
• increased numbers of people living in poverty who lack the resources to cope with natural hazards
• changes in the natural environment, causing increased frequency and intensity of storms, floods and
droughts.
A hazard refers to a potentially dangerous event or process. It becomes a disaster when it affects people
and their property (Figure 2.11 and Table 2.6).
Risk suggests that there is a possibility of loss of life or damage. Risk assessment is the study of the costs and
benefits of living in a particular environment.
There are two very different ways of looking at people’s vulnerability:
• One view is that people choose to live in hazardous environments because they understand the
environment. In this situation people choose to live in an area because they feel the benefits outweigh the
risks.
• Another view is that some people live in hazardous environments because they have very little choice
over where they live, as they are too poor to move.

Volcanic eruptions
People often choose to live in volcanic areas because they are useful. For example:
• Some countries, such as Iceland and the Philippines, were created by volcanic activity.
• Volcanic soils are rich, deep and fertile, and allow intensive agriculture to take place.
• Volcanic areas are important for tourism (Figure 2.12).
• Some volcanic areas are seen by people as being symbolic and are part of the national identity, such as
Mt Fuji in Japan.
 Figure 2.11 A building buried by a mudflow in Plymouth, Montserrat — one of the disadvantages of tectonic
activity

Table 2.6 Hazards associated with volcanic activity

Direct hazards Indirect Socio-economic impacts
hazards
Pyroclastic flows Atmospheric Destruction of settlements
Volcanic bombs ash fallout Loss of life
(projectiles) Landslides Loss of farmland and forests
Lava flows Tsunamis Destruction of infrastructure — roads,
Ash fallout Acid airstrips and port facilities
Volcanic gases rainfall Disruption of communications
Lahars
(mudflows)
Earthquakes

Figure 2.12 Tourists gather around the geyser at Geysir, Iceland — one of the benefits of tectonic activity

Earthquakes
The extent of earthquake damage is influenced by a number of factors:
• Strength of earthquake and number of aftershocks — the stronger the earthquake the more damage it
can do. For example, an earthquake of 6.0 on the Richter scale is 100 times more powerful than one of 4.0; the
 more aftershocks there are, the greater the damage that is done.
• Population density — an earthquake that hits an area of high population density, such as in the Tokyo
region of Japan, could inflict far more damage than one that hits an area of low population and low building
density.
• The type of buildings — developed countries generally have better-quality buildings, more emergency
services and the funds to cope with disasters. People in developed countries are more likely to have insurance
cover than those in developing countries.
• The time of day — an earthquake. during a busy time, such as rush hour, may cause more deaths than
one at a quiet time. Industrial and commercial areas have fewer people in them on Sundays, and homes have
more people in them at night.
• The distance from the centre (epicentre) of the earthquake — the closer a place is to the centre of
the earthquake, the greater the damage that is done.
• The type of rocks and sediments — loose materials can act like liquid when shaken; solid rock is
much safer and buildings should be built on level areas formed of solid rock.
• Secondary hazards — these include mudslides, tsunamis (large sea waves), fires, contaminated
water, disease, hunger and hypothermia (Table 2.7).

Table 2.7 Earthquake hazards and impacts

Primary Secondary hazard Impacts
hazard
Ground Ground failure and soil Total or partial destruction of building
shaking liquefaction structures
Surface Landslides and Interruption of water supplies
faulting rockfalls Breakage of sewage disposal
Debris flows and systems
mudflows Loss of public utilities such as
Tsunamis electricity and gas
Floods from collapsed dams
Release of hazardous
material Fires
Spread of chronic illness

The South Asian tsunami, 2004

The term tsunami is the Japanese for ‘harbour wave’. About 90 per cent of these events occur in the Pacific
basin. Tsunamis are generally caused by earthquakes (usually in subduction zones) but can also be caused by
volcanoes, for example Krakatoa (1883), and landslides, for example Alaska (1964). Tsunamis have the
potential to cause widespread disaster, as in the case of the South Asian tsunami 2004 (Figure 2.13). It became a
global disaster, killing between 180,000 and 280,000 people from nearly 30 countries, many of them foreign
tourists.
The cause of the tsunami was a giant earthquake and landslide, which resulted from the sinking of the Indian
plate under the Eurasian plate. Pressure had built up over many years and was released in the earthquake, which
reached 9.0 on the Richter scale.
The main impact of the 2004 tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, the closest inhabited area to
the epicentre of the earthquake. More than 70 per cent of the inhabitants of some coastal villages died. Aside
from Indonesia, Sri Lanka suffered more from the tsunami than anywhere else — at least 31,000 people are
known to have died there, mostly along the southern and eastern coastlines.
 Figure 2.13 The 2004 tsunami caused widespread damage around the countries bordering the Indian Ocean

Activities
1 What is a natural hazard?
2 Suggest reasons why natural hazards appear to be increasing in frequency.
3 How may volcanic activity be a benefit to people?
4 Describe the direct and indirect hazards associated with volcanic activity in the Caribbean.
5 What are the potential impacts of volcanic activity on people’s lives and livelihoods?
6 Why was the 2004 tsunami considered to be a ‘global disaster’?
7 a Describe the main hazards associated with earthquakes.
b Briefly explain any three of the impacts of earthquakes.

Managing volcanoes
There are a number of ways in which the impacts of volcanic eruptions can be reduced. These include:
• spraying lava flows with water to cool them down and cause them to solidify — this was successfully
carried out in Heimaey, Iceland
• digging diversion channels to divert lava flows away from settlements — this has been successful on
Mt Etna, Sicily
• adding ‘cold’ boulders to a lava flow in an attempt to cool the lava and stop it moving.
However, if the eruption is a pyroclastic flow, there is little that can be done to prevent the impacts apart
from evacuation.

Predicting volcanoes
The main methods of predicting volcanoes include:
• seismometers, to record swarms of tiny earthquakes that occur as the magma rises
• chemical sensors, to measure increased sulfur levels
• lasers, to detect the physical swelling of the volcano
• measurement of small-scale uplift or subsidence, changes in rock stress and changes in radon gas
concentration
• ultrasound, to monitor low-frequency waves in the magma, resulting from the surge of gas and molten
rock, as happened with Mt Pinatubo, El Chichon and Mt St Helens.

Dealing with earthquakes

People cope with earthquakes in a number of ways. The three basic options from which they can choose are:
• do nothing and accept the hazard
• adjust to living in a hazardous environment — strengthen your home
• leave the area.
The main ways of dealing with earthquakes include:
 • better forecasting and warning
• building design, building location and emergency procedures.
There are a number of ways of predicting and monitoring earthquakes. These include:
• measuring crustal movement — small-scale movement of plates
• recording changes in electrical conductivity
• noting strange and unusual animal behaviour, for example among fish (e.g. carp)
• checking historical evidence — there are possibly trends in the timing of earthquakes in some regions.

Building design
A single-storey building responds quickly to earthquake forces (Figure 2.14). A high-rise building responds
slowly, and shock waves are increased as they move up the building. If the buildings are too close together,
vibrations may be amplified between buildings and increase damage. The weakest part of a building is where
different elements meet. Elevated motorways are therefore vulnerable in earthquakes because they have many
connecting parts.

Figure 2.14 Buildings designed for earthquakes

Certain areas are very much at risk from earthquake damage — notably areas with weak rocks, faulted
(broken) rocks, and soft soils. Many oil and water pipelines in tectonically active areas are built on rollers so that
they can move with an earthquake rather than fracture (Figure 2.15).
 Figure 2.15 Pipeline on rollers

Safe houses
Billions of people live in houses that cannot withstand shaking. Yet safer ones can be built cheaply, using
straw, adobe or old tyres, by applying a few general principles (Figure 2.16).
In rich cities in fault zones, the added expense of making buildings earthquake resistant has become a fact of
life. Concrete walls are reinforced with steel, for instance, and a few buildings even rest on elaborate shock
absorbers. Strict building codes were credited with saving thousands of lives when a magnitude 8.8 earthquake
hit Chile in February 2010. But in less developed countries, like Haiti, conventional earthquake engineering is
often unaffordable, even though there are some cheap solutions.
 Figure 2.16 Safe houses
In Peru in 1970 an earthquake killed more than 70,000 people, many of whom died when their houses
crumbled around them. Heavy, brittle walls of traditional adobe — cheap, sun-dried brick — cracked instantly
when the ground started to move. Existing adobe walls can be reinforced with a strong plastic mesh installed
under plaster. During an earthquake, those walls crack but do not collapse, allowing occupants to escape. Plastic
mesh could also work as a reinforcement for concrete walls in Haiti and elsewhere.

Researchers in India have successfully tested a concrete house reinforced with bamboo. A model house for
Indonesia rests on ground-motion dampers — old tyres filled with bags of sand. Such a house might be only a
third as strong as one built on more sophisticated shock absorbers, but it would also cost much less — and so is
more likely to get built in Indonesia. In northern Pakistan, straw is available. Traditional houses are built of stone
and mud, but straw is far more resilient, and warmer in winter.
Activities
1 Study Figure 2.16. In what ways can building design reduce the impact of earthquakes?
2 What is meant by the term ‘safe house’? Briefly explain how houses can be made ‘safe’.
3 In what ways is it possible to predict volcanoes?
4 What is a pyroclastic flow? What are the dangers associated with pyroclastic flows?
Case study: Volcanic eruptions in Montserrat’s Soufrière
Hills
Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean, which has been seriously affected by a volcano
since 1995. The cause of the volcano is the plunging of the South American and North American
plates under the Caribbean plate. Rocks at the edge of the plate melt and the rising magma forms
volcanic islands.
In July 1995, the Soufrière Hills volcano became active after being dormant for nearly 400 years.
At first it gave off clouds of ash and steam. Then in 1996 the volcano erupted. It caused mudflows
and finally it emitted lava flows. Part of the dome collapsed, boiling rocks and ash were thrown out
and a new dome was created. Ash, steam and rocks were hurled out, forcing all the inhabitants out
of the south, the main agricultural part of the island (Figure 2.17). The largest settlement, Plymouth,
with a population of just 4000, was covered in ash and had to be abandoned (Figure 2.18). This has
had a severe impact on Montserrat because Plymouth was the centre for all the government offices,
and most of the shops and services, such as the market, post office
and cinema.
The hazard posed by the volcano was just one aspect of the risk experienced on Montserrat. For
the refugees there were other hazards. For example, up to 50 people had to share a toilet. Sewage
tanks in the temporary shelters were often not emptied for weeks on end. The risk of contaminated
water and the spread of diseases such as cholera is greatly increased by large numbers of people
living in overcrowded, unhygienic conditions.

Figure 2.17 1:25,000 map of Soufrière and Plymouth

Figure 2.18 Volcanic hazards in Plymouth, Montserrat

The southern third of the island had to be evacuated (Figure 2.19). All public services
(government, health and education) had to be removed to the north of the island. Montserrat’s
population fell from 11,000 to 4500. Most fled to nearby Antigua; some ‘refugees’ stayed on in
Montserrat, living in tents.
The risk of eruptions continues — scientists do not know when the current activity will cease.
 Figure 2.19 The exclusion zone, Montserrat
By 2002 Montserrat was experiencing something of a boom. The population, which had dropped
in size from over 11,000 before the eruption to less than 4000 in 1999, had risen to over 9000. The
reason was very clear: there were many jobs available on the island. There were many new
buildings, including new government offices, a renovated theatre, new primary schools and lots of
new housing in the north of the island. There was even a new football pitch and stadium built (Figure
2.20). There were plans to build a new medical school and a school for hazard studies. These
have not been built.

Figure 2.20 Montserrat’s new football pitch

However, by the summer of 2009, it was very clear that conditions on Montserrat had changed.
The population had fallen to a little over 5000. There are two main reasons why Montserrat’s
population has declined. The first is the relative lack of jobs. Although there was an economic boom
in the early 2000s, once the new buildings were built, many of the jobs disappeared. There are still
plans to redevelop the island — a new urban centre is being built at Little Bay but that will not be
complete until 2020. The museum has been built, but not much else (Figure 2.21). So there are
some jobs available, but not on the scale as before. Second, one of the new developments on
Montserrat was a new airstrip. Once this was built, the UK government and the US government
stopped subsidising the ferry that operated between Antigua and Montserrat. This made it more
difficult to get to Montserrat — both for visitors and for importing basic goods. Thus the number of
tourists to the island fell and the price of goods on the island rose. Many Montserratians were against
the airstrip and campaigned unsuccessfully for the port to be kept open. It is possible to charter a
boat and sail to Montserrat, but that is much more expensive than taking a ferry.

Figure 2.21 The new museum of Montserrat

With fewer jobs in construction, a declining tourist sector and rising prices, many Montserratians
left the island for a second time. Many went to Antigua and others went to countries such as Canada,
the USA and the UK. Much of the aid that was given to Montserrat following the eruptions of 1997
has dried up. The UK provided over $120 million of aid but announced in 2002 that it was
phasing out any further funds. Neverthless, in 2004 it announced a
$60 million aid deal over 3 years.
The volcano has been relatively quiet for the last few years, although an event in May 2006 went
relatively unreported. The Soufrière dome collapsed, causing a tsunami that affected some coastal
areas of Guadeloupe, and English Harbour and Jolly Harbour in Antigua. The Guadeloupe tsunami
was 1 metre high whereas the one experienced in Antigua was 20–30 cm. No one was injured in the
tsunami, but flights were cancelled between Venezuela and Miami, and to and from
Aruba, due to the large amount of ash in the atmosphere.
So volcanic activity in Montserrat may be quiet at the moment, but the volcano continues to have
a major impact on all those who remain on the island. The economic outlook for the island is not
looking good — and that is largely related to the lack of aid, the difficulty and cost of reaching
Montserrat, and the small size of the island and its population.
Case study analysis
Study Figure 2.17.
1 What is the height of the highest point on the map? (The name of the highest point is
Chance’s Peak, but this is not shown on the extract.)
2 How far is it from Chance’s Peak to Sugar Bay, Plymouth (the main settlement on the
map)?
3 What is the average gradient of the volcano (height/distance)? Express your answer as a
1 in x slope.
4 Describe the shape of the volcano.
5 Suggest why a settlement was built at Sugar Bay, Plymouth.
6 Outline the hazards to Plymouth as shown in Figure 2.18.

Case study: The Christchurch earthquakes, 2010–12

Christchurch is New Zealand’s second-largest urban area with a population of 386,000. The 2010
Christchurch earthquake (also known as the Canterbury or Darfield earthquake) was a 7.1
magnitude earthquake, which struck the South Island of New Zealand at 4.35 am (local time) on 4
September 2010. Aftershocks continued into 2012. The strongest aftershock was a 6.3 magnitude
earthquake, which occurred on 22 February 2011. Because this was so close to Christchurch it was
much more destructive, with 185 people being killed.
2010 earthquake
The 2010 earthquake’s epicentre was 40 km west of Christchurch, at a depth of 10 km.
Insurance claims from the earthquake were confirmed as being between $2.3 billion and $2.9 billion.
Private insurance and individual costs may reach as high as $3.3 billion.
Earthquakes with an intensity of VIII on the Mercalli scale (significant property damage, loss of
life possible) could occur, in the Christchurch area, on average every 55 years. Around a hundred
faults have been identified in the region, some as close as 20 km to central Christchurch. However,
the 2010 earthquake occurred on a previously unknown fault. The earthquake epicentre was located
about 80–90 km southeast of the current surface location of the Australia–Pacific boundary.
By August 2012, over 11,000 aftershocks of magnitude 2.0 or more had been recorded, including
26 over magnitude 5.0, and 2 over magnitude 6.0.
Impacts
There were relatively few casualties compared with, for example, the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The
Haiti earthquake occurred in similar proximity to an urban area, and also at a shallow depth, and was
of very similar strength. The lack of casualties in New Zealand was partly due to the fact that the
earthquake happened in the early hours of a Saturday morning, when most people were asleep, and
many of them in timber-framed homes. Moreover, building standards in New Zealand are high.
Following the 1848 Marlborough and 1855 Wairarapa earthquakes, which both seriously affected
Wellington, building standards were introduced. These were further strengthened following the 1931
Hawke’s Bay earthquake. In contrast, Haiti has much lower building standards, which are poorly
enforced, and many buildings are made of handmade non-reinforced concrete, which is extremely
vulnerable to seismic damage. Ground shaking in populated areas of Canterbury was also generally
less strong than for the Haiti earthquake.
Sewers were damaged, and water lines were broken. The water supply at Rolleston, southwest
of Christchurch, was contaminated. Power to up to 75 per cent of the city was disrupted.
Christchurch International Airport was closed following the earthquake and flights were cancelled.
Emergency response and relief efforts
Christchurch’s emergency services managed the early stages of the response. Over 40 search
and rescue personnel and three sniffer dogs were brought from North Island to Christchurch the day
of the earthquake.
2011 earthquake
The February 2011 Christchurch earthquake (Figure 2.22) was a powerful natural event that
severely damaged the city, killing 185 people. The 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck the region at
12.51 pm on Tuesday 22 February, local time. The earthquake was centred 2 km west of the port
town of Lyttleton and 10 km southeast of the centre of Christchurch. The earthquake was probably
an aftershock following the September 2010 earthquake.
 Figure 2.22 Plate movement and the Christchurch earthquake
This earthquake caused widespread damage across Christchurch, especially in the central city
and eastern suburbs. The damage was intensified on account of the 4 September 2010 earthquake
and its aftershocks. Significant liquefaction affected the eastern suburbs, producing around 400,000
tonnes of silt.
People from more than 20 countries were among the victims. Of the 185 victims, 115 people died
in the six-storey Canterbury Television (CTV) building, which collapsed and caught fire during the
earthquake, while another 18 died in the collapse of PGC House, and eight were killed when
masonry fell on a bus. Between 6600 and 6800 people were treated for minor injuries.
The total cost to insurers of rebuilding was originally estimated at $12 billion. However, by April
2013, the total estimated cost had escalated to $33 billion. Some economists have estimated that it
will take the New Zealand economy 50 to 100 years to completely recover.
Although smaller in magnitude than the 2010 quake, the earthquake was more damaging and
more deadly for a number of reasons:
• The epicentre was closer to Christchurch.
• The earthquake was shallower, at 5 km underground, whereas the September earthquake
was measured at 10 km deep.
• The February earthquake occurred during lunchtime on a weekday, when the CBD was
busy.
• Many buildings were already weakened from previous earthquakes.
• Liquefaction was significantly greater than that of the 2010 earthquake, causing the
upwelling of more than 200,000 tonnes of silt.
The increased liquefaction caused significant ground movement, undermining many
foundations and destroying infrastructure.
Up to 80 per cent of the water and sewerage systems were severely damaged. There was
damage to roads and bridges, which hampered rescue efforts. Around 10,000 houses would need to
be demolished, and liquefaction damage meant that some parts of Christchurch could not be rebuilt
on. Nevertheless, in Christchurch, New Zealand’s stringent building codes limited the disaster.
Infrastructure and support
At 5 pm, local time, on the day of the earthquake, 80 per cent of the city had no power. However,
power was restored to over 80 per cent of households within 5 days, and to 95 per cent within 2
weeks. Wastewater and sewerage systems had been severely damaged, so households had to
establish emergency latrines. Over 2000 portaloos and 5000 chemical toilets were brought in from
other parts of the country and overseas, with 20, 000 more chemical toilets placed on order from the
manufacturers.
Emergency management
A full emergency management programme was in place within 2 hours. The government
response was immediate and significant, and a national emergency was declared. The New
Zealand fire service coordinated the search and rescue — rescue efforts continued for over a week,
then shifted into recovery mode.
Case study analysis
1 What was the strength of the earthquakes in (a) 2010 and (b) 2011?
2 Which two plates were responsible for the earthquakes?
3 Comment on the relative movement of the two plates.

4 Explain why the 2011 earthquake resulted in more deaths than the 2010 earthquake.

Activities
1 Study Table 2.3 on page 95.
a Describe what happens at a subduction zone.
b At what types of plate boundary are volcanoes likely to occur?
c Which types of plate boundary produce fold mountains?
2 Study Figure 2.8 on page 95, which shows a variety of tectonic landscapes.
a Describe the general appearance of the land in photo (a). Suggest how it may have
been formed.
b Photo (b) shows a rift valley at Thingvellir in Iceland. At which type of plate boundary
are rift valleys found? How might they be formed?
c Photo (c) shows a volcanic eruption of Soufrière, Montserrat, with the former capital
city Plymouth in the foreground. Suggest the likely hazards of living close to a volcano.
d Photo (d) shows tourists at the boiling mud springs at Soufrière in St Lucia. Suggest
some of the advantages of living in a tectonically active region.
e Suggest why the volcano on Montserrat and the mud springs in St Lucia have the
same name: Soufrière. What does this tell us about the processes involved in these tectonic
boundaries?
Case study: Nepal, 2015: an earthquake in an LEDC
The April 2015 Nepal earthquake — magnitude 7.8 — occurred as a result of the Indian plate
colliding with the Eurasian plate. In the geological past, India was dragged by an oceanic plate,
which subducted below the Eurasian plate. That process is now pulling the continental plate of India
against the continental plate of Eurasia. The two plates are converging at a rate of 45 mm per year,
and this is responsible for the formation of the Himalayas. Although this is an active plate boundary,
there have only been four earthquakes in the previous century within 250 km of the 2015 earthquake.
The largest — a magnitude 8.0 event in 1934 — is believed to have killed over 10,000 people.
The epicentre of the earthquake was 80 km north of the capital, Kathmandu, with a shallow focus
of 15 km (Figure 2.23). It occurred around midday. There were over 300 aftershocks, some reaching
magnitudes of over 7.0. Although earthquakes are common in the region, it is not possible to predict
when they will happen, or where, and how large. Rapid urban growth in
Kathmandu has contributed to the increased vulnerability of the region.
 Figure 2.23 Areas affected by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake
Over 9000 people died in the main earthquake and over 200 people were killed in an aftershock
of 7.3 in May 2015. Around 18,000 people were injured and some 450,000 were displaced.
The worst affected areas were Sindhupalchok, where over 2000 people died, and Kathmandu,
where over 1000 people died and 180 buildings were destroyed. Fatalities were much lower in rural
parts of Nepal as most people were outdoors, and were not affected by collapsing buildings. The
Tibeto-Burman people, who are considered to be a lower caste within Nepalese society, were badly
affected, as they tend to live on the steepest and highest slopes, and these were harder to reach
after the earthquake.
The earthquake also triggered a number of avalanches throughout the Himalayas; 19 people
were killed on Mount Everest. Much of Nepal’s cultural heritage was also damaged by the
earthquake.
The economic cost of the earthquake is estimated at about US$7 billion — around 35 per cent of
Nepal’s GDP. The Asian Development Bank provided a US$3 million grant for emergency relief,
including temporary shelters (the monsoon season began a few months after the earthquake), food,
blankets and cooking utensils. The relief operation involved some 90 per cent of the Nepalese army
and 17,000 police.
Case study analysis
1 Which two plates were involved in the Nepal earthquake of 2015?
2 How strong was the main earthquake, and how many aftershocks were there?
3 Outline the impacts of the earthquakes on:
a loss of life
b economic losses.
 Key questions
• What are the main hydrological characteristics and processes that operate within rivers and
drainage basins?
• How do rivers erode, transport and deposit?
• What are the main erosional and depositional features associated with rivers?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of rivers?
• How can the impacts of floods be managed?

2.2 Rivers
Figure 2.24 Waterfall, Powerscourt, Ireland

Changing-channel characteristics
Downstream changes
Rivers have three main roles: to erode the river channel, to transport materials, and to create new erosional
and depositional landforms. Most rivers have three main zones — a zone of erosion, a zone of transport and a
zone of deposition. Erosion, transport and deposition are found in all parts of a river, although one process tends
to be dominant. For example, there is more erosion in the upper part, while there is more deposition in the lower
course. This is related to the changes in a river downstream. Figure 2.25 shows that velocity, discharge and load
increase downstream, whereas gradient and the size of load decrease downstream.
 Figure 2.25 Changes in a river downstream

Energy in a river
This determines a stream’s ability to erode, transport or deposit. There are two types of energy:
• potential energy, provided by the weight and elevation of the water
• kinetic energy, produced by gravity and the flow of the water.
About 95 per cent of energy is used to overcome friction with the bed and banks. The rougher the channel the
more energy will be lost. In a smooth channel there is very little frictional loss and therefore there is more energy
available for work.

Channel shape
The efficiency of a stream’s shape is measured by its hydraulic radius — that is, the cross-sectional area
divided by wetted perimeter (Figure 2.26). The higher the ratio the more efficient the stream and the smaller the
frictional loss. The ideal form is semi-circular.
There is a close relationship between velocity, discharge and the characteristics of the channel in which the
water is flowing. These include depth, width, channel roughness and hydraulic geometry. The width/depth ratio
(w/d) is a good measure of comparison. The shape of the channel is also determined by the material forming the
channel, and river forces. Solid rock allows only slow changes, whereas alluvium allows rapid changes. Silt and
clay produce steep, deep, narrow valleys (the fine material being cohesive and stable) whereas sand and gravel
promote wide, shallow channels.
 Figure 2.26 Wetted perimeter and cross-sectional area

Channel roughness
Channel roughness causes friction, which slows down the velocity of the water. Friction is caused by
irregularities in the riverbed, boulders, trees and vegetation, and contact between the water and the bed and bank.
Discharge is the volume of water passing a given point over a set time (Figure 2.27). Normally it is expressed
in m3/sec (cumecs). It is found by multiplying the cross-sectional area and the mean velocity. Steeper slopes
should lead to higher velocities because of the influence of gravity.
Discharge (Q) normally increases downstream, as does width, depth and velocity. By contrast, channel
roughness decreases. The increase in channel width downstream is normally greater than that in channel depth.
Large rivers, with a higher w/d ratio, are more efficient than smaller rivers with a lower w/d ratio, because less
energy is spent in overcoming friction. Thus, the carrying capacity increases and a lower gradient is required to
transport the load. Although river gradients decrease downstream the load carried is smaller, and therefore easier
to transport.
 Activities
Table 2.8

Study the data in Table 2.8.

1 a Describe how the ratio of width/depth varies with distance from the source of the
river.
b Work out (i) the cross-sectional area and (ii) the discharge of the stream for each
site. How and why do these change downstream?
c Describe the changes in bedload size and shape as you proceed downstream. What
processes cause these changes to take place?
d If the channel between sites 4 and 5 were straightened, what effect would it have on
(i) the velocity of the river, (ii) the load and (iii) the work of the river?

Figure 2.27 Discharge

2 Study Figure 2.25.
a Describe how the amount and size of load varies downstream.
b Suggest reasons for the changes you have identified.
c State a reason why the channel bed roughness decreases downstream.
d How might the nature of the load affect the type and amount of erosion carried out
by the river? Give reasons for your answer.

Drainage basins
A drainage basin is an area within which water supplied by precipitation is transferred to the ocean, a lake
or larger stream. It includes all the area that is drained by a river and its tributaries (smaller rivers that join the
larger river) and is the main unit for the study of rivers. The confluence is the point where a smaller river joins a
larger river. Drainage basins are divided by watersheds — imaginary lines separating adjacent basins (Figure
2.28).
 Figure 2.28 Drainage basins in Africa
In studying rivers, reference is made to the basin’s hydrological cycle. In this the drainage basin is taken as
the unit of study rather than the global system. The basin cycle is an open system: the main input is precipitation,
which is regulated by various means of storage.
The hydrological cycle refers to the movement of water between atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. At a
global scale, it can be thought of as a closed system with no losses from the system. In contrast, at a local scale
the cycle has a single input, precipitation (PPT), and two major losses (outputs), evapotranspiration (EVT) and
runoff (Figure 2.29).

Figure 2.29 Basin hydrological cycle

Water can be stored at a number of places within the cycle. These stores include vegetation, surface, soil
moisture, groundwater and water channels. The global hydrological cycle also includes stores in the oceans and
the atmosphere.
Human modifications are made at every scale. Good examples include large-scale changes of channel flow,
irrigation and drainage, and abstraction of groundwater and surface water for domestic and industrial use.

Precipitation
 The main characteristics that affect local hydrology are the amount of precipitation, seasonality, intensity,
type (snow, rain etc.), geographical distribution and variability. For rain to occur, three factors must be in place:
• Air is saturated — that is, it has a relative humidity of 100 per cent.
• It contains particles of soot, dust, ash, ice etc.
• Its temperature is below dew point — that is, the temperature is at the level where the relative
humidity is 100 per cent, saturation is complete and clouds form.
Clouds are tiny droplets suspended in air, while rain droplets are much larger. Therefore cloud droplets
must get much larger, although not necessarily by normal condensation processes. There are a number of theories
to suggest how raindrops are formed.
There are three main types of rainfall:
• cyclonic — uplift of air within a low-pressure area (warm air rises over cold air); it normally brings
low to moderate intensity rain and may last for a few days
• orographic — a deep layer of moist air is forced to rise over a range of hills or mountains
• convectional — heating causes pockets of air to rise and cool.

Interception
Interception refers to water stored by vegetation. There are three main components:
• interception loss — water that is retained by plant surfaces and later evaporated away or absorbed by
the plant
• throughfall — water that either falls through gaps in the vegetation, or drops from leaves, twigs or
stems
• stemflow — water that trickles along twigs and branches and finally down the trunk.
Interception loss varies with vegetation. For example, in German beech forests in summer it is up to 40 per
cent of rainfall, whereas in winter it is only about 20 per cent. Interception is less from grasses than from
deciduous woodland. Interception losses are greater from coniferous forests because:
• pine needles allow individual accumulation
• freer air circulation allows more evapotranspiration.
From agricultural crops, and from cereals in particular, interception loss increases with crop density.

Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which a liquid or a solid is changed into a gas. Its most important source is
from oceans and seas. Evaporation increases under warm, dry, windy conditions.
Factors affecting evaporation include temperature, humidity, and windspeed. Of these, temperature is the
most important factor. Other factors include water quality, depth of water, size of water body, vegetation cover
and colour of the surface (albedo or reflectivity of the surface — see Table 2.9).

Table 2.9 Albedo values

Surface Albedo (%)
Water (sun’s angle over 40°) 2–4
Water (sun’s angle less than 40°) 6–80
Fresh snow 75–90
Old snow 40–70
Dry sand 35–45
Dark, wet soil 5–15
Dry concrete 17–27
Black road surface 5–10
Grass 20–30
Deciduous forest 10–20
Coniferous forest 5–15
 Crops 15–25
Tundra 15–20

Evapotranspiration
Transpiration is the process by which water vapour is transferred from vegetation to the atmosphere. The
combined effects of evaporation and transpiration are normally referred to as evapotranspiration (EVT). EVT
represents the most important aspect of water loss, accounting for the removal of nearly 100 per cent of the
annual precipitation in arid areas and 75 per cent in humid areas. Only over ice and snow fields, bare rock slopes,
desert areas, water surfaces and bare soil will purely evaporative losses occur.
The distinction between actual EVT and potential evapotranspiration (P.EVT) lies in the concept of moisture
availability. Potential evapotranspiration is the water loss that would occur if there was an unlimited supply of
water in the soil for use by the vegetation. Rates of potential and actual evapotranspiration for South Africa are
shown in Figure 2.30.

Figure 2.30 Rates of potential and actual evapotranspiration for South Africa

Infiltration
Infiltration is the process by which water soaks into the ground. The infiltration capacity is the maximum
rate at which rain can enter the soil/ground.
Infiltration capacity decreases with time through a period of rainfall until a more or less constant value is
reached (Figure 2.31). Infiltration rates of 0–4 mm/hour are common on clays, whereas rates of 3–12 mm/hour
are common on sands. Vegetation also increases infiltration. On bare soils, infiltration rates may reach 10
mm/hour. On similar soils covered by vegetation, rates of between 50 and 100 mm/hour have been recorded.
Infiltrated water is chemically rich as it picks up minerals and organic acids from vegetation and soil.
 Figure 2.31 Infiltration and time
Infiltration is affected by the same factors that influence overland runoff, but in a different way. For example,
duration (length) of rainfall decreases infiltration, as does existing moisture in the soil, raindrop size, steep slope
and a lack of vegetation cover.

Overland flow
Overland flow refers to water moving over the surface. It is also called surface runoff. Overland flow occurs
in two main ways: when precipitation exceeds the infiltration rate, and when the soil is saturated. Overland flow
and infiltration are inversely related, as shown in Figure 2.32. Overland flow generally has a high suspended load.

Throughflow
Throughflow refers to water flowing through the soil in natural pipes and between soil horizons.

Soil moisture
Soil moisture is the subsurface water in soil and subsurface layers above the water table. From here water
may be:
• absorbed
• held
• transmitted downwards towards the water table
• transmitted upwards towards the soil surface and the atmosphere.

Figure 2.32 Factors affecting infiltration

In coarser-textured soils much of the water is held in fairly large pores at fairly low suctions, while very little
is held in small pores. In the finer-textured clay soils the range of pore sizes is much greater and, in particular,
there is a higher proportion of small pores in which water is held at very high suctions.
• Field capacity refers to the amount of water held in the soil after excess water drains away — that is,
 saturation or near saturation.
• Wilting point refers to the range of moisture content in which permanent wilting of plants occurs.

Groundwater
Groundwater refers to subsurface water. The upper layer of the permanently saturated zone is known as the
water table. The water table varies seasonally — in Britain it is higher in winter following increased levels of
precipitation. Most groundwater is found within a few hundred metres of the surface, but has been found at
depths of up to 4 km beneath the surface (Figure 2.33).
Groundwater accounts for 96.5 per cent of all freshwater on Earth. However, while some soil water may be
recycled within a matter of days or weeks, groundwater may not be recycled for as long as 20,000 years. Hence,
in some places, groundwater is considered a non-renewable resource.
Aquifers (rocks that contain significant quantities of water) provide a great reservoir of water. Aquifers are
permeable rocks such as sandstones and limestones. This water moves very slowly and acts as a natural regulator
in the hydrological cycle by absorbing rainfall, which otherwise would reach streams rapidly. In addition,
aquifers maintain stream flow during long dry periods. Rocks that do not hold water are impermeable rocks (e.g.
clay), and prevent large-scale storage and transmission of water.

Figure 2.33 Groundwater

The groundwater balance is shown by the formula:

where ΔS is the change in storage (+ or −), Qr is recharge to groundwater and Qd is discharge from
groundwater.
Groundwater recharge occurs as a result of:
 • infiltration of part of the total precipitation at the ground surface
• seepage through the banks and bed of surface water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans
• groundwater leakage and inflow from adjacent aquifers
• artificial recharge from irrigation, reservoirs etc.
Losses of groundwater result from:
• evapotranspiration, particularly in lowlying areas where the water table is close to the ground surface
• natural discharge by means of spring flow and seepage into surface water bodies
• groundwater leakage and outflow into adjacent aquifers
• artificial abstraction, for example in the Thames basin in the UK.

River processes
Erosion
The main types of erosion include:
• abrasion (or corrasion) — the wearing away of the bed and bank by the load carried by a river
• attrition — the wearing away of the load carried by a river, which creates smaller, rounder particles
• hydraulic action — the force of air and water on the sides of rivers and in cracks
• solution (or corrosion) — the removal of chemical ions, especially calcium, which causes rocks to
dissolve.
There are many factors affecting erosion. These include:
• load — the heavier and sharper the load the greater the potential for erosion
• velocity and discharge — the greater the velocity and discharge the greater the potential for erosion
• gradient — increased gradient increases the rate of erosion
• geology — soft, unconsolidated rocks, such as sand and gravel, are easily eroded
• pH — rates of solution are increased when the water is more acidic
• human impact — deforestation, dams and bridges interfere with the natural flow of a river and
frequently end up increasing the rate of erosion.

Transport
The main types of transport in a river (Figure 2.34) include:
• suspension — small particles are held up by turbulent flow in the river
• saltation — heavier particles are bounced or bumped along the bed of the river
• solution — the chemical load is dissolved in the water
• traction — the heaviest material is dragged or rolled along the bed of the river
• flotation — leaves and twigs are carried on the surface of the river.

Figure 2.34 Types of transport in a river

Deposition
Deposition occurs as a river slows down and it loses its energy. Typically, this occurs as a river floods across
a floodplain or enters the sea, or behind a dam. It is also more likely during low flow conditions (such as in a
drought) than during high flow (flood) conditions — as long as the river is carrying sediment. The larger, heavier
particles are deposited first, the smaller, lighter ones later. Features of deposition include deltas, levées, slip-off
slopes (point bars), oxbow lakes, braided channels and floodplains.
 Activities
1 a Briefly describe the four main ways in which rivers erode.
b Suggest how they will vary with (i) velocity of water, (ii) rock type and (iii) pH of
water.
2 a What are the main types of transport?
b How might the type and quantity of the river’s load vary between flood conditions
and low flow conditions?

The long profile

A number of processes, such as weathering and mass movement, interact to create variations in cross- and
long profiles (Figure 2.35). Irregularities, or knick-points, may be due to:
• geological structure, for example hard rocks erode slowly, which can result in the formation of
waterfalls and rapids

Figure 2.35 Long and cross-profiles

• variations in the load, for example a tributary with a coarse load might lead to a steepening of the
gradient of the main valley
• sea level changes — a relative fall in sea level will lead to renewed downcutting, which enables the
river to erode former floodplains and form new terraces and knick-points.
Rivers tend to achieve a condition of equilibrium, or grade, and erode the irregularities. There is a balance
between erosion and deposition in which a river adjusts to its capacity and the amount of work being done. The
main adjustments are in channel gradient, leading to a smooth, concave profile.

Cross-profiles
The cross-profile of the upper part of a river is often described as V-shaped (Figure 2.35). Rivers in their
upper course typically have a steep gradient and a narrow valley. The rivers are shallow and fast flowing. There
is normally much friction with large boulders, and much energy is used to overcome friction. The processes
likely to occur are vertical erosion, weathering on the slopes, mass movement and transport. Features likely to be
found include waterfalls, rapids, potholes, gorges and interlocking spurs.
In the middle course of the river, the valley is still V-shaped but is less steep. Slopes are more gentle. A
floodplain is beginning to form and meanders are visible. Processes in the middle course include erosion (both
vertical and lateral), meandering, transport and some deposition on the inner bends of the meanders.
In contrast, in the lower course the cross-profile is much flatter. Processes include erosion (on the outer
banks), transport and deposition (especially on the inner bends and on the floodplain). Characteristic features
include levées, oxbow lakes, floodplains, deltas and terraces.
Features of erosion
Localised erosion by hydraulic action and abrasion, especially by large pieces of debris, may lead to the
formation of potholes (Figure 2.36). These are typically seen in the upper course of a river when the load is larger
and more rugged. Waterfalls frequently occur on horizontally bedded rocks (Figure 2.37). The soft rock is
undercut by hydraulic action and abrasion. The weight of the water and the lack of support cause the waterfall to
collapse and retreat. Over thousands of years the waterfall may retreat enough to form a gorge of recession
(Figure 2.38). Where there are small outcrops of hard and soft rock, rapids may develop rather than a waterfall.

Figure 2.36 Formation of potholes

Figure 2.37 Formation of waterfalls

 Figure 2.38 Formation of a gorge of recession

Gorges and waterfalls

Gorge development is common, for example where the local rocks are very resistant to weathering but
susceptible to the more powerful river erosion. Similarly, in arid areas where the water necessary for weathering
is scarce, gorges are formed by episodes of fluvial erosion. A rapid acceleration in downcutting is also associated
when a river is rejuvenated, again creating a gorge-like landscape. Gorges may also be formed as a result of:
• antecedent drainage pattern, for example the Rhine gorge
• collapse of underground caverns in Carboniferous limestone areas, for example the River Axe at
Wookey Hole, UK
• retreat of waterfalls, for example Niagara Falls (Figure 2.39).
Plunge flow occurs where the river spills over a sudden change in gradient, undercutting rocks by hydraulic
impact and abrasion, thereby creating a waterfall. There are many reasons for this sudden change in gradient
along the river:
• a band of resistant strata, such as the resistant limestones at Niagara Falls
• a plateau edge, such as Livingstone Falls on the Congo river in D.R. Congo
• a hanging valley, such as at Glencoyne, Cumbria (UK)
• coastal cliffs, such as at Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset (UK).
The undercutting at the base of the waterfall creates a precarious overhang, which will ultimately collapse.
Thus a waterfall may appear to migrate upstream, leaving a gorge of recession downstream. The Niagara gorge is
11 km long due to the retreat of Niagara Falls (Figure 2.38 and 2.39).
Case study: Niagara Falls

Figure 2.39 Niagara Falls on the US/Canadian border

Most of the world’s great waterfalls are the result of the undercutting of resistant cap rocks, and
the retreat or recession that follows.
 The Niagara river flows for about 50 km between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. In that distance it
falls just 108 m, giving an average gradient of 1:500. However, most of the descent occurs in the
1.5 km above Niagara Falls (13 m) and at the Falls themselves (55 m). The Niagara river flows in a 2
km wide channel just 1 km above the Falls, and then into a narrow 400 m wide gorge, 75 m deep
and 11 km long. Within the gorge the river falls a further 30 m.

Figure 2.40 1:25,000 map of the Niagara Falls area

The course of the Niagara river was established about 12,000 years ago when water from Lake
Erie began to spill northwards into Lake Ontario. In doing so, it passed over the highly resistant
dolomitic (limestone) escarpment.
Over the last 12,000 years the Falls have retreated 11 km, giving an average rate of retreat of
about 1 m/year. Water velocity accelerates over the Falls, and decreases at the base of the Falls.
Hydraulic action and abrasion have caused the development of a large plunge pool at the base of
the Falls, while the fine spray and eddies in the river help to remove some of the softer rock
underneath the resistant dolomite. As the softer rocks are removed, the dolomite is left unsupported
and the weight of the water causes the dolomite to collapse. Hence the waterfall retreats, forming a
gorge of recession.
In the nineteenth century rates of recession were recorded at 1.2 m/year. However, now that the
amount of water flowing over the Falls is controlled (due to the construction of hydroelectric power
stations), rates of recession have been reduced. In addition, engineering works in the 1960s
reinforced parts of the dolomite that were believed to be at risk of collapse. The Falls remain an
important tourist attraction, and local residents and business personnel did not want to lose their
prized asset.
Case study analysis
Study Figure 2.40.
1 Which two countries share a border at Niagara Falls?
 2 In which direction is the Niagara river flowing?
3 What is the map evidence that there is a gorge below Niagara Falls?
4 Using map evidence, suggest how the Niagara Falls and river have been used for human
activities.
5 Approximately how wide is Niagara Falls in squares 5870–5871, and in 5772?

Case study: Victoria Falls

Figure 2.41 Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river

Victoria Falls, on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe, is one of the world’s most spectacular
waterfalls (Figure 2.41). Like Niagara it has a resistant cap rock but, unlike Niagara, one of the
dominant forces in the creation and development of Victoria Falls is plate tectonics. The Falls are
nearly 2 km wide, up to 108 m deep, and during the rainy season over 5 million m3 of water passes
over them per minute. During the dry season the volume is much less, but the annual average is still
an impressive 550,000 m3 per minute. When the Zambezi river passes over the Falls its channel
narrows from over 1.7 km to just a few metres. This creates an increase in the river’s velocity and
causes much erosion and scouring.
The evolution of the Falls is complex. About 150 million years ago molten rock formed fine-
grained resistant basalt, about 300 m thick, in the Victoria Falls area. As the lava cooled it shrank,
causing cracks or fissures to appear in the rock. These fissures were later widened by weathering,
and were infilled by deposits of soft clay and lime. Over time these deposits solidified to form
limestone. Continued tectonic processes caused large east–west fissures to widen, allowing the
limestone in the fissures to be eroded.
The river’s course changed over time. Uplift caused the ancient course of the river to be blocked,
diverting the river east into its present course. The river was able to erode the soft sandy deposits on
the surface, but was unable to erode the harder basalt below. At the time the edge of the basalt plain
was some 100 km from the present Victoria Falls. As the waterfall retreated it occupied an east–west
fissure filled with relatively soft limestone. This it was able to erode easily
and cut back to within 8 km of the present waterfall. Then it occupied a north–south fissure, until it
cut back as far as the next east–west fissure. The present Victoria Falls are believed to be similar to
the previous falls, each of which has occupied a different fissure within the resistant basalt.
Case study analysis
 1 Which two countries border Victoria Falls?
2 Identify one similarity and one difference between Victoria Falls and Niagara Falls.
3 How much water, on average, flows over Victoria Falls?
4 Why has Victoria Falls altered its course over time?

Meanders
Rivers typically meander. This means that the water does not follow a straight line but takes a curving route
(Figure 2.42). As a result of this there are variations in the speed across a river. Velocity is fastest on the outside
bank and slowest on the inside bank, so there is erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank. This
produces a steep river cliff on the outer bank of a meander and a gentle slip-off slope on its inner bank.

Figure 2.42 Cross-section through a meander

Oxbow lakes
Oxbow lakes are the result of erosion and deposition (Figure 2.43). Lateral erosion, caused by fast flow in
the meanders, is concentrated on the outer, deeper bank. During times of flooding, erosion increases. The river
breaks through and creates a new, steeper channel. In time, the old meander is closed off by deposition to form
an oxbow lake.

Floodplains
The area covered by water when a river floods is known as its floodplain (Figure 2.44a). When a river’s
discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel, water rises over the river banks and floods the surrounding
lowlying area. Sometimes a floodplain will itself be eroded following a fall in sea level. When this happens, the
remnants of the old floodplain are left behind as river terraces (Figure 2.44b). These are useful for
settlement as they are above the new level of the floodplain and are free from flooding.
Figure 2.43 Development of an oxbow lake

Figure 2.44 a Flood plain, Port Meadow, Oxford, UK b Formation of a floodplain and terraces
Levées
When a river floods its speed is reduced, slowed down by friction caused by contact with the floodplain. As
its velocity is reduced the river has to deposit some of its load. It drops the coarser, heavier material first to form
raised banks, or levées, at the edge of the river (Figure 2.45a). This means that, over centuries, the levées are
built up of coarse material, such as sand and gravel, while the floodplain consists of fine silt and clay (Figure
2.45b).

Figure 2.45 a Levée in Devon, U.K. b Formation of levées

Braided channels
Braiding occurs when a river transports a very heavy load in relation to its velocity. If a river’s discharge falls
its competence and capacity are reduced. This forces the river to deposit large amounts of its load and multi-
channels, or braided channels, are formed. Braiding is common in rivers that experience seasonal
variations in discharge. For example, in proglacial and periglacial areas such as southern Iceland, most of the
discharge occurs in late spring and early summer, when snow and ice melt. This enables rivers to carry very large
loads, which are quickly deposited as discharge decreases.

Deltas
A delta is a flat, lowlying deposit of sediment that is found at a river’s mouth (Figure 2.46). For deltas to be
formed a river needs to:
• carry a large volume of sediment — for example, rivers in semi-arid regions and in areas of intense
human activity
• enter a still body of water, which causes velocity to fall; the water loses its capacity and competence,
hence deposition occurs, with the heaviest particles deposited first and the lightest last.
Deposition is increased if the water is salty, as this causes salt particles to group together, become heavier,
and be deposited. Vegetation also increases the rate of deposition by slowing down the water.

Figure 2.46 Formation of a delta

Case study: The Rhône delta

 Figure 2.47 Map extract of the Rhône delta
The Rhône river (Figure 2.47) divides into two main distributaries 4 km north of Arles. The east
branch, the Grande Rhône, is the larger of the two, and carries 85 per cent of the Rhône’s water into
the Mediterranean. At Arles the river is just 2 m above sea level and takes almost 50 km to reach the
sea. The delta is criss-crossed by numerous small islands, abandoned channels and active levées.
Most settlements and transport routes are located close to the river, where the land is slightly higher.
Further away from the river, the land is lower, swampy and frequently covered with water. The same
pattern exists along the west branch, the Petite Rhône.
Between these two limbs of the Rhône is a flat region characterised by many marshes and lakes
(étangs), known as the Camargue. The largest lake is the Étang de Vaccarès, which is less than 1 m
deep. The étangs receive most of their water from rainwater that becomes trapped between the
slightly higher riverine locations, and the sand bars and dunes at the coast.
The Rhône delta is believed to be less than 1 million years old. Deposition by the river is
estimated to be about 17 million m3 each year, or about 50 tonnes every minute. As the
Mediterranean Sea has a very small tidal range, there are no currents to carry away these deposits.
In addition, the Mediterranean is very saline. In the presence of salt water, clay and mud particles
coagulate to form larger particles that cannot be held aloft by the flow of the river. Hence there is
rapid deposition at the mouth of the delta.
There are a number of stages in the formation of a delta. The first is the development of
sandbanks in the original mouth of the river. This causes the river to divide, and then there is a
period of repeated subdivision until there are a large number of distributaries flowing towards the sea.
Each of the channels develops its own set of levées, which has an impact on the human
environment (settlement and transport) as well as the physical environment (affecting the
development of étangs between the main branches of the river). The étangs may slowly accumulate
sediment to form marshes, or they may be drained and reclaimed to form farmland or used by
people in other ways.
Case study analysis
1 What is the length of:
a the Petit Rhône
b the Grande Rhône
between Arles and the sea?
2 How wide is the Rhône delta when it meets the sea?
3 What is the map evidence that:
 a conservation
b tourism
are important in the Rhône delta?

Interesting note
There are 76 rivers that are over 1600 km long. Four of them flow through Russia at some point
and four also flow through China at some point.

River hazards and opportunities

Floods are a natural feature of all rivers. For most of the time a river is contained in its channel but at other
times it may burst its bank and a flood occurs. Floods bring advantages such as water and fertile alluvium (river
deposits or silt), which allow farmers to grow crops. But the problem is that they may bring too much water and
too much silt. The results can be devastating, as the experience of China shows, with many disastrous
floods over the centuries.
River bank erosion can cause population displacement and socio-economic impacts. For example, the
Meghna River in Bangladesh caused major disruptions during the 1990s and 2000s. It eroded over 6 km of land
between Meghna Roads and Highway Bridge, Meghna Ghat, destroying productive land and causing residents to
lose all their possessions. Among the worst-affected areas were the villages of Shikarpur, Kandargoan and
Bhanipur. Many displaced farmers become day labourers or rickshaw operators. They receive little assistance
from the government, although most get some assistance from friends and relatives. As over 80 per cent of
people are employed in farming, the loss of land leads to widespread unemployment.
The causes of floods are natural. However, human interference intensifies many floods (Figure 2.48). A flood
is a high flow of water that overtops the bank of a river. The primary causes of floods are mainly the result of
external climatic forces. Secondary flood causes tend to be drainage basin specific. Most floods in Britain, for
example, are associated with deep depressions (low-pressure systems) in autumn and winter, which are both long
in duration and wide in areal coverage. By contrast, in India, up to 70 per cent of the annual rainfall occurs in 100
days in the summer southwest monsoon. Elsewhere, melting snow may be responsible for widespread flooding.

Figure 2.48 Natural and human causes of floods

Flood intensifying conditions cover a range of factors that alter the response of a drainage basin to a given
storm. These factors include topography, vegetation, soil type, rock type and specific characteristics of the
drainage basin.
The potential for damage by flood waters increases exponentially with velocity and speeds above 3 m per
second, and can undermine the foundations of buildings. The physical stresses on buildings are increased even
more, probably by hundreds of times, when rough, rapidly flowing water contains debris such as rock, sediment
and trees.
Other conditions that intensify floods include changes in land use. Urbanisation, for example, increases the
magnitude and frequency of floods in at least four ways:
• The creation of highly impermeable surfaces, such as roads, roofs and pavements, increases runoff.
• Smooth surfaces served with a dense network of drains, gutters and underground sewers increase
drainage density.
• Natural river channels are often constricted by bridge supports or riverside facilities, reducing their
carrying capacity.
• Due to increased storm runoff, many sewerage systems cannot cope with the resulting peak flow.
Deforestation is also a cause of increased flood runoff and a decrease in channel capacity. This occurs due to
an increase in deposition within the channel. However, there is little evidence to support any direct relationship
between deforestation in the Himalayas and changes in flooding and increased deposition of silt in parts of the
lower Ganges–Brahmaputra river basin. It is more likely due to the combination of heavy monsoon rains in the
Himalayas, steep slopes, and the seismically unstable terrain, which ensure that runoff is rapid and sedimentation
is high irrespective of the vegetation cover.
The decision to live in a floodplain, for a variety of perceived benefits, is one that is fraught with
difficulties. The increase in flood damage is related to the increasing number of people living in floodplain
regions.
Floods are one of the most common of all environmental hazards. This is because so many people live in
fertile river valleys and in lowlying coastal areas. However, the nature and scale of flooding vary greatly. For
example, 10 per cent of the US population live within a 1:100 year flood zone. In Asia, floods damage about 4
million hectares of land each year and affect the lives of over 17 million people. Worst of all is China, where
over 5 million people have been killed in floods since 1860.
Floods account for about one-third of all natural catastrophes, cause more than half the fatalities and are
responsible for one-third of the economic losses. There are a number of reasons for the increase in the number of
catastrophes and in the amount of damage they cause:
• a rising global population, including in vulnerable regions
• construction in flood-prone areas
• failure of flood protection systems
• changes in environmental conditions, for example clearance of trees and other vegetation and infilling
of wetlands, which reduces flood retention capacities.
Some environments are more at risk than others. The most vulnerable include the following:
• Lowlying parts of active floodplains and river estuaries, for example in Bangladesh, where 110 million
people live relatively unprotected on the floodplains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers. Floods
caused by the monsoon regularly cover 20–30 per cent of the flat delta. In very serious floods up to half of
the country may be flooded.
• Small basins subject to flash floods. These are especially common in arid and semi-arid areas. In
tropical areas some 90 per cent of lives lost through drowning are the result of intense rainfall on steep
slopes.
• Areas below unsafe or inadequate dams. In the USA there are about 30,000 sizable dams and 2000
communities are at risk from dams.
In most developed countries the number of deaths from floods is declining, although the number of deaths
from flash floods is changing very little. By contrast, the average national flood damage has been increasing. The
death rate in developing countries is much greater, partly because warning systems and evacuation plans are
inadequate. It is likely that the hazard in developing countries will increase rather than decrease over time as
more people migrate and settle in lowlying areas and river basins. Often newer migrants are forced into the more
hazardous zones.

Managing the impacts of floods

Traditionally, floods have been managed by methods of ‘hard engineering’. The main hard engineering
structures include dams and reservoirs, levées, channel straightening and deepening (dredging), and creating
flood relief channels (Figure 2.49). This largely means dams, levées and straight channels that are wider and
deeper than the ones they replace. Although hard engineering may reduce floods in some locations, they can
cause unexpected effects elsewhere in the drainage basin. Soft engineering schemes include afforestation, land
use zoning and river restoration.
 Figure 2.49 Hard engineering structures: (a) river defences, River Thames (London); (b) levées in Zermatt,
Switzerland

Case study: Hard engineering — the Three Gorges Dam

The Three Gorges Dam is over 2 km wide and 100 m high and the lake behind it is over 600 km
long. It is an important project for China. The Yangtze basin provides 66 per cent of China’s rice and
contains 400 million people, while the river drains 1.8 million km2 and discharges 24,000 m3/sec of
water annually.
Advantages of the Three Gorges Dam
• It generates up to 22,500 megawatts, 50 per cent more than the world’s previous largest
HEP dam.
• It enables China to reduce its dependency on coal.
• It supplies energy to Shanghai (population over 17 million) and Chongqing (3 million), an
area earmarked for economic development.
• It protects 10 million people from flooding.
• It allows shipping above the Three Gorges: the dams raised water levels by 90 m, and
turned the rapids in the gorge into a lake.
Disadvantages of the Three Gorges Dam
• Over 1.25 million people were removed to make way for the dam and the lake.
• It cost $25 billion to build.
• Most floods in recent years have come from rivers that join the Yangtze below the Three
Gorges Dam.
• The region is seismically active and landslides are frequent.
• The port at the head of the lake may become silted up as a result of increased deposition
and the development of a delta at that point.
• Much of the land available for resettlement is over 800 m above sea level, and is cold, with
thin, infertile soils on relatively steep slopes.
• Dozens of towns were evacuated, for example Wanxian (population 140,000) and Fuling
(80,000), and then were drowned by the rising waters.
• Up to 530 million tonnes of silt are carried through the gorge annually: the first dam on the
river lost its capacity within 7 years, and one on the Hwang He filled with silt within 4 years.
• To reduce the silt load, afforestation is needed, but resettlement of people will cause
greater pressure on the slopes above the dam.
• The dam interferes with aquatic life — the Siberian crane and the white flag dolphin are
threatened with extinction.
• Archaeological treasures have been drowned, including the Zhang Fei temple.
Case study analysis
1 How many people live in the Yangtze basin?
2 What is the energy potential of the Three Gorges Dam?
3 How many people could it supply with energy?
4 How much did it cost?
5 How many people had to be resettled as a result of the building of the Three Gorges
Dam?

Case study: Soft engineering — the Kissimmee River

Restoration Project
Between 1962 and 1971 the 165 km meandering Kissimmee river (Florida, USA) and its
adjoining floodplain were channelised and thereby transformed into a 90 km, 10 m deep drainage
canal (Figure 2.50). The river was channelised to provide an outlet canal for draining floodwaters
from the developing upper Kissimmee lakes basin, and to provide flood protection for land adjacent
to the river.
Impacts of channelisation
The channelisation of the Kissimee river had several unintended impacts:
• the loss of 12,000–14,000 hectares of wetlands
• a reduction in wading bird and waterfowl usage
• a continuing long-term decline in game fish populations.
Concerns about the sustainability of existing ecosystems led to a restoration study, supported by
the state and national authorities. The result was a massive restoration project, on a scale
unmatched elsewhere.
The project
The aim is to restore over 100 km2 of river and associated floodplain wetlands. The project will
benefit over 320 fish and wildlife species, including the endangered bald eagle, wood stork and snail
kite. It will create over 11,000 hectares of wetlands.
Restoration of the river and its associated natural resources requires dechannelisation. This
entails backfilling approximately half of the flood control channel and re-establishing the flow of water
through the natural river channel. In residential areas the flood control channel will remain in place.
The costs of restoration
• It is estimated the project will cost $980 million (initial channelisation cost $20 million), with
the bill being shared by the state of Florida and the federal government.
• Restoration, which began in 1999, will not be completed until 2015.
• Restoration of the river’s floodplain could result in higher losses of water due to evaporation
during wet periods. Navigation may be impeded in some sections of the restored river in extremely
dry spells. However, navigable depths should be maintained for at least 90 per cent of the time.

Figure 2.50 Kissimmee River Restoration Project – impacts of channelisation

Benefits of restoration
• Higher water levels should ultimately support a natural river ecosystem again.
• Re-establishment of floodplain wetlands and the associated nutrient filtration function is
expected to result in decreased nutrient loads to Lake Okeechobee.
• It is possible that restoration of the floodplain could benefit populations of key avian
species, such as wading birds and waterfowl, by providing increased feeding and breeding
habitats.
Potential revenue associated with increased recreational use (such as hunting and fishing) and
ecotourism on the restored river could significantly enhance local and regional economies.
 Case study analysis
1 Where is the Kissimmee river?
2 Describe the changes to the Kissimmee river between 1962 and 1971.
3 Outline the benefits of river restoration.
4 How much did the Kissimmee river restoration cost?
5 When was it completed?

Event modification
Event modification includes attempts to reduce floods and to divert them away from settlements. Reducing
floods involves decreasing the amount of runoff, thereby reducing the flood peak in a drainage basin. This can be
achieved by weather modification and/or watershed treatment, for example to reduce flood peak over a drainage
basin. There are a number of strategies, including:
• reforestation
• reseeding of sparsely vegetated areas to reduce evaporative losses
• mechanical land treatment of slopes, such as contour ploughing or terracing to reduce runoff
• comprehensive protection of vegetation from wildfires, overgrazing, clear-cutting of forests, or any
other practices likely to increase flood discharge and sediment load
• clearance of sediment and other debris from headwater streams
• construction of small water-and sediment-holding areas
• preservation of natural water detention zones.
Flood diversion measures, by contrast, include the construction of levées, reservoirs, and the modification of
river channels (Figure 2.51). Levées are the most common form of river engineering. They can also be used to
divert and restrict water to low-value land on the floodplain. Over 4500 km of the Mississippi river has levées.
Channel improvements include enlargement, to increase the carrying capacity of the river. Reservoirs store
excess rainwater in the upper drainage basin. Large dams are expensive and may well be causing earthquakes and
siltation. It has been estimated that some 66 billion m3 of storage will be needed to make any significant impact
on major floods in Bangladesh.

Figure 2.51 Flood relief channels

Loss sharing and insurance
Loss sharing adjustments include disaster aid and insurance. Disaster aid refers to any aid — such as money,
equipment, staff and technical assistance — that is given to a community following a disaster. However, there are
many taxpayers who argue that taxpayers cannot be expected to fund losses that should have been insured.
In developed countries insurance is an important loss-sharing strategy. However, not all flood-prone
households have insurance and many of those that are insured may be under-insured. In the floods of northern
England in 2015 (following Storm Desmond), many of the affected households had very limited flood insurance,
because the cost was so high.

Hazard-resistant design
Flood proofing includes any adjustments to buildings and their contents that help reduce losses. Some are
temporary, such as blocking up of entrances, use of shields to seal doors and windows, removal of damageable
goods to higher levels, and the use of sandbags (Figure 2.52). By contrast, long-term measures include moving
the living spaces above the likely level of the floodplain. This normally means building above the flood level, but
could also include building homes on stilts (Figure 2.53).

Figure 2.52 Using sandbags as flood defence

Forecasting and warning

During the 1970s and 1980s, flood forecasting and warning became more accurate and these are now among
the most widely used measures to reduce the problems caused by flooding. In developed countries flood
warnings and forecasts may reduce economic losses by as much as 40 per cent. In most developing countries
there is much less effective flood forecasting. An exception is Bangladesh. Most floods in Bangladesh develop
from events in the Himalayas, so authorities can give people in Bangladesh about 72 hours’ warning.

Figure 2.53 Hazard-resistant design

Land use planning
Land use zoning involves allowing compatible land uses on land that might flood. For example, land that
floods regularly (once a year) could be used for pastoral agriculture, as animals can be moved to higher ground.
Alternatively it could be used for recreational purposes. It should not be used for industrial, commercial or
residential land use, as valuable equipment and possessions would be damaged or destroyed. However, as
population growth continues, people and industry may be forced to extend into floodplains.
Case study: Opportunities and constraints of living on
the Nile delta
The Nile delta is one of the oldest intensively cultivated areas in the world. It is heavily
populated and has a population density of about 16,000 people per km2. Only 2.5 per cent of Egypt’s
land area is suitable for intensive agriculture — up to 95 per cent of Egypt’s agricultural production
comes from the Nile valley and delta. The delta has long been a source of fresh water and fertile silt,
and an excellent location for the import and export of goods. The flat land makes building easy.
However, it is increasingly under stress.
The delta covers around 25,000 km2, is home to around 66 per cent of the country’s rapidly
growing population, and provides over 60 per cent of the nation’s food supply. Most of the delta is
very lowlying and an increase in sea level of just 1 m would flood 20 per cent of the delta (Figure
2.54). More people on the delta cause more pollution (air, water and soil).

Excessive irrigation has led to waterlogging. Large volumes of domestic and untreated industrial
effluent are discharged into the river and other water channels. In addition, significant amounts of
fertilisers and pesticides are leached into water courses along the delta. Seawater intrusion has led
to the salinisation of groundwater. Salinity has traditionally been kept at bay by plentiful supplies of
water flushing salt out of the soil, but after the construction of the High Aswan Dam, the seasonal
floods ended. Irrigation canals continue to bring water to some of the delta, ensuring that salinity
levels remained low, but very little water now reaches the northern end of the delta. The flood water
once brought fertile silt, which was spread over the land during the flood season. Now that the
sediment is trapped behind the High Aswan Dam, some farmers spend up to 80 per cent of their
profits on fertilisers in order to grow their crops.

Figure 2.54 The effects of a 1 m rise in sea level on the Nile delta
Over the last 7000 years, deltas all over the world have been increasing in size. However, over
the last 150 years, many deltas have been decreasing in size. In the case of the Nile (particularly
since 1970) the building of the High Aswan Dam has cut off the supply of sediment, while rising sea
levels and increased coastal erosion are reducing the size of the delta. Some parts of the delta are
eroding at up to 100 m/year.
Predictions suggest a 70 per cent drop in the amount of Nile water reaching the delta in the next
50 years, due to a combination of increased evaporation and heavier demand upstream. Wheat and
maize yields may fall by 40 per cent and 50 per cent respectively over the next 30 years. Many
experts believe that environmental problems in the delta will intensify, and that Egypt needs to
develop parts of the western desert with irrigation water. The more water that is diverted to these
areas, the less there is for the delta.
Managing flooding in the Nile valley
Flooding of the Nile has been one of the defining characteristics of Egypt. It has provided
Egyptians with water, fertile silt and nutrients, and created new land. However, it has brought
death, destruction and erosion. For many centuries, Egypt’s rulers have tried to manage the Nile
— to maximise its benefits and reduce the devastation that it was capable of.
The Nile is fed by three main tributary rivers — the White Nile, the Blue Nile and the Atbara. The
White Nile has its source in Lake Victoria and has a relatively even flow throughout the year. In
contrast, the Blue Nile and the Atbara have a marked seasonal flow, with a peak flow in summer and
a very low flow in winter.
However, there is much annual variation in flow. In the years of high discharge, floods have
inflicted major damage on agriculture, industry and housing, whereas in the drier years, much
farmland has subject to major droughts. To manage and control the river a number of hard
engineering structures have been used. These include:
• the construction of levées along the banks of the river — there are some 900 km of levées
between Aswan and Cairo, and a further 200 km between Cairo and the coast
• building of barrages across the river to raise water levels, such as the Zifta and Delta
Barrages
• built storage projects, such as the High Aswan Dam.
The first major storage project was the old Aswan Dam, although this was too small to have much
impact. The High Aswan Dam was completed in 1968 and guaranteed the supply of 84 km 3 of water
needed for Egypt’s arable agriculture. It has protected Egypt from river flooding since then, and
provided a supply of water during the drought years of 1979–88. The capacity of the dam is 162 km3,
with 90 km3 for live storage (HEP, flood protection, downstream release and navigation), 31 km3 for
sediment deposition and 41 km3 for flood protection.
The New Valley Project or Toshka Project is a series of canals to take water from Lake Nasser
and irrigate part of the western desert. It also increases the capacity for flood storage.
The building of the High Aswan Dam has had many impacts:
• Flooding downstream has been controlled.
• Water is stored in Lake Nasser and can be made available during drought years.
• There has been a build-up of sediment behind the dam, and less silt deposited in the valley
downstream (see Table 2.10).
• Discharges in the river downstream of the dam have been reduced.
• There are large evaporation losses from Lake Nasser.
Although flooding in the lower Nile has largely been controlled, it remains a problem in some
upper parts. For example, in 2016 the worst floods in over a century killed 98 people in Sudan,
destroyed more than 13,000 homes and damaged a further 18,000. Over 100,000 people were
affected by the floods. Thirteen of Sudan’s 18 provinces were affected.
Table 2.10 Silt concentrations in the Nile before and after the construction of the High Aswan Dam

The frequent occurrence of catastrophic floods is a major challenge for Ethiopia and Sudan. In
Sudan, major floods occur along the Blue Nile and the Atbara rivers. The causes of floods can be
attributed to prolonged and/or torrential rainfall.
Scientists suggest that the risk of flooding is increasing due to global climate change. There has
been a link between La Niña events in the Pacific Ocean and higher than average rainfall in the Nile
valley, and a link between El Niño events and drought in Ethiopia and Sudan. Some scientists have
suggested that the average annual flow of the Nile could increase by 10–15 per cent, while others
have suggested that flows will become more variable.
The construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD — Figure 2.55) on the Blue
Nile, some 15 km from the Sudan border, will have an impact on Sudan and Egypt. Finished in 2017,
the dam will take between 5 years and 15 years to fill. Ethiopia claims that it will increase flows to
Egypt by reducing evaporation from Lake Nasser. However, the exact impacts of the dam on Egypt
and Sudan are unknown. There will be a temporary (up to fifteen years) reduction of water
availability as the reservoir fills. The dam will retain silt, and so the lifetime of the Sennar
Dam and Rosieres Dam in Sudan would be prolonged. It could reduce flooding in Sudan by the
increased storage of water behind the GERD.
Some scientists are calling for an early warning system to predict floods on the Nile. The Nile is
over 6000 km in length and it can take weeks for flood peaks to pass down the full length of the river,
thus allowing sufficient time, in theory, to provide flood warnings. However, international and national
communications have not always been as good as they could be. The 1998 and 2016 floods in
Sudan showed that it takes up to 1 month to evacuate vulnerable communities. Khartoum, Sudan’s
capital, with a population of over 5 million people, and located on the Blue Nile, needs a long warning
time to evacuate. The links with El Niño/La Niña cycles in the Pacific may help to predict the likely
occurrence of a flood or a famine, but Sudan and Ethiopia are poor countries (Sudan’s average GNI
is $4500 and Ethiopia’s is $1900) and do not have all the necessary resources to deal with
increasing numbers of people at risk of becoming flood victims.

Figure 2.55 The location of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

Case study analysis
1 Briefly explain how river floods in Egypt have been prevented.
2 Explain why Sudan experiences frequent flooding. You should include data from Table
2.11.
3 Suggest why flooding and drought may become more frequent and/or intense in the
future.
4 Outline how developments on the River Nile upstream have affected those living
downstream on the Nile delta.
Table 2.11 Climate data for Khartoum and Addis Ababa

(See also the climate data for Cairo on page 157.)

Activities
1 Suggest how changes to:
a water quality
b the quantity of water
can have a negative impact on communities.
2 Using examples, outline the potential advantages and disadvantages of living on a delta.
3 Explain the meaning of the term ‘international river’, and suggest why human activities on
international rivers may lead to conflict between countries.
Key questions
• How do the sea and wind erode, transport and deposit?
• What landforms do they create?
• Under what conditions do coral reefs and mangroves form?
• What are the opportunities and hazards that coasts present?
• What can be done to manage coastal erosion?

2.3 Coasts
Figure 2.56 Jolly Harbour, Antigua

Marine processes
The factors that affect coastal processes and coastal landforms include:
• waves and currents, including longshore drift
• local geology — that is, rock type, structure and strength
• changes in sea level
• human activity and the increased use of coastal engineering.
All of these factors interact and produce a unique set of processes that occur at the coast. These processes go
on to produce different types of landform for every coastal area.

Types of wave
Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or troughs. Wave height is the distance between the
trough and the crest. Wave frequency is the number of waves per minute. Velocity is the speed of a travelling
wave, and is influenced by wind, fetch and depth of water. The fetch is the amount of open water over which a
wave has passed. Swash is the movement of water up the beach. Backwash is the movement of water down the
beach. Waves are sometimes divided into constructive and destructive waves (Table 2.12 and Figure 2.57).

Table 2.12 Destructive and constructive waves

Destructive waves (erosional Constructive waves (depositional
waves) waves)
Short wavelength (< 20 m) Long wavelength (up to 100 m)
High height (> 1 m) Low height (< 1 m)
High frequency (10–12/minute) Low frequency (6–8/minute)
Low period (one every 5–6 seconds) High period (one every 8–10 seconds)
Backwash > swash Swash > backwash
 Steep gradient Low gradient
Caused by local winds and storms Caused by swell from distant storms
High-energy waves Low-energy waves

Figure 2.57 Destructive and constructive waves

Waves on the Palisadoes

Beaches are transitory features — they change shape regularly. In Jamaica, one of the most important factors
for wave formation is the local sea–land breeze. The Palisadoes, on the south coast of Jamaica, has a tidal range
of just 0.23 m.
Here, swell is generated by trade winds on a year-round basis, and occasionally by easterly waves and
tropical cyclones (hurricanes) that originate far from the island. The sea breeze is most persistent in the summer
months from May to August and strongest in June, approaching most commonly from an east-south- easterly
direction (Figure 2.58). The breeze normally develops in the late morning, reaching velocities of 12 m/s by the
early afternoon. Once the sea breeze declines, a land breeze develops from the northwest.
 Figure 2.58 Constructive and destructive waves on the Palisadoes, Jamaica
The sea breeze is associated with an increase in wave and breaker height. Wave heights regularly exceed 1 m
and may reach 5 m. The sea breezes provide a mechanism for shoreline erosion, caused by destructive waves
during daylight hours. The change from constructive waves, where sediment is transported landwards, to
destructive waves, where sediment is dragged seawards, is related to wave steepness. As steepness increases,
erosion occurs.
When onshore winds occur, a return countercurrent is formed, flowing seawards towards the break point.
This current removes material from the front of the beach and carries it to the break point, where material is
deposited to form longshore bars offshore from the Palisadoes.

With the return of the land breeze, these destructive waves decay. The trade-wind-generated swell becomes
the dominant wave, returning sediment lost from the beach during the day.
Activities
1 What is the tidal range of the Palisadoes?
2 In which direction does the sea breeze blow?
3 From which direction does the land breeze blow?
4 What is the impact of the sea breeze on wave activity?
5 What is the impact of the land breeze on wave activity?

Wave refraction and longshore drift

Waves result from friction between wind and the sea surface. Waves in the open, deep sea are different from
those breaking on shore. Sea waves are forward-moving surges of energy. Although the shape of the surface
wave appears to move, the water particles follow a roughly circular path within the wave. As waves approach the
shore, their speed is reduced as they touch the sea floor. Wave refraction causes two main changes: the speed of
the wave is reduced and the shape of the wave front is altered. If refraction is completed, the wave fronts will
break parallel to the shore.
Wave refraction also distributes wave energy along a stretch of coast. On a coastline with alternating
headlands and bays, wave refraction will concentrate destructive/erosive activity on the headlands, while
deposition will tend to occur in the bays. Irregularities in the shape of the coastline mean that refraction is not
always totally achieved. This causes longshore drift, which is a major force in the transport of material along the
coast (Figure 2.59). It occurs when waves move up to the beach (swash) in one direction, but the waves draining
back down the beach (backwash) take a different route (under the effect of gravity). The net movement is along
the shore, hence the term longshore drift. A wooden or concrete wall (groyne) may be built to prevent longshore
drift from moving sand or shingle away from the beach.
 Figure 2.59 Wave refraction and longshore drift

Human activity and longshore drift in West Africa

The increase in coastal retreat has been blamed on the construction of the Akosombo Dam on the Volta river
in Ghana. It is just 110 km from the coast and disrupts the flow of sediment from the Volta, stopping it from
reaching the shore. There is therefore less sand to replace that which has already been washed away by longshore
drift, so the coastline retreats due to erosion by the Guinea current. Towns such as Keta, 30 km east of the Volta
estuary, have been destroyed as their protective beach has been removed (Figure 2.60).

Figure 2.60 Human activity and longshore drift in West Africa

Activities
1 Define the following terms: swash, fetch, wave refraction, longshore drift, backwash.
2 Describe the main differences between a destructive wave and a constructive wave.
3 Describe and explain the process of longshore drift.
4 Briefly describe how human activity has affected the impact of longshore drift in West
Africa.

Landscapes of erosion
There are many types of erosion carried out by waves:
• Hydraulic action occurs as waves hit or break against a cliff face. Any air trapped in cracks is put
under great pressure. As the wave retreats, this build-up of pressure is released with explosive force. This is
especially important in well-jointed rocks such as limestone, sandstone and granite, and in weak rocks such
as clays and glacial deposits. Hydraulic action makes the most impact during storms.
• Abrasion is the process of a breaking wave hurling materials, such as pebbles or shingle, against a
cliff face. It is similar to abrasion in a river.
• Attrition is the process in which eroded material, such as broken rock, is worn down to form smaller,
rounder beach material.
• Solution occurs on limestone and chalk. Calcium carbonate, a salt found in these rocks, dissolves
 slowly in acidic water.

Features of erosion
On a headland, erosion will exploit any weakness, creating, at first, a cave. Once the cave reaches both sides
of the headland, an arch is formed. A collapse of the top of the arch forms a stack, and when the stack is eroded
a stump is created (Figure 2.61). Where erosion opens up a vertical crack, allowing seawater to spout up at the
surface, a blowhole is formed. The sandstone of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa has been attacked by the sea,
forming steep vertical cliffs and small-scale features such as arches and stacks (Figure 2.62).

Figure 2.61 Features of coastal erosion

Figure 2.62 The Cape Peninsula, South Africa — the photo shows Cape Maclear and the Cape of Good
Hope in the background
Wave action is concentrated between the high water mark (HWM) and low water mark (LWM). HWM is the
level reached by the sea at high tide, while LWM is the level reached by the sea at low tide. It may undercut a
cliff face, creating a notch and overhang (Figure 2.63). As erosion continues, the notch becomes deeper and
eventually the overhang collapses, causing the cliff line to retreat. The base of the cliff is left behind as an
increasingly longer platform. This is sometimes called a wave-cut platform, because it has been cut or eroded
by wave action.

Figure 2.63 Formation of a wave-cut platform

Cliff profiles vary greatly, depending on the:
• rate of coastal erosion (cliff retreat)
• strength of the rock
• presence of joints and bedding planes.
In addition, cliffs change over time, from ones dominated by marine processes (like wave erosion) to ones
protected from marine processes but affected by land-based processes.
On a larger scale, bays may be eroded in beds of weaker rock (Figure 2.64). The harder rocks form headlands
that protrude, whereas the weaker rocks are eroded to form bays. Wave refraction in the bay spreads wave energy
around the bay, whereas it focuses wave energy on the flanks of the headlands. Bayhead beaches are formed
when constructive waves deposit sand between two headlands, such as at Maracas Bay and Tyrico Bay in
northern Trinidad.
 Figure 2.64 Headlands and bays in Praia de Rocha, Portugal

Activities
1What is the difference between attrition and abrasion?
2Why does hydraulic action occur in jointed rocks?
3What types of rock are affected by solution?
4What types of erosion are most likely to take place:
a during a storm
b on beaches
c on the face of a cliff?
5 In your own words, describe how a wave-cut platform may be formed.
6 Make a sketch of Figure 2.64 and label the following features: headland, bay, stack and
beach.

Deposition
Beaches
Excellent beach development occurs on a lowland coast (constructive waves) with a sheltered aspect/trend,
composed of ‘soft’ rocks, which provide a good supply of material, or where longshore drift supplies abundant
material.
On Tenerife, the lack of beach material other than volcanic material (Figure 2.65) has led to one beach, Las
Terristas, being formed of sand imported from the Sahara desert (Figure 2.66). An artificial barrier prevents the
sand from being eroded by wave action.
 Figure 2.65 Volcanic beach, Tenerife

Figure 2.66 An artificial beach with imported sand

The term beach refers to the accumulation of material deposited between low spring tides and the highest
point reached by storm waves at high spring tides. A typical beach will have three zones: backshore, foreshore
and offshore. The backshore is marked by a line of dunes or a cliff. Above the high water mark there may be a
berm or shingle ridge. This is coarse material pushed up the beach by spring tides and aided by storm waves
flinging material well above the level of the waves themselves. These are often referred to as storm beaches. The
seaward edge of the berm is often scalloped and irregular due to the creation of beach cusps.
The foreshore is exposed at low tide. Offshore, the first material is deposited. In this zone, the waves touch
the sea bed and so the material is usually disturbed, sometimes being pushed up as offshore bars, when the
offshore gradient is very shallow. Offshore bars are usually composed of coarse sand or shingle. Between the bar
and shore, lagoons (often called sounds) develop (Figure 2.67). If the water in the lagoon is calm and fed by
rivers, marshes and mudflats can be found. Bars can be driven onshore by storm winds and waves. A classic
example of these features is found off the coast of the Carolinas in southeast USA.
 Figure 2.67 Features of coastal deposition

Bars and spits

These more localised features will develop where:
• abundant material is available, particularly shingle and sand
• the coastline is irregular, for example where there is a variable geology
• where there are estuaries and major rivers.
A spit is a beach of sand or shingle linked at one end to land. It is found where wave energy is reduced, for
example along a coast where headlands and bays are common and near river mouths (in estuaries and rias).
Spits often become curved as waves undergo refraction (Figure 2.68). Cross-currents or occasional storm
waves may assist this hooked formation. A good example is the sandspit in Walvis Bay, Namibia. The main body
of the spit is curved but it has additional, smaller hooks, or recurves. Longshore drift moves sediment northwards
along the coast. However, the coastline is very irregular here and there is a sudden change in the trend of the
coastline. Consequently, refraction occurs, causing the waves to bend around eastwards.

Figure 2.68 Development of a spit

Interesting note
The longest spit in the world is the 112 km Arabat spit in the Sea of Azov, between Russia and
Ukraine. There are 13 spits in the Sea of Azov.
On the seaward side, the slope to deeper water is very steep. Within the curve of the spit, the water is shallow
and a considerable area of mudflat and saltmarsh is exposed at low water. These saltmarshes continue to grow as
mud is trapped by the marsh vegetation.

Figure 2.69a The west coast of Antigua. (Top) Mosquito Cove, (centre) Jolly Harbour Marina, (bottom) Crab
Hill Bay (see also Figure 4.11c on page 273)
 Figure 2.69b The beach at Achill was washed away by storms has returned after 33 years
Related features include bars. These are ridges that block off a bay or river mouth. There are many examples
on the west coast of Antigua (Figure 2.69a).
In 2017, a beach that disappeared (eroded) in storms in 1984 reappeared. Hundreds of tonnes of sand were
deposited following freak tides, producing a 330 m stretch of golden sand (Figure 2.69b).

Activities
1 a Explain how a spit develops.
b In what ways might vegetation help spits, bars and tombolos to develop?
2 a Draw a labelled sketch of the top photograph in Figure 2.69a.
b Describe the wave conditions in the photograph.
3 Study the map in Figure 4.11c, page 273. Name and give examples of at least two types
of coastal deposit. For any one of these, describe its main characteristics and explain how it has
been formed.
4 Study both the map in Figure 4.11c, page 273 and photographs in Figure 2.69a.
a What type of feature is found in Valley Church Bay and at Reeds Point?
b What is the difference between a cove and a bay?
c How are land-based processes affecting this area of coastline?
d In what ways has this area of coastline influenced human activities?
Tombolos are ridges that link the mainland to an island. Good examples include the Lumley area of Sierra
Leone, and the Cape Verde Peninsula, Senegal. The Cape Peninsula in South Africa is a complex tombolo that
has developed on a very large scale.
Figure 2.70 Aerial view of the Palisadoes tombolo

The Palisadoes, Jamaica: a spit or a tombolo?

The Palisadoes is one of the largest deposited coastal features in the Caribbean (Figure 2.70).
Located just south of Kingston in Jamaica, this 13 km long feature has been formed and re-formed many
times during its history. Scientists believe that it may be 4000 years old.
Longshore drift occurs from east to west on the south coast of Jamaica. The sediment comes from rivers, cliff
erosion and offshore sediments. The Palisadoes is located at a sharp bend in the coastline. Longshore drift carries
sediment westwards, and extends the length of the spit. As it grew longer, it linked up with a number of cays
(small islands), turning the spit into a tombolo.

The region experiences tropical storms and hurricanes. These can seriously damage the coast. For example,
in 2004 Hurricane Ivan eroded up to a metre off the 2 m high sand dunes. Even under normal conditions,
summer sea breezes cause powerful destructive waves, which are capable of eroding the seaward face of the
beach, causing it to become steeper.
Activities
1 How old is the Palisadoes?
2 How long is the Palisadoes?
3 In which direction is longshore drift on the Palisadoes?
4 Where does the sediment that helps build up the Palisadoes come from?
5 What is the impact of hurricanes on the Palisadoes?

Sand dunes
Sand dunes are one of the most dynamic environments in physical geography. Important changes take place
in a very short space of time. Extensive sandy beaches are almost always backed by sand dunes because strong
onshore winds can easily transport the sand that has dried out and is exposed at low water. The sand grains are
trapped and deposited against any obstacle on land, to form dunes (Figure 2.71). Dunes can be blown inland and
can therefore threaten coastal farmland and even villages. The interaction of winds and vegetation helps form
sand dunes.

Figure 2.71 Formation of sand dunes

On the beach, conditions are very windy, dry (much water just soaks into the sand) and salty. Few plants can
survive these extreme conditions but some can, including sea couch and marram grass. These are adapted to
tolerate water with a high salt content, and high wind speeds, and they can survive burial by sand. In fact,
marram grass needs to be buried by fresh sand in order to send out fresh shoots.
Once marram grass and sea couch are established on the beach, they reduce the wind speed and this helps
trap fresh sand. As the sand builds up, these plants send out new shoots, trapping more sand and building up a
dune. Increasingly, the presence of plants in the sand dune adds organic matter and moisture to the dune and
allows other plants to grow, such as heather.
The growth of new plants is called succession. Plants such as heather cannot tolerate the dry, windy, salty
conditions of the beach but can survive in the less windy, moister, less salty dunes. They in turn alter the
environment so that other species can invade and develop (Figure 2.72). On a sand dune over a distance of just a
few hundred metres there may be as many as four or five different types of ecosystem.

Figure 2.72 Sand dune vegetation

Activities
Study Figure 2.72, which shows the development of vegetation on a sand dune.
1 How do conditions differ between the shoreline and inland?
2 Explain why deposition occurs on the sand dunes.
3 Suggest how human activities might affect the sand dunes and/or the saltmarsh.

Coral reefs
Coral reefs are calcium carbonate structures, made up of reef-building stony corals. Coral is limited to the
depth that light can reach, so reefs develop in shallow water, ranging to depths of 60 m. This dependence on light
also means that reefs are only found where the surrounding waters contain relatively small amounts of suspended
material. Reef-building corals live only in tropical seas, where temperature, salinity and clear water allow them
to develop.
There are many types of coral reef (Figure 2.73).
• Fringing reefs are those that fringe the coast of a landmass (Figure 2.74 and 2.75). Many fringing
reefs grow along shores that are protected by barrier reefs and are thus characterised by organisms that are
best adapted to low wave-energy conditions.
• Barrier reefs occur at a greater distance from the shore than fringing reefs and are commonly
separated from it by a wide, deep lagoon. Barrier reefs tend to be broader, older and more continuous than
fringing reefs. For example, the Beqa barrier reef off Fiji stretches unbroken for more than 37 km, and that
off Mayotte in the Indian Ocean for around 18 km. The largest barrier reef system in the world is the Great
Barrier Reef, which extends 1600 km along the east Australian coast, usually tens of kilometres offshore.
Another long barrier reef is located in the Caribbean off the coast of Belize between Mexico and Guatemala.
 • Atoll reefs rise from submerged volcanic foundations. Atoll reefs are essentially indistinguishable in
form and species composition from barrier reefs except that they are confined to the flanks of submerged
oceanic islands, whereas barrier reefs may also flank continents. Over 300 atolls are present in the Indo-
Pacific but only 10 are found in the western Atlantic.

Figure 2.73 Formation of coral reefs

Figure 2.74 A fringing reef on the south coast of Antigua

 Figure 2.75 A fringing reef on the west coast of Antigua
Coral reefs are often described as the ‘rainforests of the sea’ on account of their rich biodiversity. Some coral
is believed to be 2 million years old, although most is less than 10,000 years old. Coral reefs contain nearly a
million species of plants and animals, and about 25 per cent of the world’s sea fish breed, grow and evade
predators in coral reefs. Some of the world’s best coral reefs include Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, many of the
reefs around the Philippines and Indonesia, Tanzania and the Comoros, and the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean.
Coral reefs face many pressures. The fishing industry now uses dynamite to flush out fish and cyanide
solution to catch live fish. Destruction takes many forms — collection of specimens, trampling, berthing of
boats, oil spills, mining and the cement industry. Indirect pressures include sedimentation from rivers, and waste
disposal from urban areas. Coastal development, especially for tourism, is taking its toll too. Dust storms from
the Sahara have introduced bacteria into Caribbean coral, while global warming may cause coral bleaching.
Bleaching occurs when high temperatures kill the algae in coral, removing their colour so the coral appears
bleached. Many areas of coral in the Indian Ocean were destroyed by the 2004 tsunami.
Coral reefs are of major biological and economic importance. Countries such as Barbados, the Seychelles and
the Maldives rely on tourism based on their reefs. Florida’s reefs attract tourism worth $1.6 billion annually. The
global value of coral reefs in terms of fisheries, tourism and coastal protection is estimated to be

$375 billion.
Activities
1 Under what conditions does coral grow?
2 What is the difference between a fringing reef and a barrier reef?
3 How are atolls formed?
4 Why are coral reefs so valuable?
5 What are the main threats to coral reefs?

Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant forests of trees and shrubs that grow in the tidal estuaries and coastal zones of
tropical areas (Figure 2.76). The muddy waters, rich in nutrients from decaying leaves and wood, are home to a
great variety of sponges, worms, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. Mangroves cover about 25 per cent of the
world’s tropical coastline, the largest being the 570,000 ha Sundarbans in Bangladesh.
 Figure 2.76 Mangrove swamps

The value of mangroves

Mangroves have many uses, such as providing large quantities of food and fuel, building materials and
medicine. One hectare of mangrove in the Philippines can yield 400 kg of fish and 75 kg of shrimp. Mangroves
also protect coastlines by absorbing the force of hurricanes and storms. They also act as natural filters, absorbing
nutrients from farming and sewage disposal.

Pressures on mangroves
Despite their value, many mangrove areas have been lost to rice paddies and shrimp farms. As population
growth in coastal areas is set to increase, the fate of mangroves looks bleak. Already most Caribbean and South
Pacific mangroves have disappeared, and India, West Africa and Southeast Asia have lost half of theirs (Table
2.13).

185,000 ha (1960–91) to shrimp ponds

Thailand

Table 2.13 Mangrove losses

Malaysia 235,000 ha (1980 and 1990) to shrimp ponds and farming
Indonesia 269,000 ha (1960–90) to shrimp ponds
Vietnam 104,000 ha (1960–74) due to action by the US army
Philippines 170,000 ha (1967–76) mostly to shrimp ponds
 Bangladesh 74,000 ha (since 1975) largely to shrimp ponds
Guatemala 9500 ha (1965–84) to shrimp ponds and salt farming

Mangroves and coral reefs

Mangroves and coral reefs are fundamentally connected ecosystems. Mangroves protect coral reefs from
sedimentation from land-based sources, as well as helping to keep the water clear of particles and nutrients. Both
of these functions are necessary to maintain reef health. Mangroves also provide spawning and nursery areas for
many animal species that spend their adult lives on the reefs. In return, the coral reefs provide shelter for the
mangroves and their inhabitants, while the calcium carbonate eroded from the reef provides sediment in which
the mangroves grow.

Coastal hazards and opportunities

Coastal areas offer many opportunities to people. However, actions in coastal areas may cause new problems.
These are summarised in Table 2.14.

Table 2.14 Relationships between human activities and coastal zone problems
Human Agents/consequences Coastal zone problems
activity
Urbanisation Land use changes, such as: Loss of habitats and species
and ports and airports; road, rail diversity; visual intrusion; lowering
transport and air congestion; dredging of groundwater table; salt water
and disposal of harbour intrusion; water pollution; human
sediments; water abstraction; health risks; eutrophication;
waste water and waste introduction of alien species
disposal
Agriculture Land reclamation; fertiliser and Loss of habitats and species
pesticide use; livestock diversity water pollution;
densities; water abstraction eutrophication; river
channelisation
Tourism, Development and land use Loss of habitats and species
recreation changes, such as: golf courses; diversity; disturbance; visual
and hunting road, rail and air congestion; intrusion; lowering of water table;
ports and marinas; water salt water intrusion in aquifers;
abstraction; waste water and water pollution; eutrophication;
waste disposal human health risks
Fisheries Port construction; fish Overfishing; impacts on non-
and processing facilities; fishing target species; litter and oil on
aquaculture gear; fish farm effluents beaches; water pollution;
eutrophication; introduction of
alien species; habitat damage
and change in marine
communities
Industry Land use changes; power Loss of habitats and species
(including stations; extraction of natural diversity; water pollution;
energy resources; process effluents; eutrophication; thermal pollution;
production) cooling water; windmills; river visual intrusion; decreased input
impoundment; tidal barrages of fresh water and sediment to
coastal zones; coastal erosion
 Case study: Erosion of the USA’s eastern seaboard
Many beaches along the east coast of America have disappeared since 1900, such as that at
Marshfield, Massachusetts. As the sea level rises, the beaches and barrier islands (barrier beaches)
that line the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, from New York to the
Mexican border, are in retreat.
The problem is that much of the shore cannot retreat naturally because industries and properties
worth billions of dollars have been built here. Many important cities and tourist centres, such as
Miami, Atlantic City and Galveston (Texas), are sited on barrier islands. Consequently, many
shoreline communities have built sea walls and other protective structures to protect them from the
power of destructive waves.
• Relief — the flat topography of the coastal plains from New Jersey southward means that a
small rise in sea level can allow the ocean to advance a long way inland.
• Changing sea levels — much of the North American coast is sinking relative to the ocean,
so local sea levels are rising faster than global averages. The level of tides along the coasts
shows that subsidence varies between 0.5 mm and 19.5 mm a year. By contrast, the west coast,
in particular Alaska, is rising.
• Coastal development — extensive coastal development has accelerated erosion. While
sea level rises, apartment blocks, resorts and second homes have developed rapidly along the
shoreline. By 1990, 75 per cent of Americans lived within 100 km of a coast (including the Great
Lakes).
• Erosion and tourism-related developments — erosion is evident at many places along the
coasts of the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Major resorts such as Miami Beach and Atlantic City
have pumped in dredged sand to replenish eroded beaches. Erosion threatens islands to the north
and south of Cape Canaveral, although the Cape itself appears safe. Resorts built on barrier
beaches in Virginia, Maryland and New Jersey have also suffered major erosion.
• Rates of erosion — overall losses are not well known. Massachusetts loses about 26
hectares a year to rising seas. Nearly 10 per cent of that loss is from the island of Nantucket,
south of Cape Cod. However, these losses are minimal compared with Louisiana, which is losing
40 hectares of wetlands a day — about 15,000 hectares a year.
Case study analysis
1 Why are beaches on the eastern seaboard of the USA retreating?
2 What has been done to reduce erosion of barrier beaches?
3 What proportion of Americans live within 100 km of the coast?
4 By how much is the east coast subsiding each year?
5 How much land is being lost to rising sea levels each year?

Tropical storms
A hurricane is one of the most dangerous natural hazards to people and the environment. Damage is caused
by high winds, floods and storm surges. In Asia, hurricanes are also known as tropical cyclones.
Hurricanes are intense hazards that bring heavy rainfall, strong winds and high waves, and they cause other
hazards such as flooding and mudslides. Hurricanes are also characterised by enormous quantities of water. This
is due to their origin over moist tropical seas. High-intensity rainfall with totals of up to 500 mm in 24 hours
invariably causes, flooding. The path of a hurricane is erratic, so it is not always possible to give more than 12
hours’ notice. This is insufficient for proper evacuation measures.
Hurricanes develop as intense low-pressure systems over tropical oceans (Figure 2.77). Winds spiral
rapidly around a calm central area known as the eye. The diameter of the whole hurricane may be as much as 800
km, although the very strong winds that cause most of the damage are found in a narrower belt up to 300 km
wide. In a mature hurricane, pressure may fall to as low as 880 millibars. This very low pressure, and the strong
contrast in pressure between the eye and outer part of the hurricane, leads to strong, gale-force winds.
Hurricanes move excess heat from low latitudes to higher latitudes. They normally develop in the westward-
flowing air just north of the equator (known as an easterly wave). They begin life as small-scale tropical
depressions — localised areas of low pressure that cause warm air to rise. These trigger thunderstorms that
persist for at least 24 hours and may develop into tropical storms, which have greater wind speeds of up to 118
km/hr (74 mph). However, only about 10 per cent of tropical disturbances ever become hurricanes — storms
with wind speeds of over 118 km/hr.
For hurricanes to form, a number of conditions are needed:
• Sea temperatures must be over 27°C to a depth of 60 m (warm water gives off large quantities of heat
when it is condensed; this is the heat that drives the hurricane).
 • The low-pressure area has to be far enough away from the equator so that the Coriolis force (the force
caused by the rotation of the Earth) creates rotation in the rising air mass. If it is too close to the equator
there is insufficient rotation and a hurricane will not develop.
• Conditions must be unstable: some tropical low-pressure systems develop into hurricanes, but not all
of them, and scientists are unsure why some do but others do not.

Figure 2.77 The distribution of hurricanes

Impacts of hurricanes
The Saffir-Simpson scale, developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, assigns
hurricanes to one of five categories of potential disaster (Table 2.15). The categories are based on wind intensity:
in order to be classified as a hurricane a tropical cyclone must have maximum sustained winds of over 118 km/hr.
The classification is used for hurricanes forming in the Atlantic and northern Pacific — other areas use different
scales.
• The unpredictability of hurricane paths makes the effective management of hurricanes difficult. It was
fortunate for Jamaica that Hurricane Ivan (2004) suddenly changed course away from the most densely
populated parts of the island, where it had been expected to hit. In contrast, it was unfortunate for Florida’s
Punta Gorda when Hurricane Charley (2004) moved away from its predicted path.
• The strongest storms do not always cause the greatest damage. Only six lives were lost to Hurricane
Frances in 2004, but 2000 were taken by Jeanne when it was still categorised as just a ‘tropical storm’ and
had not yet reached full hurricane strength.
• The distribution of the population throughout the Caribbean islands increases the risk associated with
hurricanes. Much of the population lives in coastal settlements and is exposed to higher sea levels and the
risk of flooding.
• Hazard mitigation depends on the effectiveness of the human response to natural events. This includes
urban planning laws, emergency planning, evacuation measures and relief operations, such as rehousing
schemes and the distribution of food aid and clean water.
• Developing countries continue to lose more lives to natural hazards as a result of inadequate planning
and preparation. By contrast, insurance costs continue to be greatest in American states such as Florida,
where multi-million-dollar waterfront homes proliferate.
Table 2.15 The Saffir-Simpson scale
 Figure 2.78 Hurricane management strategies: (a) hurricane shelter, Cuba; (b and c) steel shutters over
windows

Case study: Typhoon Haiyan

Figure 2.79 The path of Typhoon Haiyan

The term ‘hurricane’ is used in the Atlantic and northeast Pacific, ‘typhoon’ in the northwest
Pacific, and ‘cyclone’ in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.
At least 6000 people were killed in the central Philippine province of Leyte when Typhoon Haiyan,
one of the strongest storms ever to make landfall, struck the Philippines in November 2013 (Figure
2.79). The super-typhoon brought winds of up to 315 km/hr (195 mph), tearing roofs off buildings,
turning roads into rivers full of debris, and knocking out electricity pylons.
About 70–80 per cent of the buildings in the area in the path of Haiyan in Leyte province were
destroyed. Tacloban, the provincial capital of Leyte, had a population of over 200,000. The storm
surge caused sea waters to rise by over 6 m when the typhoon hit. Power was knocked out and
there was no mobile phone signal, making communication possible only by radio.
With many provinces left without power or telecommunications, and airports in the hardest-hit
areas such as Tacloban closed, it was impossible to know the full extent of the storm’s damage — or
to provide badly needed aid. Government figures showed that more than 4 million people had been
directly affected. The World Food Programme mobilised some $2 million in aid and aimed to deliver
40 tonnes of fortified biscuits to victims within days. Estimates of the economic cost are about $15
billion. Many countries pledged aid to the Philippines, including the UK (US$131m), Japan (US$52m),
Canada (US$40m) and the USA (US$37m).
Satellite images showed normally green patches of vegetation ripped up into brown squares of
debris in Tacloban, where a local television station broadcast images of huge storm surges,
flattened buildings and families wading through flooded streets with their possessions held high
above the water. Those living in the hardest-hit areas, such as the eastern Visayas, are among the
poorest in the Philippines. Many have little or no savings, so the typhoon put an already vulnerable
population at even greater risk of future food and job insecurity. On Bohol Island, where a 7.3
magnitude earthquake had killed some 200 people in October 2013, residents were successfully
evacuated ahead of the storm. However, because the island’s main power supply comes from
neighbouring Leyte, residents were left without electricity or water. In Tacloban, the sheer force of
the storm was just too much for some evacuation centres, which collapsed.
The Philippines experiences about 20 typhoons every year. In 2012 Typhoon Bopha killed more
than 1100 people and caused over $1 billion in damage.
How does Typhoon Haiyan compare with other tropical cyclones?
Typhoon Haiyan, described as the strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall in recorded
history, hit the Philippines with winds of 314 km/hr and gusts of up to 378 km/hr — the fourth
strongest typhoon ever recorded (Table 2.16), but the strongest to reach landfall.
Table 2.16 The strongest tropical cyclones in world history

Case study analysis

1 State the main country affected by Typhoon Haiyan.
2 State the maximum wind speeds experienced during Typhoon Haiyan.
3 Describe the main impacts of Typhoon Haiyan.

4 Compare the wind speed of Typhoon Haiyan with the other strongest tropical cyclones.

Activities
1 Describe the distribution of hurricanes shown in Figure 2.77.
2 Outline the main changes that occur as hurricane intensity increases.
3 Suggest reasons why the impacts of hurricanes vary from place to place.

Coastal management
Human pressures on coastal environments create the need for a variety of coastal management strategies
(Table 2.17 and Figure 2.80). Coastal defence protects against coastal erosion and flooding by the sea. Coastal
management strategies may be long-term or short-term, sustainable or non-sustainable. Successful management
strategies require a detailed knowledge of coastal processes. Rising sea levels, more frequent storm activity, and
continuing coastal development are likely to increase the need for coastal management.
Defence options include:
• do nothing
• maintain existing levels of coastal defence
• improve coastal defences
• allow retreat of the coast in selected areas.

Hard engineering structures

The effectiveness of sea walls depends on their cost and their performance. Their function is to prevent
erosion and flooding, but much depends on:
• whether they are sloping or vertical
• whether they are permeable or impermeable
• whether they are rough or smooth
• what material they are made of (clay, steel or rock, for example).
In general, flatter, permeable, rougher walls perform better than vertical, impermeable, smooth walls. Cross-
 shore structures such as groynes, breakwaters, piers and strongpoints have been used for decades.
Their main function is to stop the drifting of material. Traditionally, groynes were constructed from timber,
brushwood and wattle. However, modern cross-shore structures are often made from rock. They may be part of a
more complex form of management that includes beach nourishment and offshore structures.
Managed retreat allows nature to take its course — erosion in some areas, deposition in others. Benefits
include less money being spent, and the creation of natural environments.

Figure 2.80 Coastal defence. (a) Gabions and cliff regrading, Brunei, (b) rock strong point (fortified groyne,
Norfolk, UK)
Table 2.17 Different forms of coastal management
 Case study: Miami Beach
Miami Beach is a barrier island with a long history of human intervention. Human interference in
the Miami area resulted in the almost complete removal of its beach. Channels through the beach,
groynes, dredging and sea walls all affected the beach so that, by the 1950s, very little of the beach
remained. Miami is a very popular place with tourists and the elderly. Given the importance of
tourism to the area, it was crucial that the beach was replenished and protected. During the late
1970s and 1980 the US Army Corps of Engineers built an 18 km long, 200 m wide beach. Essentially
it resembled a natural beach with a shallow, shelving seaward edge and a rampart at the landward
side (Figure 2.81). Over 18 million m3 of sand were needed to make the beach, and up to 750,000
m3 of sand have to be replenished each year.

Figure 2.81 Beach nourishment, Miami

Case study: The Palisadoes Peninsula Shoreline

Development Plan
Over the years, consistent storm surges that occur as a result of natural disasters such as flood
rains, including those accompanying tropical storms and hurricanes, have led to massive erosion of
the Palisadoes peninsula’s natural dunes.
The Jamaican government partnered with the China Harbour Engineering Company (CHEC) to
repair and protect the extensively degraded shoreline of the Palisadoes peninsula. At a cost of over
$65 million, CHEC constructed rock revetment walls on the seaward side of the peninsula, and at the
harbour.
The road was raised from its previous levels of 0.6–1.0 m, to 2.4–3.2 m above sea level.
Additional drainage facilities were placed along the roadway — this was needed to remove excess
water from rainfall and from over-topping by waves. A 10 m-wide boardwalk was constructed on the
harbour side of the peninsula. These works along the peninsula have been designed for a 100- year
return period — that is, the shoreline is expected to withstand storm surges that are only anticipated
to re-occur, on average, once in every 100 years.
In October 2012, Kingston was affected by Hurricane Sandy. This caused massive storm surges.
Following ‘Superstorm Sandy’, as it came to be known, experts claimed that businesses along the
Kingston Harbour could have suffered significant damage during the passage of the hurricane, but
that the protection scheme had proved very effective.
Case study analysis
1 Which natural hazards does the Palisadoes experience?
2 a Which country provided financial aid to Jamaica to build the defences?
b Describe the coastal protection measures that were put in place.
 3 What level of protection is provided by the new defences?

Activities
1 Identify the coastal defence strategies illustrated in Figure 2.80.
2 Define the term ‘coastal management’.
3 Distinguish between hard engineering and soft engineering.
4 a What is a groyne?
b Using a sketch diagram, suggest the likely distribution of sediment around groynes
50 years after the groynes’ construction. Suggest reasons to support your answer.
5 a What are the benefits of sea walls?
b Outline some of the disadvantages of using sea walls as a form of coastal
management.
6 For a coastal area you have studied, describe how the coastline is being protected, and
comment on the effectiveness of the measures used.

Opportunities and impacts — tourism

Case study: St Lucia
Tourism is extremely important to the economic growth of many countries. St Lucia and Antigua
in the Caribbean are two such countries. The tourist industry generates a large number of jobs, for
example in hotels and restaurants, as tour guides, as well as in supporting services: farmers,
retailers, taxi operators and so on. It is therefore an important money earner for national
governments, businesses and for individual workers and their dependants.
There are many conflicts between those who wish to develop tourism and, for example,
environmentalists, fishermen and local people who risk losing their access to water supplies. The
construction of buildings has the greatest impact on the environment (Figure 2.82). Most of the
hotels built in St Lucia are on the beach front, and the clearing of land has led to slope instability,
erosion and sedimentation of the shallow offshore environment. These developments have had a
negative impact on the nesting grounds of endangered turtles, for example. Over-exploitation of sand
has led to significant increases in beach erosion and environmental degradation. Although many
hotels are artificially replenishing the beaches, the introduced sand is rapidly eroded and causes
problems for offshore coral reefs, which require clear water.
The building of the Pointe Seraphine cruise facility altered wave and swell patterns significantly in
the harbour. At Gros Inlet, wetlands were destroyed to make way for buildings and an artificial lagoon
to expand the Rodney Bay resort (Figure 2.83). The results of the reclamation were
unforeseen: the ebb and flood tide patterns were modified, creating stronger currents, which
increased erosion on nearby beaches. In addition, local fisheries declined as the offshore waters
became murkier — and the problem of sand flies remained.
 Figure 2.82 Development for tourism in St Lucia

Figure 2.83 The effects of tourism in St Lucia

Solid and liquid waste disposal are now among the greatest environmental challenges facing St
Lucia. This reduces the attractiveness of the tourist experience and raises issues about standards of
health, the freshwater and marine environment, and the aesthetics of the island.
The discharge of poorly treated wastewater into coastal waters poses environmental and health
risks. Nutrient loading in the sea has led to the decline and loss of corals. The discharge of sewage
by yachts also contributes to inshore marine pollution.
Scuba diving is increasing and efforts have been made to minimise the impact of divers on coral
reefs. The development of marine leisure craft facilities has led to the loss of mangrove swamps.
Boating activities also damage the marine environment. The lack of holding tanks causes water
pollution through sewage disposal from craft. Dropping anchors on coral is also a problem.
Case study analysis
1 Outline the advantages of tourism to St Lucia.
2 Explain why fisheries have declined as a result of tourist developments.
3 Outline the impacts of tourist developments on natural vegetation.
4 Explain briefly how tourist development can affect offshore developments.

Coastal development
Case study: Dubai
Coastal reclamation in the United Arab Emirates has been developing on a large scale since
2001. Two palm-shaped artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah (Figure 2.84) and Palm Jebel Ali, were
completed in 2007, and in 2003 plans were unveiled for a third palm-shaped island, Palm Deira, and
‘The World’, a collection of over 300 islands, each one in the shape of a country.
Palm Jumeirah not only created a new shoreline, but it also became the centre for world-class
hotels, over 200 shopping outlets, and a range of luxury housing and leisure and entertainment
developments. An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out to investigate likely
environmental impacts. Water circulation and quality studies were investigated, to ensure that the
project did not lead to a deterioration in environmental quality.
According to a report in the journal Nature, uncontrolled development, weak regulatory oversight
and a lack of scientific monitoring are seriously threatening ecosystems along this coast. Sea-front
projects ranging from desalination plants to artificial islands in the gulf between the Arabian
Peninsula and Iran have transformed the entire coastline in the past few decades. More than 40 per
cent of the shores of some countries in the region are now developed. The change is happening
more quickly, and with greater environmental impact, than in any other coastal region.
To create the islands for Palm Jumeirah, some 94 million m3 of sediment were dredged from the
sea. Such large-scale projects are changing the ecology in ways that will become clear in the coming
decades.
One of the problems is water circulation. Water around some parts of the islands can remain
almost stationary for several weeks. This increases the risk of algal blooms. In addition, the fish that
have colonised the new environment are invasive species (species from outside the area).
The Gulf region has already lost 70 per cent of its coral reefs since 2001, and most of the
remaining reefs are threatened or degraded. Construction of Dubai’s Palm Jebel Ali, an even larger
artificial archipelago, has already destroyed 8 km2 of natural reef.
Case study analysis
1 When were Palm Jumeirah and Palm Jebel Ali completed?
2 Describe the developments on Palm Jumeirah.
3 Outline the environmental impacts of Palm Jumeirah.

Figure 2.84 Coastal development in Dubai

Activities
1 Outline the range of opportunities in a named coastal area.
2 Describe how coastal activities can have unwanted impacts on the coastal environment.
3 Using Table 2.17 on page 145, suggest ways in which unwanted impacts can be
managed.
Key questions
• How are weather data collected?
• How can the data be used to describe the weather?
• How do graphs and other diagrams show weather data?

2.4 Weather
Figure 2.85 Clouds formed by convectional uplift

Measuring the weather

The weather station
A weather station is a place where the elements of weather, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, air
pressure, wind direction and velocity, sunshine and cloud cover are measured and recorded as accurately as
possible. The weather station is placed on an open piece of land and it contains the following instruments:
thermometers (ideally kept in a Stevenson screen — see Figure 2.86), a rain gauge, barometer, wind vane,
anemometer and sunshine recorder.
Whichever instruments are used, ideally they should have good exposure (that is, they should be sited away
from buildings, fences, trees and other obstacles). The flat top of a science block is a favoured location in many
schools.
• Thermometers should be placed in the shade. Ideally, they should be in a Stevenson screen or slatted
box. If this is not available they could be hung on a shaded wall or fence.
• Rain gauges should be away from walls, fences and bushes as these affect the amount of rain caught in
the rain gauge.
• Wind instruments should be well clear of walls, fences and houses as these cause eddies that spoil the
reading and make the direction difficult to assess.
It is important that readings are taken at the same time each day.
 The Stevenson screen is a wooden box standing on four legs at a height of about 120 cm. The screen is built
so that the shade temperature of the air can be measured. The sides of the box are slatted to allow free entry of air,
and the roof is made of double boarding to prevent the Sun’s heat from reaching the inside of the screen.
Insulation is further improved by painting the outside of the screen white so as to reflect much of the Sun’s
energy. The screen is usually placed on a grass-covered surface, thereby reducing the radiation of heat from the
ground.

Figure 2.86 A Stevenson screen

Instruments kept inside the Stevenson screen include a maximum-minimum thermometer (or Six’s
thermometer) and a wet-and dry-bulb thermometer (also called a hygrometer) — see Figure 2.87 and 2.89.
Instruments kept outside the Stevenson screen include a rain gauge, a wind vane to determine wind direction,
and an anemometer to assess wind speed.

Measuring temperature
Variations in temperature represent responses to differences in insolation, or the amount of energy received
from the Sun at different times.
Meteorologists measure shade temperature. This is less variable than air temperature, which is affected by
cloud cover and direct insolation. Temperature is measured using a thermometer. A continuous temperature
reading is given by a thermograph.
• Maximum thermometer — When the temperature rises, the mercury in the thermometer expands and
pushes the index along the tube. When the temperature falls, the mercury contracts but the index stays where it
was pushed to by the mercury. The maximum temperature is obtained by reading the scale at the point
where the index is. The index is then drawn back to the mercury by a magnet for measuring the next
reading.
• Minimum thermometer — When the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and its meniscus pulls
the index along the tube. When the temperature rises, the alcohol expands. It is read in the same way as the
maximum thermometer.
A Six’s thermometer (Figure 2.87d) can be used to measure maximum and minimum temperatures at the
same time.
The daily readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers are used to work out the average or mean
temperature for one day (this is called the mean daily temperature) and the temperature range for one day (the
daily or diurnal temperature range).
 Figure 2.87 Equipment in a weather station
To find the mean daily temperature, the maximum and minimum temperatures for one day are added together
and then halved. For example: (maximum temperature, 35°C + minimum temperature, 25°C)/2 = mean daily
temperature, 30°C. The sum of the daily mean temperatures for one month divided by the number of days for that
month gives the mean monthly temperature. The sum of the mean monthly temperatures divided by 12 gives the
mean annual temperature.
The daily or diurnal temperature range is found by subtracting the minimum temperature from the maximum
temperature for any one day. For example: maximum temperature, 35°C − minimum temperature 25°C = daily or
diurnal temperature range, 10°C.
The highest mean monthly temperature minus the lowest mean monthly temperature gives the mean annual
temperature range. For example, Lagos has a mean maximum temperature of 27.5°C (March), and a mean
minimum temperature of 24.5°C (August). Its mean annual temperature range is therefore 3°C.
Interesting note
The highest temperature recorded was at Furnace Creek, California, USA in 1913 when it
reached 56.7°C. In contrast, the lowest temperature recorded was −89.2°C in Antarctica in 1983.

Measuring rainfall
A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. It consists of a cylinder in which there is a collecting can containing
a glass or plastic jar, and a funnel that fits in the top of the container. The gauge is placed in an open space so that
only raindrops enter the funnel of the gauge, and no runoff from trees, buildings or other objects can get into the
funnel. The gauge is sunk into the ground so that the top of the funnel is about 30 cm above ground level
(Figures 2.87c and 2.88). This is to prevent the Sun’s heat from evaporating any water collected and to ensure no
rain splashes up from the ground into the funnel.
 Figure 2.88 Rain gauge
Rain falling over the funnel collects in the jar. This is emptied, usually every 24 hours, and measured in a
tapered glass measure, graduated in millimetres. The tapered end of the jar enables very small amounts of rain to
be measured accurately.
The rainfall recorded for a place, either for a day, week, month or year, can be shown on a map. This is done
using lines called isohyets. An isohyet is a line on a map that joins places of equal rainfall.
It is important to check the rain gauge every day, preferably at the same time, even if there has not been any
rainfall. This is because small amounts of dew may accumulate in the gauge, leading to false readings when it
does rain.
Interesting note
The highest rainfall over a 24-hour period was in Foc-Foc, Réunion, when 1.825 m of rain fell.
The largest 1-minute burst of rainfall was 31.2 mm in Unionville, Maryland, USA in 1956.

Measuring relative humidity

Wet-and dry-bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity. The dry-bulb is a glass thermometer
that records the actual air temperature. The wet-bulb is a similar thermometer, but with the bulb enclosed in a
muslin bag which is dipped into a bottle of water (Figure 2.89). This thermometer measures the wet-bulb
temperature, which, unless the relative humidity is close to 100 per cent, is generally lower than the dry-bulb
temperature.
 Figure 2.89 Wet-and dry-bulb thermometer

Measuring air pressure, wind speed and

direction
Because air has weight it exerts a pressure on the Earth’s surface. At sea level the pressure is about 1.03
kg/cm2. Pressure varies with temperature and altitude, and is usually measured in millibars. The instrument that
measures pressure is called a barometer (Figure 2.90)
A mercury barometer is a hollow tube from which the air is extracted before the open end is placed in a bath
of mercury. Mercury is forced up the tube by the pressure of the atmosphere on the mercury in the bath. When
the pressure of the mercury in the tube balances the pressure of the air on the exposed mercury, the mercury in
the tube stops rising. The height of the column of mercury changes as air pressure changes: it rises when air
pressure increases and falls when air pressure decreases.
An aneroid barometer is a vacuum chamber in the form of a small metal cylinder. Inside, a strong metal
spring prevents the chamber from collapsing. The spring contracts and expands with changes in atmospheric
pressure. These changes are magnified by a series of levers and the movements are conveyed to a pointer, which
moves across a calibrated scale.
A barograph is a tracing from an aneroid barometer, which records continuously for one week. Changes in
pressure are recorded by a flexible arm, which traces an ink line on a rotating paper-covered drum. The paper is
divided by vertical lines at 2-hour intervals.
 Figure 2.90 A simple barometer
The atmospheric pressure is recorded at numerous weather stations for a region and these are plotted on a
map of the region. First, though, the pressures are ‘reduced’ to sea level — that is, they are adjusted to what they
would be if the stations were at sea level. The pressures are plotted on a map. Lines are then drawn through
points where pressure is the same. These lines are called isobars.
The wind vane is used to indicate wind direction. It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on a vertical
shaft. The rotating arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows, the arm swings until
the pointer faces the wind. The directions north, east, south and west are marked on the arms, which are rigidly
fixed to the shaft.
The speed of the wind is measured by an anemometer (Figure 2.91), which consists of three or four metal
cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely on a vertical shaft. When there is a wind, the cups rotate. The stronger
the wind, the faster the rotation. The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to give the speed of the wind in
km/hr.
The wind vane and anemometer are placed well away from any buildings or trees that may interfere with the
free movement of air. Buildings may channel air through narrow passages between two buildings, or decrease the
flow of air by blocking its path. Trees have a similar effect.
 Figure 2.91 An anemometer
Winds are shown by arrows on a weather map. The shaft of the arrow shows wind direction and the feathers
on the shaft indicate wind velocity. The tip of the arrow, at the opposite end from the feathers, points to the
direction in which the wind is blowing.
Wind direction for a specific place can be shown on a wind rose (Figure 2.92). It is made up of a circle from
which rectangles radiate. The directions of the rectangles represent the points of the compass. The lengths of the
rectangles are determined by the number of days/times the wind blows from that direction. The number of
days/times (hours) when there is no wind is recorded in the centre of the rose.
 Figure 2.92 A wind rose

Measuring sunshine hours

The number of hours and minutes of sunshine received at a place can be measured and recorded by a
sunshine recorder. This is a glass sphere partly surrounded by a metal frame (Figure 2.93). A strip of special card,
divided up into hours and minutes, is placed below the sphere. When the sun shines, the sphere focuses the Sun’s
rays on the card. As the Sun moves, the rays burn a trace on the card. At the end of the day, the card is removed
and replaced. The length of the trace represents the amount of sunshine that the location received.

Figure 2.93 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder

 Activities
1 Describe and explain the main characteristics of a Stevenson screen.
2 What information does a Six’s thermometer show?
3 Why are weather readings taken at the same time each day?
4 Where is the best place to locate a rain gauge? Briefly explain why.
5 How are wind speed and wind direction measured?

Recording the weather

Clouds
The ten main types of cloud can be separated into three broad categories according to the height of their base
above the ground: high clouds, medium clouds and low clouds (Figure 2.94).
High clouds are usually composed solely of ice crystals and have a base between 5500 and 14,000 m.
These are described as:
• cirrus — white filaments
• cirrocumulus — small, rippled elements
• cirrostratus — a transparent sheet, often with a halo.
Medium clouds are usually composed of water droplets or a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals, and
have a base between 2000 m and 7000 m. These are decribed as:
• altocumulus — layered, rippled elements, generally white with some shading
• altostratus — a thin, grey layer that allows sunshine to appear as if through ground glass.
Low clouds are usually composed of water droplets, although cumulonimbus clouds include ice crystals, and
have a base below 2000 m. These are decribed as:
• stratocumulus — layered in a series of rounded rolls; generally white with some shading
• stratus — layered, uniform base, grey
• nimbostratus — a thick, dark layer with a low base; rain or snow may fall from it
• cumulus — individual cells; vertical rolls or towers with a flat base
• cumulonimbus — large, cauliflower-shaped towers, often with ‘anvil tops’; sometimes giving
thunderstorms or showers of rain or snow.
Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). This is made by a visual assessment of how much of the sky is
covered by cloud. For example, in Figure 2.85 on page 149 the sky has approximately 4/8 cloud cover.
 Activities
Table 2.18 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 August 2007

Table 2.19 Daily weather observations at Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 1–7 February 2008

Figure 2.94 Cloud types

Figure 2.95 Daily weather, wind direction and frequency at Frankston, August 2007
The results recorded by a school in Victoria are shown in Tables 2.18 and 2.19. The data for
the first week (August) are plotted in Figure 2.95.
1 Plot the data for February using the same methods as in Figure 2.95.
2 State the maximum and minimum temperatures of the 7-day period in February.
3 Work out the mean minimum temperature and the mean maximum temperature for the 7
days.
4 How much rain fell during the 7 days?
5 Compare the weather in February with that in August.
Key questions
• What are the main characteristics of equatorial and hot desert climates?
• What are the factors that influence equatorial and desert climates?
• What are the characteristics of tropical rainforest and hot desert ecosystems?
• What are the causes and impacts of the deforestation of tropical rainforest?

2.5 Climate and natural vegetation

Figure 2.96 Tropical rainforest, Sarawak

Equatorial and hot desert climates

The main characteristics of an equatorial climate include:
• hot conditions — generally above 26°C — throughout the year
• high levels of rainfall, often over 2000 mm
• a lack of seasons — the temperatures are high throughout the year
• a difference between daytime and night-time temperatures (known as the diurnal range) that is higher
than the seasonal differences in temperature
• mainly convectional rainfall, which may fall on as many as 250 days each year
• variable cloud cover — in the morning it may be limited but, by the afternoon, towering
cumulonimbus clouds mark the start of the convectional rains
• reduced heat loss at night due to the presence of clouds — hence the diurnal range is less than in hot
desert areas
• high humidity (moisture in the atmosphere) — relative humidities of 100 per cent are often reached in
the late afternoon
• reduced wind speeds within the rainforest due to the large numbers of trees present.
The data for Manaus in Brazil (Table 2.20) show that the warmest months are September and October, with a
mean monthly temperature of 34°C. In contrast, all of the months from December to September share the mean
minimum monthly temperature of 24°C. Thus the mean annual temperature range is 10°C.
Rainfall in Manaus is high — nearly 2100 mm. There is a definite wet season between November and May,
whereas the months of June to October are relatively dry.
Table 2.20 Climate data for Manaus

Table 2.21 Climate data for Cairo

In contrast, the main characteristics of hot desert climates include:

• very hot days and cold nights, caused by the lack of cloud cover
• low and irregular amounts of rainfall, which lack any seasonal pattern
• low levels of humidity for much of the year
• warm, dry winds, sometimes causing sandstorms.
The data for Cairo (Table 2.21) show that the highest mean monthly temperatures are between June and
August, when the temperature reaches 35°C. In contrast, the lowest mean monthly temperature is in January,
reaching just 9°C. Thus the temperature range is 26°C. There is a seasonal pattern to temperature, with the
highest values in the summer and lowest readings in the winter. Rainfall figures are very low — just 27 mm.
Sunshine levels are lower during the months when there is more rain (winter months between November and
March). In general, sunshine levels are much higher in Cairo — 9.5 hours per day compared with 5.7 hours per
day in Manaus.

Activities
1 In which months is the average temperature in Cairo higher than in Manaus?
2 How much rain falls in Manaus in April?
3 In which months is the minimum temperature in Cairo higher than that in Manaus? How
do you explain this?
4 Describe the variations in monthly sunshine levels in Manaus.
5 Suggest why there is a link between sunshine levels and rainfall.
6 What is the mean monthly temperature range in Manaus and Cairo in:
a July
b December?

Factors affecting climate

Many factors affect the temperature of a place. These include latitude, distance from the sea, the nature of
nearby ocean currents, altitude, dominant winds, cloud cover and aspect. Differences in pressure systems also
affect whether it rains or whether it is dry.

Latitude
On a global scale latitude is the most important factor determining temperature (Figure 2.97). Two factors
affect the temperature: the angle of the overhead Sun and the thickness of the atmosphere. Firstly, at the equator
the overhead Sun is high in the sky, hence high-intensity insolation is received. By contrast, at the poles the
overhead Sun is low in the sky, hence the quantity of energy received is low. Secondly, the thickness of the
atmosphere affects temperature. Radiation has more atmosphere to pass through near the poles, due to its low
angle of approach. Hence more energy is lost, scattered or reflected here than over equatorial areas, making
temperatures lower over the poles.
Equatorial climates have high temperatures throughout the year on account of their location. They also
receive high levels of rainfall due to the daily convection. Hot deserts are hot due to their tropical location, but
receive low rainfall for a variety of reasons, including the presence of the subtropical high-pressure belt.

Figure 2.97 Factors that affect climate

Proximity to the sea

The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a body by 1°C. Land heats
and cools more quickly than water. It takes five times as much heat to raise the temperature of water by 1°C as it
does to raise land temperatures.
Water also heats more slowly because:
• it is clear, so the Sun’s rays penetrate to great depth, distributing energy over a wider area
• tides and currents cause the heat to be distributed further.
Therefore, a greater volume of water is heated for every unit of energy than land, so water takes longer to
heat up.
Distance from the sea therefore has an important influence on temperature. Water takes up heat and emits it
much more slowly than the land. In mid latitudes in winter air over sea is much warmer than over land, so
onshore winds bring heat to the coastal lands. By contrast, during the summer coastal areas remain much cooler
than inland sites. Areas with a coastal influence are termed maritime or oceanic, whereas inland areas are called
continental. Areas that are very far from the sea may be extremely arid, such as parts of central North Africa.

Ocean currents
The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends on whether the current is cold or warm. Warm currents
from equatorial regions raise the temperature of polar areas (with the aid of prevailing westerly winds). However,
the effect is only noticeable in winter. Areas that lie close to cold, upwelling ocean currents, such as Namibia in
Africa, may contain hot deserts, such as the Namib desert. This is because the cold current cools the air above it,
reducing the amount of evaporation from the ocean, and producing dry conditions.

Altitude
In general, air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. This is because air under the greater pressure
of lower altitudes is denser and therefore warmer. As altitude increases, so the pressure on the air is reduced and
the air becomes cooler. The normal decrease of temperature with height is, on average, 10°C/km.

Winds
The effects of wind on temperature depend on the initial characteristics of the wind. In temperate latitudes
prevailing (dominant) winds from the land lower the winter temperatures, but raise them in summer. This is
because continental areas are very hot in summer but very cold in winter. Prevailing winds from the sea do the
opposite — they lower the summer temperatures and raise them in winter.

Cloud cover
Cloud cover decreases the amount of insolation reaching the surface by reflecting some of it. Clouds also
reduce the amount of insolation leaving the surface by absorbing the radiation. If there is limited cloud then
incoming shortwave radiation and outgoing longwave radiation are at a maximum. This is the norm in many hot
deserts.

Pressure
In low-pressure systems air is rising. Low pressure produces rain as the air may rise high enough, cool,
condense and form clouds and rain. This can happen in very warm areas, such as in equatorial areas, at mountain
barriers and at weather fronts, when warm air is forced over cold air. In contrast, where there is high pressure air
is sinking, and rain formation is prevented. The world’s great hot deserts are located where there is high pressure
caused by sinking air.
Activities
1 How does latitude affect the amount of heat a place receives?
2 Why are equatorial areas not getting any hotter, or polar areas any colder?
3 What is meant by the term ‘specific heat capacity’?
4 Explain why temperature decreases with height.
5 Why is there a large temperature difference between day and night in hot deserts, but not
in equatorial areas?

Tropical rainforests
Evergreen tropical rainforests are located in equatorial areas, largely between 10°N and 10°S (Figure 2.98).
There are, nevertheless, some areas of rainforest that are found outside these areas, but these tend to be more
seasonal in nature. The main areas of rainforest include the Amazon rainforest in Brazil, the Congo rainforest in
central Africa, and the Indonesian-Malaysian rainforests of Southeast Asia. There are many small fragments of
rainforest, such as those on the island of Madagascar and in the Caribbean. Tropical rainforests everywhere are
under increasing threat from human activities, such as farming and logging. The result is that rainforests are
disappearing and those that remain are not only smaller, but broken up into fragments.
 Figure 2.98 World distribution of tropical rainforests

Interesting note
Tropical rainforests cover 6 per cent of the world’s land surface but hold 50 per cent of the world’s
species. The Amazon rainforest alone is home to 10 per cent of the world’s known species.

Vegetation
The vegetation is evergreen, enabling photosynthesis to take place all year round. This is possibly due to the
high temperatures all year, and the presence of water throughout the year. The vegetation is layered, and the
shape of the crowns varies at each layer (Figure 2.99). Species at the top of the canopy receive most of the
sunlight, whereas species that are located near the forest floor are adapted to darker conditions, and generally
have a darker pigment so as to photosynthesise at low light levels. There is a great variety in the number of
species in a rainforest — this is known as biodiversity. A rainforest may contain as many as 300 different
species in a single hectare. Typical rainforest species include figs, teak, mahogany and yellow woods.
Tropical vegetation has many adaptations. Some trees have leaves with drip-tips (Figure 2.100a), which are
designed to get rid of excess moisture. In contrast, other plants have saucer-shaped leaves in order to collect
water. Pitcher plants have developed an unusual means of getting their nutrients. Rather than taking nutrients
from the soil, they have become carnivorous and get their nutrients from insects and small frogs that are trapped
inside the pitcher (Figure 2.100b). This is one way of coping with the very infertile soils of the rainforest. Other
plants are very tall. To prevent being blown over by the wind, very large trees have developed buttress roots that
project out from the main trunk above the ground, which gives the plant extra leverage in the wind.

Rainforest animals
Although rainforests cover less than 6 per cent of the Earth’s surface, they account for over 50 per cent of all
animal species on Earth. It is more than likely that many rainforest species have not yet been discovered —
between 2010 and 2013 over 440 new species of plant and animal were discovered in the Amazon alone.
 Figure 2.99 Vegetation structure of the tropical rainforest

Figure 2.100 Adaptations of rainforest plants: (a) drip-tip; (b) pitcher plant
Many species, such as orang-utans, are arboreal (live entirely in the trees) and rarely come to the ground
where they would be easy prey for large carnivores. Top carnivores, such as jaguars, tigers and leopards, are
highly camouflaged. Many species are highly camouflaged to avoid becoming prey, such as stick insects and the
Indian leaf butterfly. Sloths are covered with a layer of green algae, which camouflages their fur in their arboreal
environment. Some animals have evolved to look larger or scarier than they really are: the larvae of the lobster
moth look like scorpions, but are defenceless. Many butterflies have designs that look like large eyes on their
wings, in order to confuse potential predators. Some species, such as the monarch butterfly, are poisonous, which
helps deter predators.

Soils
Rainforests are the most productive land-based ecosystems. Rainforest soils are typically deep due to the
large amount of weathering that has taken place, and they are often red in colour, due to the large amounts of iron
present in the soil. Ironically, the soils of tropical rainforests are quite infertile. This is because most of the
nutrients in the rainforest are contained in the biomass (living matter). Nevertheless, there are some areas in
which tropical soils may be more fertile: in floodplains and in volcanic areas the soils may be enriched by
flooding or the weathering of fertile lava flows.
The nutrient cycle is easily disrupted (Figure 2.101). Tropical rainforests have been described as ‘deserts
covered by trees’. Once the vegetation is removed, nutrients are quickly removed from the system, creating
infertile conditions and even deserts.
 Figure 2.101 Conditions required for the growth of rainforest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest and hot desert

Activities
Study Figure 2.101.
1 What is the minimum temperature required for the growth of tropical rainforests?
2 What is the minimum amount of rainfall needed for a tropical rainforest?
3 Suggest how a rainforest with a mean annual temperature of 30°C and an annual rainfall
of 3500 mm might differ from one with a mean annual rainfall of 1700 mm and a mean annual
temperature of 25°C.
4 Suggest how the vegetation in Figure 2.100 is adapted to conditions in the rainforest.
5 What is biodiversity? Suggest reasons why it may be important to protect biodiversity.
6 Why are rainforests described as ‘deserts covered with trees’?

Impacts of deforestation of the tropical

rainforest
About 200 million people live in areas that are or were covered by tropical rainforests. These areas offer
many advantages for human activities, such as farming, hydroelectric power, tourism, fishing and food supply,
mineral development and forestry (Figure 2.102). Rainforests also play a vital role in regulating the world’s
climate, and they account for 50 per cent of the world’s plants and animals. They are vital, too, for the protection
of soil and water resources (Table 2.22).
The year-round growing season is very attractive for farmers, although the poor quality of the soil results in
the land being farmed for only a few years before the land is abandoned (Figure 2.103). Nevertheless, large-
scale plantations occur in areas of tropical rainforest, producing crops such as palm oil, which is increasingly
being used for the biofuels industry. High rainfall totals, especially in hilly areas, favour the development of HEP,
such as at Batang Ai in Sarawak, Malaysia. Areas of rainforest have a long history of commercial farming.
Tropical hardwoods, such as teak and mahogony, are prized by furniture manufacturers. Mineral mining
developments, such as iron ore at Carajas in Brazil and ilminite on the southeast coast of Madagascar, are also
developed in some rainforest areas.

Figure 2.102 Tropical rainforest along with shifting cultivation — rice growing in Sarawak
 Figure 2.103 Rainforest at Batang Ai affected by flooding, shifting cultivation and soil erosion

Table 2.22 The value of tropical rainforests

Industrial Ecological uses Subsistence uses

uses
Charcoal Watershed protection Fuelwood and
Saw logs Flood and landslide protection charcoal
Gums, Soil erosion control Fodder for
resins and Climate regulation, e.g. balancing agriculture
oils levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen Building poles
Pulpwood Special woods and ashes Pit sawing and
Plywood Fruit and nuts saw milling
and veneer Weaving materials
Industrial and dyes
chemicals Rearing silkworms
Medicines and beekeeping
Genes for
crops
Tourism
There are a large number of effects of deforestation, including:
• disruption to the circulation and storage of nutrients
• surface erosion and compaction of soils
• sandification
• increased flood levels and sediment content of rivers
• climatic change
• loss of biodiversity.
Deforestation disrupts the closed system of nutrient cycling within tropical rainforests. Inorganic elements
are released through burning and are quickly flushed out of the system by the high-intensity rains.
Soil erosion is also associated with deforestation. As a result of soil compaction, there is a decrease in
infiltration, and an increase in overland runoff and surface erosion.
Sandification is a process of selective erosion. Raindrop impact washes away the finer particles of clay and
humus, leaving behind the coarser and heavier sand. Evidence of sandification dates back to the 1890s in
Santarem, Rondonia.
As a result of the intense surface runoff and soil erosion, rivers have a higher flood peak and a shorter time
lag. However, in the dry season river levels are lower, the rivers have greater turbidity (murkiness due to more
sediment), an increased bed load, and carry more silt and clay in suspension.
Other changes relate to climate. As deforestation progresses, there is a reduction in water that is re-
evaporated from the vegetation, hence the recycling of water must diminish. Evaporation rates from savanna
grasslands are estimated to be only about one-third of those of the tropical rainforest. Thus, mean annual rainfall
is reduced, and the seasonality of rainfall increases.
Causes of deforestation in Brazil
There are five main causes of deforestation in Brazil:
• agricultural colonisation by landless migrants and speculative developers along highways and
agricultural growth areas
• conversion of the forest to cattle pastures, especially in eastern and southeastern Para and northern
Mato Grosso
• mining, for example the Greater Carajas Project in southeastern Amazonia, which includes a 900 km
railway and extensive deforestation to provide charcoal to smelt the iron ore. Other threats from mining
include the small-scale informal gold mines, garimpeiros, causing localised deforestation and contaminated
water supplies
• large-scale hydroelectric power schemes, such as the Tucurui Dam on the Tocantins River
• forestry taking place in Para, Amazonas and northern Mato Grosso.
Deforestation in Brazil shows five main trends:
• It is a recent phenomenon.
• It has partly been promoted by government policies.
• It has a wide range of causes.
• It includes new areas of deforestation, as well as the extension of previously deforested areas.

• Land speculation and the granting of land titles to those who ‘occupy’ parts of the rainforest is a major
cause of deforestation.
Activities
1 Comment on the value of tropical rainforests to the human population.
2 Outline the main impacts of deforestation on the natural environment.
3 Explain the main causes of deforestation in Brazil.
4 Comment on the trends of deforestation in Brazil.
Case study: Danum Valley Conservation Area, Malaysian
Borneo

Figure 2.104 Danum Valley Conservation Area

The Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) contains more than 120 mammal species,
including 10 species of primate. The DVCA and surrounding forest is an important reservation for
orang-utans. These forests are particularly rich in other large mammals including the Asian elephant,
Malayan sun bear, clouded leopard, bearded pig and several species of deer. The area also
provides one of the last refuges in Sabah for the critically endangered Sumatran rhino. Over
340 species of bird have been recorded at Danum, including the argus pheasant, Bulwer’s pheasant
and seven species of pitta bird.
The DVCA covers 43,800 hectares, comprising almost entirely lowland dipterocarp forest
(dipterocarps are valuable hardwood trees). It is the largest expanse of pristine forest of this type
remaining in Sabah, northeast Borneo (Figure 2.104).
Until the late 1980s, the area was under threat from commercial logging. The establishment of a
long-term research programme between Yayasan Sabah and the Royal Society in the UK
created local awareness of the conservation value of the area and provided important scientific
information about the forest and what happens to it when it is disturbed through logging. Danum
Valley is controlled by a management committee containing all the relevant local institutions —
wildlife, forestry and commercial sectors are all represented. To the east of the DVCA is the 30,000
hectare Innoprise-FACE Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO), one of the largest
forest rehabilitation projects in southeast Asia, which is replanting areas of heavily disturbed logged
forest.
Because all areas of conservation and replanting are embedded within the larger commercial
forest, the value of the whole area is greatly enhanced. Movement of animals between forest areas
is enabled and allows the continued survival of some important and endangered Borneo animals
such as the Sumatran rhino, the orang-utan and the Borneo elephant. In the late 1990s, a hotel was
established on the northeastern edge of the DVCA. It has established flourishing ecotourism in the
area and exposed this unique forest to a wider range of visitors than was previously possible.
As well as raising revenue for the local area, it has raised the international profile of the area as an
important centre for conservation and research.
Case study analysis
1 What was the main threat to the Danum Valley before the late 1980s?
2 Why is the DVCA important for the conservation of species?
3 What are the main interest groups in the forest?

Hot deserts
The world’s hot deserts are largely found in subtropical areas between 20°and 30°north and south of the
equator (Figure 2.105). The largest area of hot desert is the Sahara but there are other important deserts such as
the Great Victoria Desert and Great Sandy Desert in Australia, the Kalahari and Namib deserts in southern Africa,
the Atacama desert in South America, and the Arabian desert. The Gobi desert in Mongolia and China lies
outside the tropics and therefore is not a hot desert.
The main factors influencing the vegetation are that it is hot throughout the year and there is low and
unreliable rainfall (≤250 mm per year).

Vegetation
The vegetation responds to hot desert conditions in a number of ways. There are two main types of desert
plant. Perennials (plants that grow over a number of years) may be succulent (they store lots of water), they are
often small (to reduce water loss by evaporation and transpiration) and they may be woody. Annuals or
ephemerals are plants that live for a short time but these may form a dense covering of vegetation immediately
after rain.
Ephemerals evade drought. During the infrequent wet periods they develop rapidly, producing a large
number of flowers and fruits. These help produce seeds, which remain dormant in the ground until the next rains.
Many plants are adapted to drought (Figure 2.106) — these are called xerophytes. Water loss is minimised in
a number of ways:
• Leaf hairs reduce windspeed and therefore reduce transpiration.
• Thick waxy cuticles and the rolling-up or shedding of leaves at the start of the dry season reduce water
loss.
• Some plants have the bulk of their biomass (living material) below the ground surface.
• Others have very deep roots to reach the water table.
• In woody species the wood prevents the collapse of the plant even when the plant is wilting.
 Figure 2.105 World distribution of hot deserts

Figure 2.106 Plant adaptations to hot desert environments

Vegetation from desert margins is often referred to as scrub. Tropical scrub on the margins of hot deserts
includes acacias, cacti, succulents, tuberous-rooted plants and herbaceous plants that only grow with rain. Special
types are mulga in Australia (dense acacia thickets), spinifax in Australia (‘porcupine grass’) and chanaral in
Chile (spiny shrubs).
 Figure 2.107 Animal adaptations to hot desert environments
Soils in desert areas are very infertile. As a result of the low rainfall there is little organic or moisture
content in the soil. The lack of chemical weathering (largely due to the lack of moisture) means that soils contain
few nutrients.
Interesting note
Although it is a hot desert, the Sahara contains some 300 plant species and around 70 animal
species.

Animals
Animals are adapted to living in the desert in a number of ways (Figure 2.107). Different animals may:
• be nocturnal (active only at night) in order to avoid the heat of the day
• use panting and/or have large ears help to reduce body heat
• remain in underground burrows during the day
• secrete highly concentrated uric acid in order to reduce water loss
• migrate during the hottest season to escape the heat

• adopt a strategy of long-term aestivation (dormancy, or sleep), which ends only when moisture and
temperature conditions become more favourable.
Activities
1 Why is it difficult to live in a hot desert?
2 Study Figure 2.101 on page 161, which shows the conditions required for the growth of
hot deserts.
a What is the maximum rainfall in a hot desert, as suggested by Figure 2.101?
b What is the range of mean annual temperatures in hot deserts?
3 Suggest how a hot desert with a mean annual temperature of 30°C and a mean annual
rainfall of 250 mm might differ from one in which the mean annual rainfall is 250 mm and the
mean annual temperature is 20°C.
4 How have plants adapted to survive in the desert?
5 How do animals survive in the desert?
6 Visit www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Camel to find out how camels are adapted to living in hot
deserts.
Case study: The Sonoran desert
The Sonoran Desert is located in southern USA (southern California and southern Arizona) and
northern Mexico. Its vegetation includes the saguaro cactus, which can grow to a height of 15 m and
live for up to 175 years. Its ribbed stem expands as it fills with water during the winter wet season. Its
stem also reduces wind speed and water loss from the plant, while sunken stomata reduce water
loss. It has shallow roots to catch water from storms before it evaporates. Other species with similar
adaptations include the prickly pear and barrel and hedgehog cacti.
The Palo Verde is a small, drought-tolerant tree. It loses its leaves in the dry season, but its green
bark allows it to photosynthesise without leaves. Creosote bushes have small, dark leaves to reduce
transpiration. Plant density depends upon water availability.
Soils in the Sonoran desert are typically thin, relatively infertile and alkaline. Seasonal rains carry
soluble salts down through the soil. However, during the dry season they are drawn up to the surface
by evaporation. Concentrations may be toxic for some plants. In addition, flash flooding can compact
the soil, leaving the surface impermeable.
There has been considerable human impact in the area. Some cities, notably Phoenix in Arizona,
have expanded rapidly at the expense of the desert. The increased demand for, and abstraction of,
water has lowered water tables. Mesquite bushes and cottonwood trees that were growing along
watercourses have died back. Road construction and pipelines have affected the movement of
mammals, and fenced highways have prevented pronghorn antelopes, for example, from reaching
water supplies. Off-road vehicles have compacted soils and made them less able to hold water.
Overgrazing by cattle has removed more palatable species. Domesticated animals have escaped
into the wild, and reduced grazing availability for wild mammals. The introduction of exotic plant
species, such as tamarisk, has displaced native species such as cottonwoods and desert willows.
Removal of native species has speeded up the spread of exotic species.
Case study analysis
1 Where is the Sonoran desert?
2 How is the saguaro cactus adapted to life in the desert?

Vegetation distribution in Death Valley

The distribution of vegetation in Death Valley (average rainfall less than 50 mm per year), depends very
much on ground and soil conditions. These determine the quantity and quality of water supply. Three main zones
can be recognised: the central salt pan, the lower sandy slopes and the upper gravel slopes.
The central salt pans occupy depressions, into which rainfall runs off from the upper slopes and collects. This
rain contains dissolved chemicals. As it seeps into the ground it raises the water table, in some places quite close
to the surface. Due to the high temperatures of the valley, groundwater containing chemicals in solution is drawn
up by evaporation and capillary action. As the water evaporates, salts are deposited on the surface, forming thick
crusts. These crusts are high in salt, and so no flowering plants can grow here.
Around the edge of the salt pans, however, the ground is not so salty. The groundwater is still quite high
and the ground sandy. In this zone, phreatophytes (plants with very deep tap roots) grow. Their roots penetrate
as far down as the water table. The various plants in this zone are found in a regular order depending on their
tolerance of salinity. The most salt-tolerant is pickleweed, which can tolerate levels as high as 6 per cent salt
(twice as salty as sea water). This plant is found closest to the salt pan. Next is arrow weed, which can tolerate 3
per cent salt, and finally honey mesquite, which can only tolerate a maximum of 0.5 per cent salt content.

Between the sandy zone and the valley sides are the gravel deposits. This is where the xerophytes (species
of plant that have adapted to survive in an environment with little water) are located. They are too far above
the water table to reach it and survive through being drought-resistant. Xerophytes, such as the creosote bush,
may receive some water from dew, infrequent rainfall and some occasional overland flow. Once again, a
sequence can be observed. On the slightly wetter, upper slopes, burrow-weed is found. With increasing water
shortage, creosote bushes are found and, finally, in the lowest, driest gravel, the desert holly bush is found.
Activities
1 Suggest reasons why hot deserts offer limited opportunities for human activities.
2 Explain how plants are adapted to desert environments.
3 Explain how human activities have impacted upon desert ecosystems.
End-of-theme questions
Topic 2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
Figure 2.108 Global distribution of earthquakes
Study Figure 2.108, which shows the global distribution of earthquakes.
a Describe the global distribution of earthquakes.
b Suggest reasons for the distribution of earthquakes.
c Define the terms ‘focus’ and ‘epicentre’.
d Using examples, explain the main factors that increase the impacts of earthquakes.
Topic 2.2 Rivers
Study Figure 2.109.
a Approximately how high is the source of the Jordan stream?
b How much does it fall in order to reach the Waimakariri river?
c How far is the Waimakariri river from the source of the Jordan stream?
d Describe the changes in the river valley between point A and point B. e
Describe the valley of the Jordan stream and its valley at point C.
f Outline the likely human activities that might occur in this area. Give reasons for your
choices.
Figure 2.109 Extract from a 1:50,000 map of Arthur’s Pass, New Zealand
Topic 2.3 Coasts
Study Figure 2.110.
a Identify the features A, B, C and D.
b Explain how landform C may be formed.
c What feature is located at E?
d Explain the meaning of the term ‘prevailing wind’.
e Suggest how landform E may be formed.

Figure 2.110 Sketch map of coastal features

Topic 2.4 Weather
1 Using the data in Table 2.23, plot the data for 16–22 September 2013. Use the same
methods as you did for Figure 2.95 (for August 2007, see page 155).
2 State the maximum and minimum temperature of the 7-day period.
3 Work out the mean minimum temperature and the mean maximum temperature for the 7
days.
4 How much rain fell during the 7 days?
5 Compare the weather of August 2007 and September 2013.
Topic 2.5 Climate and natural vegetation
1 Study Figure 2.105 on page 164.
a Comment on the distribution of the world’s hot deserts.
b Why is it difficult to live in a desert?
c How have plants in the desert adapted in order to survive?
d How do animals survive in the desert?
Table 2.23 Daily weather observations for Frankston, Victoria (Australia), 16–22 September 2013
THEME 3 Economic development
 Topics
3.1 Development
3.2 Food production
3.3 Industry
3.4 Tourism
3.5 Energy
3.6 Water
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development
This theme investigates how it is possible to define and measure ‘development’. It looks at
variations in development between and within countries. Food production (agriculture) is
considered in terms of factors, processes and products. The factors that influence the location of
industry are discussed. Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing service industries, and the
factors affecting its growth, impacts and management are discussed. Energy resources and water
resources in countries at different levels of development are considered, and the environmental
risks of economic development are discussed.

Key questions
• How can the level of economic development of a country be measured?
• What are the reasons for inequalities between and within countries?
• How can economic production be classified into different sectors?
• How do the proportions employed in each sector of an economy vary according to the level
of development?
• What is globalisation?
• How important are technology, transnational corporations and other economic factors in the
process of globalisation?
• What are the impacts of globalisation at local, national and global scales?

3.1 Development
Figure 3.1 An open-pit toilet in the Gobi desert: this is as far as sanitation goes in many parts of the
developing world
Indicators of development
Development, or improvement in the quality of life, is a wide-ranging concept. It includes wealth, but it also
includes other important aspects of our lives (Figure 3.2). For example, many people would consider good health
to be more important than wealth. Development occurs when there are improvements to individual factors
making up the quality of life. For example, development occurs in a low-income country when:
• local food supply improves due to investment in farm machinery and fertilisers
• the electricity grid extends outwards from the main urban areas to rural areas
• levels of literacy improve throughout the country.

Figure 3.2 Factors comprising the quality of life

Measures of national income

One of the traditional indicators of a country’s wealth is the gross national product (GNP). You will also be
able to find data for gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national income (GNI). It is reasonable at this level
of study to regard these as broadly similar measures. The gross national product is:
• the total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year
• plus income earned by the country’s residents from foreign investments
• minus income earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents.

Figure 3.3 World map showing GNP per capita in 2013

To take account of the different populations of countries the gross national product per capita is often used.
Here, the total GNP of a country is divided by the total population. Per capita figures allow for better
comparisons between countries when their total populations are very different. For example, the total GNP of
China is greater than that of the UK, but GNP per capita is much higher in the UK.
However, such data do not take into account the way in which the cost of living can vary between countries.
For example, a dollar buys much more in Bangladesh than it does in the USA. To account for this the GNP per
capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) can be calculated. Figure 3.3 shows GNP per capita for 2013. It is
clear to see where regions of high and low GNP per capita are located.
Table 3.1 shows the top and bottom 12 countries in GDP per capita (PPP) for 2016. The development gap
between the world’s wealthiest and poorest countries is huge. However, a major limitation of GNP and other
national data is that these are ‘average’ figures for a country, which tell us nothing about:
• the way in which wealth is distributed within a country — in some countries the gap between rich and
poor is much greater than in others
• how government invests the money at its disposal; for example, Cuba has a low GNP per capita but
high standards of health and education because these have been government priorities for a long time.
Development not only varies between countries — it can also vary significantly within countries. Most of
the measures that can be used to study the contrasts between countries can also be used to look at regional
variations within countries.
Table 3.1 Top 12 and bottom 12 countries in GDP per capita ($PPP) 2016

Literacy
Education is undoubtedly the key to socio-economic development. It can be defined as the process of
acquiring knowledge, understanding and skills. Education has always been regarded as a very important
individual indicator of development and it has figured prominently in aggregate measures. Adult literacy is one
of the main ways in which differences in educational standards between countries can be shown. In 2015, the
global adult literacy rate was 85 per cent, but in over a dozen African countries, such as Ethiopia, Chad and
Niger, adult literacy rates were below 50 per cent. About 780 million adults worldwide are illiterate. A low adult
literacy rate is a great obstacle to development.
The World Bank has concluded that improving female literacy is one of the most fundamental achievements
for a developing nation to attain, because so many aspects of development depend on it. For example, there is a
very strong relationship between the extent of female literacy and infant and child mortality rates. People who are
literate are able to access medical and other information that will help them to a higher quality of life compared
with those who are illiterate.

Life expectancy
Life expectancy is viewed as a very important measure of development as it is to a large extent the end result
of all the factors contributing to the quality of life in a country. It is important for international and national
government agencies to know about variations in life expectancy, as this is a key measure of inequality. It helps
development programmes to target those in most need. The main influences on life expectancy are:
• the incidence of disease (for example, malaria)
• physical environmental conditions (for example, very low rainfall)
• human environmental conditions (for example, pollution)
• personal lifestyle (for example, smoking).
 Rates of life expectancy have converged significantly between rich and poor countries during the last 50
years, in spite of a widening wealth gap. Figures for life expectancy by world region are given in Table 1.5 on
page 8.

Infant mortality
The infant mortality rate is regarded as one of the most sensitive indicators of socio-economic progress
(Table 3.2). It is an important measure of health inequality both between and within countries.
There are huge differences in the infant mortality rate around the world, despite the wide availability of
public health knowledge. Fortunately infant mortality rates have fallen sharply in many developing countries
over the last 30 years. However, there is still a considerable gap between the richer and poorer world regions.
The infant mortality rate in Africa is more than eleven times that of Europe. Infant mortality generally
compares well with other indicators of development, which is a good indication of its value as a measure of
development.

Table 3.2 Infant mortality rate by world region, 2016

Region Infant mortality rate, 2016
World 36
More developed world 5
Less developed world 39
Africa 57
Asia 31
Latin America/Caribbean 17
North America 6
Oceania 20
Europe 5

Other individual indicators of development

Other measures of development include:
• school enrolment
• doctors per 100,000 people
• food intake (calories per capita per day)
• energy consumption per capita
• percentage of the population with access to an improved water supply
• percentage of the population living in urban areas
• number of motor vehicles per 1000 population
• internet penetration rate.
Interesting note
In 2016, seven countries had infant mortality rates above 80/1000. All were in Africa. The highest
rates were in Congo Dem. Rep. (97/1000) and Angola (93/1000).

The human development index: a broader

measure of development
In 1990 the human development index (HDI) was devised by the United Nations as a measure of the
disparities between countries. The HDI is a composite index, which has changed slightly in composition in recent
years. The current index contains four indicators of development (Figure 3.4):
• life expectancy at birth
• mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
• expected years of schooling for children of school entering age
• GNI per capita (PPP$).
 The actual figures for each of these measures are converted into an index, which has a maximum value of
1.0 in each case. The index values are then combined and averaged to give an overall HDI value. This also has a
maximum value of 1.0. Every year the United Nations publishes the Human Development Report, which
uses the HDI to rank all the countries of the world in their level of development. The countries of the world are
divided into four groups:
• very high human development
• high human development
• medium human development
• low human development.
Figure 3.5 shows the global distribution of these four groups in 2011, while Table 3.3 lists the ‘Very high
human development’ countries in rank order for 2015. All the low human development countries in 2015 were in
Africa apart from Syria, Papua New Guinea, the Soloman Islands, Haiti, Yemen and Afghanistan.
Every measure of development has merits and limitations. No single measure can provide a complete picture
of the differences in development between countries. This is why the United Nations combines four measures of
different aspects of the quality of life to arrive at a figure of human development for each country. Although the
development gap can be measured in a variety of ways it is generally taken to be increasing. Many people are
concerned about this situation, either because they see it as very unfair, or because it can create political
instability.

Figure 3.4 The components of the human development index

Figure 3.5 Map of the human development index, 2011

Table 3.3 The 51 ‘Very high human development’ countries, 2015 rankings
 Figure 3.6 The Waterfront, Vancouver. Canada has a very high level of human development

Activities
1 What is development?
2 Give two examples of development in a low-income country.
3 Define GNP.
4 Why are GNP data and other measures of national income now frequently published at
purchasing power parity (PPP)?
5 Briefly discuss the merits of one individual indicator of development.
6 Which indicators of development are combined to form the human development index?
7 Look at Figure 3.5 and briefly describe the distribution of countries according to the
human development index.

Explaining inequalities between countries

Stages of development
Over the years there have been a number of descriptions and explanations of levels of development
between countries and how countries have moved from one level of development to another. A reasonable
division of the world in terms of stages of economic development is shown in Figure 3.7. You will be familiar
with the concept of developed and developing countries, but you may not be so sure about least developed
countries and newly industrialised countries (NICs).
Since 1971 the United Nations has recognised least developed countries (LDCs). These are the poorest of
the developing countries. They have major economic, institutional and human resource problems. These are often
made worse by geographical handicaps such as very low rainfall and natural and man-made disasters.
 Figure 3.7 Stages of development
At present 48 countries are identified as LDCs. Of these, 34 are in Africa, 13 in Asia and the Pacific, and one
in Latin America (Haiti). You can find case studies of LDCs relating to population (The Gambia, Bangladesh) in
Theme 1 of this book. With 12 per cent of the world’s population, these countries generate less than 2 per cent of
world GDP and only 1 per cent of world trade. This comparison clearly indicates how impoverished these
countries are. The list of LDCs is reviewed every 3 years by the UN. When countries develop beyond a certain
point they are no longer considered to be LDCs. Four countries have so far developed beyond LDC status. These
are Botswana (1994), Cape Verde (2007), the Maldives (2011) and Samoa (2014). There is a high, but not perfect,
correlation between LDCs and the low human development nations.
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) are nations that have undergone rapid and successful
industrialisation since the 1960s. They have moved up the development ladder, having previously been
considered developing countries. The first countries to become newly industrialised countries (in the 1960s) were
South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The media referred to them as the ‘four Asian tigers’. A ‘tiger
economy’ is one that grows very rapidly. The reasons for the success of these countries were:
• a good initial level of infrastructure
• a skilled but relatively low-cost workforce
• cultural traditions that revere education and achievement
• governments that welcomed foreign direct investment (FDI) from transnational corporations
• distinct advantages in terms of geographical location
• the ready availability of bank loans, often extended at government behest and at attractive interest
rates.
The success of these four countries provided a model for others to follow, such as Malaysia, Brazil, China
and India. In the last 20 years, the growth of China has been particularly impressive. South Korea and Singapore
have developed so much that many people now consider them to be developed countries.

Explaining the development gap

There has been much debate about the causes of development. Detailed studies have shown that variations
between countries are due to a variety of factors.

Physical geography
• Landlocked countries have generally developed more slowly than coastal ones.
• Small island countries face considerable disadvantages in development.
• Tropical countries have grown more slowly than those in temperate latitudes, reflecting the cost of poor
health and unproductive farming. However, richer, non-agricultural tropical countries such as Singapore do not
suffer a geographical deficit of this kind.
• A generous allocation of natural resources has spurred economic growth in a number of countries.

Economic policies
• Open economies that welcomed and encouraged foreign investment have developed faster than closed
economies.
• Fast-growing countries tend to have high rates of saving and low spending relative to GDP.
• Institutional quality in terms of good government, law and order and lack of corruption generally
result in a high rate of growth.
Demography
• Progress through demographic transition is a significant factor, with the highest rates of growth
experienced by those nations where the birth rate has fallen the most.
Figure 3.8 combines a range of factors to explain differences in development. For example, in Figure 3.8a
Brazil would satisfy all three criteria. It is by far the largest country in South America. It has abundant natural
resources and it is clearly a newly industrialised country. In contrast, countries such as Haiti and Niger would be
affected by all three of the negative factors in Figure 3.8b.

Figure 3.8 Fast and slow development in developing countries

Figure 3.9 Low-income housing on the banks of the River Nile, Egypt

Consequences of the development gap

The development gap has significant consequences for people in the most disadvantaged countries. The
consequences of poverty can be economic, social, environmental and political (Table 3.4). Development may not
bring improvements in all four areas at first, but over time all four categories should witness advances.

Table 3.4 The consequences of poverty

Economic Global integration is spatially selective: some countries benefit
while others, it seems, do not. In 2015, about 10 per cent of the
world’s population lived on less than $2 a day. Poor countries
frequently lack the ability to pay for (1) food, (2) agricultural
innovation and (3) investment in rural development.
 Social About 780 million people in poor countries cannot read or write.
Over 660 million people do not have access to clean, safe water
and 2.4 billion to basic sanitation. Almost 3 million children
under the age of 5 die each year from conditions that could be
prevented/treated with access to simple, affordable
interventions. The impact of HIV/AIDS in poor countries can be
devastating.
Environmental Poor countries have increased vulnerability to natural disasters.
They lack the capacity to adapt to droughts induced by climate
change. Poor farming practices lead to environmental
degradation. Often, raw materials are exploited with very limited
economic benefit to poor countries and little concern for the
environment. Landscapes can be devastated by mining, vast
areas of rainforest destroyed by logging and clearance for
agriculture, and rivers and land polluted by oil exploitation.
Political Poor countries that are low on the development scale often have
non-democratic governments or they are democracies that
function poorly. There is usually a reasonably strong link
between development and improvement in the quality of
government. In general, the poorer the country the worse the
plight of minority groups.

Activities
1 Look at Figure 3.5 and name two countries at each of the four levels of human
development.
2 a Define a ‘least developed country’.
b What are the general problems facing least developed countries?
3 a Define a ‘newly industrialised country’.
b Briefly discuss the factors responsible for the development of the first NICs.
4 Consider the physical, economic and demographic factors that help explain the
inequalities between countries.
5 Explain the two scenarios shown in Figure 3.8.

Explaining inequalities within countries

The scale of disparities within countries is often as much an issue as the considerable variations between
countries. The Gini coefficient is a technique frequently used to show the extent of income inequality. It allows:
• analysis of changes in income inequality over time in individual countries
• comparison between countries.
Figure 3.10 shows global variations in the Gini coefficient for 2009. It is defined as a ratio, with values
between 0 and 1.0. A low value indicates a more equal income distribution, while a high value shows more
unequal income distribution. A Gini coefficient of zero would mean that everyone in a country had exactly the
same income (perfect equality). At the other extreme, a Gini coefficient of 1 would mean that one person had all
the income in a country (perfect inequality). In general, more affluent countries have a lower income gap than
lower income countries. Southern Africa and South America show up clearly as regions of very high income
inequality. Europe is the world region with the lowest income inequality.
In China, the income gap between urban residents and the huge farm population reached its widest level ever
in recent years as rural unemployment in particular rose steeply. This substantial income gap is a very sensitive
issue in China as more and more rural people feel they have been left behind in China’s economic boom. Figure
3.11 shows how regional income inequality has changed in China and the USA since the mid- 1960s. Since the
early 2000s regional disparities in China have become greater than in the USA and the gap has been getting
wider.
 Figure 3.10 World map showing variations in the Gini coefficient, 2009

Figure 3.11 Regional inequality in China and the USA

A theory of regional disparities

The model of cumulative causation helps to explain regional disparities. Figure 3.12 is a simplified
version of the model. The overall scenario is that there are three stages of regional disparity:
• the pre-industrial stage, when regional differences are minimal
• a period of rapid economic growth characterised by increasing regional economic divergence
• a stage of regional economic convergence when the significant wealth generated in the most affluent
region(s) spreads to other parts of the country.
 Figure 3.12 Simplified model of cumulative causation
Figure 3.13 shows how the regional economic divergence of the earlier stages of economic development can
eventually change to regional economic convergence as regional differences narrow.

Figure 3.13 Regional economic divergence and convergence

In the model (Figure 3.12) economic growth begins with the location of new manufacturing industry in a
region with a combination of advantages greater than elsewhere in the country. Once growth has been initiated in
this ‘core’ region, flows of labour, capital and raw materials develop to support it and the growth region
undergoes further expansion by the cumulative causation process. A detrimental negative effect (the backwash
effect) is transmitted to the less developed regions (the periphery) as skilled labour and locally generated capital
is attracted away. Manufactured goods and services produced and operating under the economies of scale of the
core region flood the market of the relatively underdeveloped periphery, undercutting smaller- scale enterprises
in such areas. In Figure 3.13, the wealth gap between the core and the periphery widens and regional inequality
increases (regional economic divergence).
However, increasing demand for raw materials from resource-rich parts of the periphery may stimulate
growth in other sectors of the economies of such regions. If the impact is strong enough to overcome local
negative effects, a process of cumulative causation may begin. This may lead to the development of new centres
of self-sustained economic growth (spread effects). If the process is strong enough and significant economic
growth occurs in the periphery, the inequality between core and periphery may begin to narrow. This is the
second stage in Figure 3.13 — regional economic convergence.
Many developing countries are in the first stage of Figure 3.13, where the wealth gap between core and
periphery is still widening. Thus, they have a high Gini coefficient. Movement from stage 1 to stage 2 is usually
attained by a combination of:
• market forces — the cost of doing business in the core region of a country may become so high that
investment in the periphery becomes increasingly popular
• government regional development policies — government investment to improve conditions in
peripheral regions, such as improvements in infrastructure, can help attract business investment.

Figure 3.14 A village in eastern Siberia — the standard of living in most parts of Asiatic Russia (the periphery)
is lower than in European Russia

Activities
1 a What is the Gini coefficient?
b Briefly describe the global differences shown in Figure 3.10.
2 Define the terms:
a economic core region
b periphery.
3 Explain the process shown in Figure 3.12 in your own words.
4 Describe and explain the trends shown in Figure 3.13.
5 What is the evidence in Figure 3.14 that this region is part of the economic periphery of
Russia?

Factors affecting inequalities within countries

Residence
Where people are born and where they live can have a very significant impact on their quality of life. This
includes:
• regional differences within countries — the wealth gap between core and periphery, which is
explained above
• urban/rural disparities, with urban areas generally attracting much greater investment; this results in
higher per capita incomes in urban areas
• intra-urban contrasts — low, middle and high-income areas often exist close together in the same city.
Large numbers of people live in slum conditions in cities in developing countries (Figure 3.15) and find it
extremely difficult to break out of this situation.
 Figure 3.15 Manholes in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia — people in poverty sometimes live down these manholes
because of access to the underground hot water pipes that can provide warmth in the harsh winters
The UN has recognised that the focus of global poverty is moving from rural to urban areas, a process known
as the urbanisation of poverty.

Ethnicity and employment

The development gap often has an ethnic and/or religious dimension whereby some ethnic groups in a
population have income levels significantly below the dominant group(s) in the same population. This is often
the result of discrimination, which limits the economic, social and political opportunities available to the
disadvantaged groups. Examples include South Africa, Indonesia and Bolivia. Ethnic or religious minorities may
be heavily concentrated in a particular region or regions of a country.
Jobs in the formal sector of the economy will be known to the government department responsible for
taxation and to other government offices. Such jobs generally provide better pay and much greater security than
jobs in the informal sector. Fringe benefits such as holiday and sick pay may also be available. Formal sector
employment includes health and education service workers, government workers, and people working in
established manufacturing and retail companies.
In contrast, the informal sector is that part of the economy operating outside official recognition.
Employment is generally low-paid and often temporary and/or part-time in nature (Figure 3.16). While such
employment is outside the tax system, job security will be poor, with an absence of fringe benefits. About three-
quarters of those working in the informal sector are employed in services. Typical jobs are shoe-shiners, street
food stalls, messengers, repair shops and market traders. Informal manufacturing tends to include both the
workshop sector, making, for example, cheap furniture, and the traditional craft sector. Many of these goods are
sold in bazaars and street markets.

Figure 3.16 The informal sector — shoe-shiners in Cairo, Egypt

Education
 Education is a key factor in explaining disparities within countries. Those with higher levels of education
invariably gain better-paid employment. In developing countries there is a clear link between education levels
and family size, with those with the least education having the largest families. Maintaining a large family
usually means that saving is impossible and varying levels of debt likely. In contrast, people with better
educational opportunities have smaller families and are thus able to save and invest more for the future. Such
differences serve to widen rather than narrow disparities. Standards of education can vary significantly by region
and as a result of other factors in a country.

Land ownership
The distribution of land ownership (tenure) has had a major impact on disparities in many countries. The
greatest disparities tend to occur alongside the largest inequities in land ownership. The ownership of even a very
small plot of land provides a certain level of security that those in the countryside without land cannot possibly
aspire to. Households headed by women are often the most disadvantaged in terms of land tenure.

Regional contrasts in Brazil

Southeast Brazil (Figure 3.17) is the economic core region of Brazil. Over time the southeast has benefited
from flows of raw materials, capital and labour (Figure 3.18a). The last two inputs have come from abroad as
well as from internal sources. The region grew rapidly through the process of cumulative causation. This process
not only resulted in significant economic growth in the core, but also had a considerable negative impact on the
periphery. The overall result was widening regional disparity. However, more recently, some parts of the
periphery, with a combination of advantages above the level of the periphery as a whole, have benefited from
spread effects from the core (Figure 3.18b). The south has been the most important recipient of spread effects
from the southeast, but the other regions have also benefited to an extent. This process has caused the regional
gap to narrow at times, but often not for very long. In Brazil income inequality still remains very wide.

Figure 3.17 Southeast Brazil

 Figure 3.18 Core/periphery diagrams for Brazil
The southeast has benefited from a number of advantages:
• The natural environment of the southeast has provided the region with several advantages for the
development of its economy.
• The southeast is the centre of both foreign and domestic investment.
• The region is the focus of the country’s road and rail networks. It contains the main airports and
seaports.
• More transnational companies are located in the southeast than in the rest of Brazil. With the highest
population density in Brazil, the labour supply here is plentiful.
• The region also has the highest educational and skill levels in the country.

The success of the first large wave of investment by foreign companies in the southeast encouraged others to
follow. For the last 60 years the area has experienced an upward cycle of growth (cumulative causation).
Activities
1 Briefly explain two factors that can affect income inequality in a country.
2 a Where is the economic core region of Brazil?
b Why is this region the most highly developed in the country?
3 a What do the two diagrams in Figure 3.18 show?
b How do these diagrams relate to Figure 3.13?

Classifying production into different

economic sectors
In all modern economies of a significant size, people do hundreds — and in some cases thousands — of
different jobs, all of which can be placed into four broad economic sectors:
• The primary sector exploits raw materials from land, water and air (Figure 3.19). Farming, fishing,
forestry, mining and quarrying make up most of the jobs in this sector. Some primary products are sold
directly to the consumer but most go to secondary industries for processing.
• The secondary sector manufactures primary materials into finished products (Figure 3.20). Activities
in this sector include the production of processed food, furniture and motor vehicles. Secondary products are
classed either as consumer goods (produced for sale to the public) or capital goods (produced for sale to
other industries).
• The tertiary sector (Figure 3.21) provides services to businesses and to people. Retail employees,
drivers, architects, teachers and nurses are examples of occupations in this sector.
• The quaternary sector (Figure 3.22) uses high technology to provide information and expertise.
Research and development is an important part of this sector. Jobs in this sector include aerospace engineers,
research scientists, computer scientists and biotechnology workers.
Figure 3.19 The primary sector: an oil well in Dorset, UK

Figure 3.20 The secondary sector: grain processing factory, Chicago, USA
 Figure 3.21 The tertiary sector: a street market in Nabul, Tunisia

Figure 3.22 The quaternary sector: a research scientist

The product chain can be used to illustrate the four sectors of employment. The product chain is the full
sequence of activities needed to turn raw materials into a finished product. The food industry provides a good
example (Figure 3.23). Some companies are involved in all four stages of the food product chain.
 Figure 3.23 The food industry’s product chain

Activities
1 Define the terms:
a primary sector
b secondary sector
c tertiary sector
d quaternary sector.
2 Give three examples of jobs in each of the four sectors of an economy.
3 Describe the food industry product chain shown in Figure 3.23.
4 What job do you want to do when you complete your education? In which sector of
employment is this job?

How employment structure varies

As an economy develops, the proportion of people employed in each sector changes (Figure 3.24). Countries
such as the USA, Japan, Germany and the UK are ‘post-industrial societies’ where the majority of people are
employed in the tertiary sector. Yet in 1900, 40 per cent of employment in the USA was in the primary sector.
However, the mechanisation of farming, mining, forestry and fishing drastically reduced the demand for labour
in these industries. As these jobs disappeared, people moved to urban areas where secondary and tertiary
employment was expanding. Only about 2 per cent of employment in the USA is now in the primary sector.

Figure 3.24 The sector model

Human labour has been steadily replaced in manufacturing too. In more and more factories, robots and other
advanced machinery handle assembly-line jobs, which once employed large numbers of people. The most
advanced forms of manufacturing are in the developed world. In 1950, the same number of Americans were
employed in manufacturing as in services. By 1980, two-thirds were working in services. Today, four- fifths of
Americans work in the tertiary sector.
The tertiary sector is also changing. In banking, insurance and many other types of business, computer
networks have reduced the number of people required. But elsewhere service employment is often rising, such as
in health, education and tourism. In developed countries employment in the quaternary sector has become more
and more important. Employment in the quaternary sector is a significant measure of how advanced an economy
is.
People in the poorest countries of the world are heavily dependent on the primary sector for employment.
Such countries are often primary product dependent because they rely on one or a small number of primary
products for all their export earnings. In newly industrialised countries employment in manufacturing has
increased rapidly in recent decades. Table 3.5 compares the employment structure of a developed country, a
newly industrialised country (NIC) and a developing country. The contrasts are very considerable indeed and a
good fit with the sector model presented above.
Table 3.5 Employment structure of a developed country, an NIC and a developing country

There is a clear link between employment structure and indicators of development. Compare the data in
Table 3.5 with those in Table 3.6, which shows development indicators for the same three countries. Such a
comparison could be conducted with a much larger number of countries and the results of the comparison
would be very similar.
Table 3.6 Development indicators for Australia, Malaysia and Bangladesh

A graphical method often used to compare the employment structure of a large number of countries is the
triangular graph (Figure 3.25). One side (axis) of the triangle is used to show the data for each of the primary,
secondary and tertiary sectors. Each axis is scaled from 0 to 100 per cent. The indicators on the graph show how
the data for the UK can be read. Figure 3.25 shows data for two developing countries, two NICs and two
developed countries.

Figure 3.25 Triangular graph

 Activities
1 Look at Figure 3.24. Describe and explain how the employment structure of developed
countries has changed over time.
2 Describe and explain the different employment structures of the three countries in Table
3.5.
3 Comment on the relationship between the data presented in Tables 3.5 and 3.6.
4 a How would you classify each of the six countries shown in Figure 3.25?
b On a copy of Figure 3.25, insert the employment structure positions of Australia,
Malaysia and Bangladesh (Table 3.5).

The process of globalisation

Figure 3.26 City of London emblem marking the boundary of the City of London, one of the world’s great
financial centres
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world, economically,
culturally and politically. Most political borders are not the obstacles they once were and as a result goods,
capital, labour and ideas flow more freely across them than ever before.

Transnational corporations
A transnational corporation (TNC) is a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one
country through foreign direct investment (FDI). TNCs can exploit raw materials, produce goods such as cars
and oil, and provide services such as banking. Table 3.7 shows the 10 largest TNCs in the world
according to the business journal Fortune. Every year Fortune publishes a list of the ‘Global 500’ — the 500
largest TNCs in the world by revenue (the value of what they sell). The 2016 list shows that the ten largest TNCs
all had revenues of over $225 billion. The 100 largest TNCs represent a significant proportion of total global
production.
Table 3.7 The world’s 10 largest TNCs, 2016
 TNCs and nation states (countries) are the two main elements of the global economy. The governments of
countries individually and collectively set the rules for the global economy, but the bulk of investment is through
TNCs, which are the main drivers of ‘global shift’. Under this process manufacturing industry at first, and more
recently services, have relocated in significant numbers from developed countries to selected developing
countries as TNCs have taken advantage of lower labour costs and other ways to reduce costs. It is this process
that has resulted in the emergence of an increasing number of newly industrialised countries since the 1960s. The
development of successive generations of newly industrialised countries is the major success story of
globalisation.
Twenty years ago the vast majority of the world’s TNCs had their headquarters in North America, Western
Europe and Japan. However, over the last two decades the emerging economies of the newly industrialised
countries such as South Korea, China and India have been accounting for an increasing slice of the global
economy. Much of this economic growth has been achieved through the expansion of their own most important
companies, first domestically (as national corporations) and more recently on an international basis (as TNCs).

Table 3.8 The potential advantages and disadvantages of TNCs — Nike to the USA and
Vietnam
Country Possible advantages Possible disadvantages
USA: Positive employment impact and Another US firm that does
headquarters stimulus to the development of high- not manufacture in its own
level skills in design, marketing and country — indirect loss of
development in Beaverton, Oregon; jobs and the negative
direct and indirect contribution to impact on balance of
local and national tax base payments as footwear is
imported; trade unions
complain of an uneven
playing field because of the
big contrast in working
conditions between
developing and developed
countries
 Vietnam: Creates substantial employment in Concerns over the
outsourcing Vietnam; pays higher wages than exploitation of cheap labour
local companies; improves the skills and poor working
base of the local population; the conditions; allegations of
success of a global brand may attract the use of child labour;
other TNCs to Vietnam, setting off company image and
the process of cumulative causation; advertising may help to
exports are a positive contribution to undermine national culture;
the balance of payments; sets new concerns about the political
standards for indigenous companies; influence of large TNCs;
contribution to local tax base helps the knowledge that
pay for improvements to investment could be
infrastructure transferred quickly to lower-
cost locations

TNCs have a huge impact on the global economy in general and in the countries in which they choose to
locate in particular. They play a major role in world trade in terms of what and where they buy and sell. A
considerable proportion of world trade is intra-firm, taking place within TNCs. Table 3.8 considers the possible
advantages and disadvantages of Nike to the USA (its headquarters country) and Vietnam (an outsourcing
country).
The spread of a global consumer culture has been important to the success of many TNCs. The mass media
have been used very effectively to encourage consumers to ‘want’ more than they ‘need’. The power of brands
and their global marketing strategies cannot be underestimated. This is particularly so in food, beverages and
fashion.

The role of technology

Advances in technology have affected all aspects of global economic activity. Major advances in
transportation and telecommunications systems have significantly reduced the geographical barriers separating
countries and peoples. Transport systems are the means by which materials, products and people are transferred
from place to place. Communications systems are the ways in which information is transmitted from place to
place in the form of ideas, instructions and images. As time has progressed, the diffusion of new ideas has
speeded up so that a technical breakthrough in one part of the world has had an impact on other parts of the
world much more quickly than ever before.
The internet has been essential to the development and speed of globalisation. It is the fastest-growing mode
of communication ever. It took 38 years for radio to reach 50 million users, 13 years for television to reach this
mark, but just 4 years for the internet. It has been estimated that the number of internet users around the world
increased from 361 million in 2000 to 3.4 billion in 2016. This gives a global internet penetration rate
(percentage of the population) of 47 per cent. By world region this varied from 88 per cent in North America to
27.7 per cent in Africa.
The internet has allowed TNCs to manage complex operations all over the world and to talk to its
customers in large numbers directly. TNCs can react more quickly than ever before to changing consumer
demand.
The emergence of robotics technology is still at a relatively early stage. Examples of this technology include
driverless cars and drones. The impact on business organisation and many sectors of employment will be
considerable.

Other factors responsible for economic

globalisation
 Figure 3.27 Influences on the globalisation of economic activity
Figure 3.27 shows the main influences on the globalisation of economic activity. Until the post-1950 period,
industrial production was mainly organised within individual countries. This has changed rapidly in the last 60
years or so with the emergence of a new international division of labour (NIDL). The NIDL divides production
into different skills and tasks that are often spread across a number of countries. The following are some other
factors responsible for economic globalisation:
• The increasing complexity of international trade flows as the NIDL has developed.
• Major advances in trade liberalisation under the World Trade Organization. The barriers to world trade
(tariffs, quotas and regulations) are much lower today than in the past. This means that there is more
incentive to trade.
• The emergence of fundamentalist free-market governments in the USA and the UK around 1980. The
economic policies, such as privatisation, developed by these governments influenced policy-making in many
other countries.
• The emergence of an increasing number of newly industrialised countries.
• The integration of the former Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites into the capitalist system
after the fall of communism in the late 1980s (Figure 3.28). Now, no significant group of countries stands
outside the free market global system.
• The opening up of other economies, particularly those of China and India, as these countries wanted to
benefit from the process of globalisation.
• The deregulation of world financial markets, allowing a much greater level of international
competition in financial services.
 Figure 3.28 The fall of the Berlin Wall — the beginning of the integration of Eastern Europe into the free
market system. Top, a remaining part of the wall; bottom, a plaque to mark the position where the wall once was

Activities
1 Define:
a globalisation
b transnational corporation.
2 Why have TNCs been so important in the process of globalisation?
3 a How important are brands to TNCs?
b Which brands impress you the most and why?
4 What has been the role of technology in globalisation?
5 Explain the new international division of labour.
6 State three factors responsible for economic globalisation.

The impacts of globalisation: the global

scale
The changing world economic order
The rapid growth of newly industrialised countries has brought about major changes in the economic strength
of countries. Figure 3.29 shows the composition by country of the current global economy. The USA and China
account for more than 39 per cent of global GDP. However, as Figure 3.30 shows, there have been massive
changes in the global economic order in recent decades. China and about 15 other fast-growing non- Western
economies, including India, Indonesia and Thailand, are rapidly changing the composition of the global economy.
This amounts to one of the most rapid economic changes in history. Some countries have benefited much more
than others in the changing world economic order.
 Figure 3.29 The global economy by GDP

Figure 3.30 The increase in Asia’s share of global GDP

The development of a hierarchy of global

cities
The emergence of a network of global cities has been an important part of the process of globalisation. A
global city is one that is judged to be a significant nodal point in the global economic system. These are major
financial and decision-making centres. New York, London and Tokyo are the world’s major global cities. The
number of global cities has increased as the process of globalisation has advanced, and so has the level of
competition between major cities. Attracting more business creates jobs and wealth.

The international movement of workers

In recent decades the international movement of workers has spanned a much wider range of countries than
ever before. This refers to both countries of origin and destination. There are now over 100 million migrant
workers around the world. Migration of labour is a key feature of globalisation, but in some countries it can be a
very controversial issue.
The global movement of commodities
People around the world have a greater choice of international commodities than ever before, although in
many developing countries the prices of such commodities are out of the reach of many people. However, even
though people may not have the money to purchase a commodity, they become aware of the lifestyle it attempts
to portray because of advertising. Relatively cheap products from China and other NICs have helped to keep
inflation low in many developed countries and allowed far more people to buy consumer goods.

The increasing uniformity of landscapes

Globalisation has undoubtedly had a significant impact on the increasing uniformity of landscapes. For
example, Figure 3.31 illustrates the main ways in which common urban characteristics have diffused around the
world. Many developments will of course encompass local traits as well, but the strong global elements will be
clear to see. Industrial, agricultural, touristic and transport landscapes have also become more uniform as similar
processes worldwide have influenced their development. Some people find this disappointing as more and more
places lose their ‘uniqueness’.

Figure 3.31 Aspects of global urban uniformity

Environmental degradation
In many parts of the world industrialisation, urbanisation, capital-intensive farming and other major processes
are having a devastating impact on the environment causing:
• air pollution
• deforestation
• land degradation and desertification
• salinisation and contamination of water supplies
• landscape change
• declines in biodiversity.
Much more decisive international action will be required to limit the environmental impact of economic
activity.

Cultural diffusion
Cultural diffusion is the process of the spreading of cultural traits from one place to another. The mixing of
cultures is a major dimension of globalisation. This has occurred through:
• migration, which circulates ideas, values and beliefs around the world
• the rapid spread of news, ideas and fashions through the mass media, trade and travel
• the growth of global brands such as Coca-Cola and McDonald’s, which serve as common reference
points
• the internet, which has allowed individual and mass communication on a scale never available before
• the transport revolution, which has facilitated the mass movement of people and products around the
 world.

Table 3.9 Examples of the impacts of globalisation at global, national and local scales
Global National Local
The growing power Concerns about loss of Small local businesses often
of TNCs and global sovereignty to regional and find it difficult to compete with
brands international organisations major global companies
The emergence Increased cultural Closure of a TNC branch
of an increasing diversity from international plant can cause high local
number of NICs migration unemployment
Development of Higher levels of incoming The populations of many
a hierarchy of global and outgoing international local communities have
cities tourism become more multicultural
The increasing TNCs employing an Greater variety of
complexity of the increasing share of the international cuisine
world economy workforce Families are now more
The emergence Increasing incidences of likely to be spread over
of English as the trans-boundary pollution different countries due to
working language of The growth of anti- increased international
the ‘global village’ globalisation movements as migration
The emergence people worry about how Lower cost of international
of powerful trade important decisions are travel in real terms
blocs made The development of
Environmental TNCs avoiding paying ‘ethnic villages’ in large urban
degradation caused tax in some countries areas
by increasing through ‘creative accounting’
economic activity — a very controversial issue

The development of mass tourism

Recent decades have witnessed the globalisation of international tourism. International tourist arrivals
reached almost 1.2 billion in 2015, 76 per cent higher than in 2000, marking it out as a high-growth industry. An
ever-increasing number of destinations have become part of the global tourism network.

Global civil society

The development of a global civil society (environmental groups, protest movements, charities, trade unions
etc.) has been an important aspect of the diffusion of ideas around the world. It has spawned new networks of
communication that are not government and company based. These networks monitor the actions of governments
and companies, spreading their criticisms rapidly to all those who want to take an interest. Political protests now
occur almost simultaneously in countries far apart because of the power and effectiveness of instant global
communication.

The impact of globalisation: the national

scale
People in many countries are concerned about the apparent loss of sovereignty of nation states. The loss of
sovereignty results from the ceding of national autonomy to other organisations. The American sociologist
Benjamin Barber views the changes taking place as anti-democratic and threatening the very foundations upon
which the United States were built. Within the EU, many people are concerned that individual countries have
given away too many powers to the European Parliament and other EU organisations. However, in many
countries the power of national governments has also been lost to TNCs and global civil society (Figure 3.32).
 Figure 3.32 The shift of power from nation states
Table 3.10 The costs and benefits of globalisation to the UK
Perspective Benefits Costs
Economic As one of the world’s most ‘open’ High job losses in
economies, the UK attracts a very high traditional industries
level of foreign direct investment, creating due to global shift
significant employment and contributing to and
GDP; a high level of investment abroad by deindustrialisation
UK companies also increases national TNCs can move
income investment away
Financial deregulation has enhanced from the country as
the position of the City as one of the quickly as they can
world’s top three financial centres bring it in, causing
Low-cost manufactured goods from loss of jobs and
China and elsewhere have helped keep corporation tax
inflation low Speculative
investment, causing
economic
uncertainty, has
increased with
financial deregulation
There is a
widening gap
between the highest-
and lowest-paid
workers
Social Economic growth has facilitated high A strong economy
levels of spending on education and has attracted a very
health in particular high level of
Globalisation is a large factor in the immigration in recent
increasingly cosmopolitan nature of UK years, with increasing
society concerns that this is
The transport and communications unsustainable
revolution has transformed lifestyles
 Political Strong trading relationships with a large Voter apathy, as
number of other countries brings political many people see loss
influence. of political power to
As a member of the EU, a member the EU and major
state can extend its influence to areas TNCs
where is was not previously well International
represented terrorism is a growing
threat with increasing
ethnic diversity, rapid
transportation and
more open borders
Environmental Deindustrialisation has improved Population growth
environmental conditions in many areas has an impact on the
Increasing international cooperation to environment, with
solve cross-border environmental issues increasing demand
gives a better chance of such problems for land, water and
being addressed other resources
Rapid industrial
growth in China and
elsewhere has an
impact on the global
environment,
including the UK
TNCs have increased their influence in many countries and become major employers. However, TNCs can
close operations in one country and open up in another very quickly. This is a worry for governments as many
jobs can be lost in major business closures. Some governments have found it difficult to collect what they think
is a fair amount of tax from TNCs. This has become an increasingly controversial issue.
High levels of international migration have increased cultural diversity in many countries. This can bring
advantages and disadvantages to host countries. Tensions can arise when economic conditions are difficult and
there are not enough jobs to go round. For many countries the growth in international tourism has made it an
important source of foreign currency and a more important source of employment. However, an increase in
tourism can have costs as well as benefits.
As the scale of economic activity expands, increasing consumption of resources, particularly water, can cause
tensions between neighbouring countries. Competition for energy and other resources drives prices upwards,
making life particularly difficult for low-income countries and the poor in higher-income countries. As the scale
of global economic activity has increased, concerns about trans-boundary pollution have grown. A major
pollution incident in one country may have significant consequences in a neighbouring country. Anti-
globalisation movements have developed in many countries to voice concerns over a range of issues associated
with globalisation. Table 3.10 summarises some of the costs and benefits of globalisation to the UK.

The impact of globalisation: the local scale

Think of the area or region in which you live. What is the evidence that it has been affected by globalisation?
It may be, for example:
• Small local businesses have found it hard to compete with major global companies. Many local areas
have mounted ‘support local shops’ campaigns. The unique character of shopping areas can be damaged if
too many local shops close and valuable jobs can be lost.
• The populations of many local communities have become more multicultural and in the process more
culturally diverse. One example might be a greater variety of foreign restaurants and ethnic shops today
compared with 20 years ago.
• In urban areas of a significant size, a number of ethnic ‘villages’ may be recognised.

• Increased international migration might mean that families in a region are now more likely to be
spread over different countries. For younger people the motive is often to enhance career prospects and
improve their quality of life, but retirement migration is also an important trend. People are more mobile
 than ever before.
Activities
1 Use Figure 3.29 to make a list of the world’s ten largest economies by GDP.
2 Describe the changes shown in Figure 3.30.
3 What do you understand by the term ‘global urban uniformity’?
4 Explain the process of cultural diffusion.
5 What does Figure 3.32 show?
Case study: Tata Group and its global links
Indian companies — both private and government-owned organisations — are becoming
increasingly transnational in their operations. India really emerged as a newly industrialised country
in the 1990s when important economic reforms began to open up the country to foreign investment
and made it easier for Indian companies to forge international links and to operate abroad. Other
significant policy changes since 2000 have contributed to the recent rapid growth of Indian outward
FDI.
Tata is perceived to be India’s best-known global brand. It was founded in 1868 by Jamsetji Tata
as a trading company. Tata Group is an Indian transnational conglomerate company, which remains
family-owned. With its headquarters in Mumbai, it encompasses seven business sectors:
• Communications and information technology
• Engineering
• Materials
• Services
• Energy
• Consumer products
• Chemicals.
Tata Group has over 100 companies with each of them operating independently. Some of the
largest of these companies are Tata Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Consultancy Services, Tata Power,
Tata Chemicals and Tata Global Beverages. In recent decades Tata has expanded rapidly around
the world. Tata Group now has operations in more than 100 countries and receives more than 60 per
cent of its revenue from outside India. In 2016, the total number of employees worldwide was
660,000. Tata Group has steadily moved up the ‘value chain’ by producing more sophisticated and
higher-value products. In 2015–16, the revenue of Tata companies, taken together, was $104 billion.
Tata has a considerable presence in the UK. Key acquisitions there have included:
• Tetley Group by Tata Tea for $430 million in 2000
• Corus Group by Tata Steel for $13 billion in 2007
• Jaguar and Land Rover by Tata Motors for $2.5 billion in 2008 (Figure 3.33).
The objective has often been to buy world-renowned brands that are synonymous with high
quality. If a brand name is well known it becomes much easier to increase sales in foreign markets if
the company is being well managed. Other Tata companies active in the UK are Tata Consultancy
Services and Tata Global Beverages.
However, with the onset of the global economic downturn in 2008, some Tata companies in the
UK encountered problems with regard to profitability. The major concern was the large losses made
by Tata Steel.
Tata Group has set great store by its reputation for social responsibility, which began in India, but
which has also spread abroad in more recent years. It was awarded the Carnegie Medal for
Philanthropy in 2007.
 Figure 3.33 Jaguar/Land Rover — a long-standing UK brand acquired by Tata in 2008
Case study analysis
1 Why do you think Tata Group has expanded abroad so rapidly in recent decades?
2 Describe Tata Group’s presence in the UK.
3 Look at the website for the Tata Group (www.tata.com) to see the latest developments in
this large group of companies. Produce a brief fact file of your findings.

Key questions
• What are the main features of an agricultural system?
• What are the causes and effects of food shortages and the possible solutions to this
problem?

3.2 Food production

Figure 3.34 Sheep farming in New Zealand — New Zealand is a major exporter of food

Agricultural systems
Individual farms and general types of farming can be seen to operate as a system. A farm requires a range of
inputs, such as labour and energy, so that the processes that take place on the farm, such as ploughing and
harvesting, can be carried out. The aim is to produce the best possible outputs, such as milk, eggs, meat and
crops. A profit will only be made if the income from selling the outputs is greater than expenditure on the inputs
and processes. Figure 3.35 is an input-process-output diagram for a wheat farm.
 Different types of agricultural system can be found within individual countries and around the world. The
most basic distinctions are between:
• arable, pastoral and mixed farming
• subsistence and commercial farming
• extensive and intensive farming
• organic and non-organic farming.

Figure 3.35 Systems diagram for a wheat farm

Arable, pastoral and mixed farming

Arable farms (Figure 3.36) cultivate crops and are not involved with livestock. An arable farm may
concentrate on one crop (monoculture) such as wheat, or may grow a range of different crops. The crops grown
on an arable farm may change over time. For example, if the market price of potatoes increases, more farmers
will be attracted to grow this crop. Pastoral farming involves keeping livestock such as dairy cattle, beef cattle,
sheep and pigs. Mixed farming involves cultivating crops and keeping livestock together on a farm. Usually on
a mixed farm at least part of the crop production will be used to feed the livestock.

Figure 3.36 Arable farming in the Nile valley, with the pyramids in the background
 Figure 3.37 Farming types and levels of development

Subsistence and commercial farming

Subsistence farming is the most basic form of agriculture, in which the produce is consumed entirely or
mainly by the family who work the land or tend the livestock. If a small surplus is produced it may be sold or
traded. Examples of subsistence farming are shifting cultivation and nomadic pastoralism (Figure 3.37).
Subsistence farming is generally small scale and labour intensive with little or no technological input.
In contrast, the objective of commercial farming is to sell everything that the farm produces. The aim is to
maximise yields in order to achieve the highest profits possible. Commercial farming can vary from small scale
(Figure 3.38) to very large scale. The very largest farms are often owned by TNCs.

Figure 3.38 The output of local poultry production in a Moroccan market

Extensive and intensive farming

Extensive farming is where a relatively small amount of agricultural produce is obtained per hectare of land,
so such farms tend to cover large areas of land. Inputs per unit of land are low. Extensive farming can be both
arable and pastoral in nature. Examples of extensive farming are sheep farming in Australia and wheat
cultivation on the Canadian Prairies. In contrast, intensive farming is characterised by high inputs per unit of
land to achieve high yields per hectare. Examples of intensive farming include market gardening, viticulture,
dairy farming and horticulture. Intensive farms tend to be relatively small in terms of land area.

Organic farming
Organic farming does not use manufactured chemicals, so production is without the use of chemical
fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides. Instead, animal and green manures are used along with mineral
fertilisers such as fish and bone meal. Organic farming therefore requires a higher input of labour than
mainstream farming. Weeding is a major task in this type of farming. Organic farming is less likely to result in
soil erosion and is less harmful to the environment in general. For example, there will be no nitrate runoff into
streams and much less harm to wildlife.
 Organic farming tends not to produce the ‘perfect’ potato, tomato or carrot. However, because of the
increasing popularity of organic produce it commands a substantially higher price than mainstream farm produce.
Activities
1 Describe the inputs, processes and outputs for the wheat farm shown in Figure 3.35.
2 a Explain the difference between arable and pastoral farming.
b What is mixed farming?
3 Discuss the differences between:
a commercial and subsistence farming
b intensive and extensive farming.
4 Describe the characteristics of organic farming.

The influence of natural and human inputs

on agricultural land use
A wide range of factors combine to influence agricultural land use and practices on farms. These can be
placed under the general headings of physical, economic, social/cultural and political factors.

Physical factors
Figure 3.39 shows the type of landscape that farmers have to adapt to in the mountainous country of Nepal.
Historically, terracing has been the answer, a technique that remains important today.

Figure 3.39 Terracing in Nepal

North America, for example, has many different physical environments. This allows a wide variety of crops
to be grown and livestock kept. New technology and high levels of investment have steadily extended farming
into more difficult environments. Irrigation has enabled farming to flourish in the dry southwest, while new
varieties of wheat have pushed production northwards in Canada. However, the physical environment remains a
big influence on farming. There are certain things that technology and investment can do little to alter. So relief,
climate and soils set broad limits as to what can be produced. This leaves the farmer with some choices, even in
difficult environments. The farmer’s decisions are then influenced by economic, social/cultural and political
factors.
 Figure 3.40 Goats feeding from a bowl (because the ground is frozen) in cold central Asia
Temperature is a critical factor in crop growth as each type of crop requires a minimum growing temperature
and a minimum growing season. Latitude, altitude and distance from the sea are the major
influences on temperature. Precipitation is equally important. This is not just the annual total, but the way it is
distributed throughout the year. Long, steady periods of rainwater to infiltrate into the soil are best, making water
available for crop growth. In contrast, short heavy downpours can result in surface runoff, leaving less water
available for crop growth and soil erosion.
Soil type and fertility have a huge impact on agricultural productivity. Often, areas that have never been
cleared for farming were ignored because soil fertility was poor or perceived to be poor. In some regions wind
can have a serious impact on farming, for example causing bush fires in some US states such as California.
Locally, aspect and the angle of slope may also be important factors in deciding how to use the land.
In Canada, farming is severely restricted by climate. Less than 8 per cent of the total area of the country is
farmed. Seventy per cent of Canada lies north of the thermal limit for crop growth.
Water is vital for agriculture. Irrigation is an important factor in farming not just in North America, but in
many other parts of the world as well. Table 3.11 compares the main types of irrigation. This is an example of the
‘ladder’ of agricultural technology, with surface irrigation being the most traditional method and subsurface (drip)
irrigation the most advanced technique.
Figure 3.41 shows an irrigation canal in northern Spain. Irrigation canals of this size can transport large
volumes of water, which can then be filtered down to smaller volumes so that a large area of land can be irrigated.

Figure 3.41 Irrigation canal in northern Spain

Table 3.11 Types of irrigation

 Type of irrigation Efficiency
(%)
Surface — used in over 80% of irrigated fields worldwide:
(a) Furrow: traditional method; cheap to install; labour- 20–60
intensive; high water losses; susceptible to erosion and
salinisation
(b) Basin: cheap to install and run; needs a lot of water; 50–75
susceptible to salinisation and waterlogging
Aerial (using sprinklers) — used in 10–15% of irrigation worldwide; 60–80
costly to install and run; low-pressure sprinklers preferable
75–95
Subsurface (‘drip’) — used in 1% of irrigation worldwide; high capital
costs; sophisticated monitoring; very efficient

Economic factors
Economic factors include transport, markets, capital and technology. The cost of growing different crops or
keeping different livestock varies. The market prices for agricultural products will vary also and can change from
year to year. The necessary investment in buildings and machinery can mean that some changes in farming
activities are very expensive. These would be more difficult to achieve than other, cheaper changes. Thus it is not
always easy for farmers to react quickly to changes in consumer demand.
In most countries there has been a trend towards fewer but larger farms. Large farms allow economies of
scale to operate, which reduce the unit costs of production. As more large farms are created, small farms find it
increasingly difficult to compete and make a profit. Selling to a larger neighbouring farm may be the only
economic solution. The EU is an example of a region where average farm size varies significantly. Those
countries with a large average farm size generally have more efficient agricultural sectors than countries with a
small average farm size.
Agricultural technology is the application of techniques to control the growth and harvesting of animal and
vegetable products. The development and application of agricultural technology requires investment and thus it is
an economic factor. The status of a country’s agricultural technology is vital for its food security and other
aspects of its quality of life. An important form of aid is the transfer of agricultural technology from more
advanced to less advanced countries.

Social/cultural factors
What a particular farm and neighbouring farms have produced in the past can be a significant influence on
current farming practices. There is a tendency for farmers to stay with what they know best and often a sense of
transgenerational responsibility to maintain a family farming tradition. Tradition matters more in some farming
regions than others.
Land tenure means the ways in which land is or can be owned. In the past inheritance laws have had a huge
impact on the average size of farms. In some countries it has been the custom on the death of a farmer to divide
the land equally between all his sons, but rarely between daughters. Also, dowry customs may include the giving
of land with a daughter on marriage. The reduction in the size of farms by these processes often reduces them to
operating at only a subsistence level.
In most societies women have very unequal access to, and control over, rural land and associated resources. It
is now generally accepted that societies with well-recognised property rights are also the ones that thrive best
economically and socially.

Political factors
The influence of government on farming has steadily increased in many countries. For example, in the USA
the main parts of government farm policy over the past half-century have been:
• price support loans: loans that tide farmers over until they sell their produce
• production controls: these limit how much a farmer can produce of surplus crops
 • income supplements: these are cash payments to farmers for major crops in years when market prices
fail to reach certain levels.
Thus the decisions made by individual farmers are heavily influenced by government policies such as

those listed above. An agricultural policy can cover more than one country, as evidenced by the EU’s Common
Agricultural Policy.
Activities
1 List the main physical factors that can influence farming.
2 Summarise the information presented in Table 3.11.
3 Why has the size of farms steadily increased in many agricultural regions?
4 Briefly state the importance of advances in agricultural technology.
5 Give an example of how a social/cultural factor can have an impact on farming.
6 How can political factors influence farming?
Interesting note
In terms of the export of food and agricultural products, the major countries by value of exports in
2015 were the USA, the Netherlands, Germany, China, Brazil and France.

Case study: An agricultural system — intensive rice

production in the lower Ganges valley
Location
An important area of intensive subsistence rice cultivation is the lower Ganges valley (Figure 3.42)
in India and Bangladesh. The Ganges basin is India’s most extensive and productive agricultural
area and its most densely populated. The delta region of the Ganges occupies a large part of
Bangladesh, one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Rice contributes over 75 per
cent of the diet in many parts of the region. The physical conditions in the lower Ganges valley and
delta are very suitable for rice cultivation:
• temperatures of 21°C and over throughout the year (Figure 3.43), allowing two crops to be
grown annually (rice needs a growing season of only 100 days)
• monsoon rainfall over 2000 mm, providing sufficient water for the fields to flood, which is
necessary for ‘wet rice’ cultivation
• rich alluvial soils built up through regular flooding over a long time period during the
monsoon season
• an important dry period for harvesting the rice.

Figure 3.42 The lower Ganges valley

 Figure 3.43 Climate graph for Kolkata
A water intensive staple crop
Rice is the staple or main food crop in many parts of Asia. This is not surprising considering its
high nutritional value. Current rice production systems are extremely water intensive. Ninety per cent
of agricultural water in Asia is used for rice production. The International Rice Research Institute
estimates that it takes 5000 litres of water to produce 1 kilogram of rice. Much of Asia’s rice
production can be classed as intensive subsistence cultivation, in which the crop is grown on very
small plots of land using a very high input of labour. Rice cultivation by small farmers is sometimes
referred to as ‘pre-modern intensive farming’ because of the traditional techniques used, in contrast
to intensive farming systems in developed countries such as market gardening, which are very
capital intensive.
‘Wet rice’ is grown in the fertile silt and flooded areas of the lowlands, while ‘dry rice’ is
cultivated on terraces on the hillsides. A terrace is a levelled section of a hilly cultivated area.
Terracing is a method of soil conservation. It also prevents the rapid runoff of irrigated water. Dry rice
is easier to grow but provides lower yields than wet rice.
The farming system
Padi-fields (flooded parcels of land) characterise lowland rice production (Figure 3.44). Water for
irrigation is provided either when the Ganges floods or by means of gravity canals. At first, rice is
grown in nurseries. It is then transplanted when the monsoon rains flood the padi-fields. The
flooded fields may be stocked with fish for an additional source of food. The main rice crop is
harvested when the drier season begins in late October. The rice crop gives high yields per
hectare. A second rice crop can then be planted in November, although water supply can be a
problem in some areas for the second crop.

Figure 3.44 Rice padi-field scene in lower Ganges valley

Water buffalo are used for work. This is the only draught animal adapted for life in wetlands. The
water buffalo provide an important source of manure in the fields. However, the manure is also used
as domestic fuel. The labour-intensive nature of rice cultivation provides work for large numbers of
people. This is important in areas of very dense population where there are limited alternative
employment opportunities. The low incomes and lack of capital of these subsistence farmers means
that hand labour still dominates in the region. It takes an average of 2000 hours a year to farm 1
hectare of land. A high labour input is needed to:
• build the embankments (bunds) that surround the fields — these are stabilised by tree
crops such as coconut and banana
• construct irrigation canals where they are required for adequate water supply to the fields
• plant nursery rice, plough the padi-field, transplant the rice from the nursery to the padi-
field, weed and harvest the mature rice crop
• cultivate other crops in the dry season and possibly tend a few chickens or other livestock.
Rice seeds are stored from one year to provide the next year’s crop. During the dry season,
when there may be insufficient water for rice cultivation, other crops such as cereals and vegetables
are grown. Farms are generally small, often no more than 1 hectare in size. Many farmers are
tenants and pay for use of the land by giving a share of their crop to the landlord.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of the lower Ganges valley.
2 Why is rice cultivation in the area considered to be an intensive form of agriculture?
3 Explain why the physical environment provides good conditions for rice cultivation.
4 Describe the inputs, processes and outputs of this type of agriculture.

Causes and effects of food shortages

Causes
Food shortages can occur because of both natural and human problems. The natural problems that can lead to
food shortages include:
• soil exhaustion
• drought
• floods
• tropical cyclones
• pests
• disease.
However, economic and political factors can also contribute to food shortages. Such factors include:
• low capital investment
• rapidly rising population
• poor distribution/transport difficulties
• conflict situations.
In late 2012, the UN warned of an imminent worldwide food crisis, highlighting three major problems:
• global grain reserves at critically low levels
• rising food prices creating unrest in many countries
• extreme weather resulting in the climate being ‘no longer reliable’.
In the same year the Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that around the world 870 million people
were malnourished, with the food crisis growing in Africa and the Middle East.
The impact of such problems has been felt most intensely in developing countries, where adequate food
stocks to cover emergencies affecting food supply usually do not exist. However, developed countries have not
been without their problems. For example, in recent years both the USA and Australia have suffered severe
drought conditions. So developed countries are not immune from the physical problems that can cause food
shortages. However, they invariably have the human resources to cope with such problems, so actual food
shortages do not generally occur.

Short-term and long-term effects

The effects of food shortages are both short-term and longer-term. Malnutrition can affect a considerable
number of people, particularly children, within a relatively short period when food supplies are significantly
reduced. With malnutrition people are less resistant to disease and more likely to fall ill. Such diseases include
beri-beri (vitamin B1 deficiency), rickets (vitamin D deficiency) and kwashiorkor (protein deficiency). People
who are continually starved of nutrients never fulfil their physical or intellectual potential. Malnutrition reduces
people’s capacity to work so that land may not be properly tended and other forms of income successfully
pursued. This is threatening to lock parts of the developing world into an endless cycle of ill- health, low
productivity and underdevelopment.
Case study: A region suffering from food shortages —
Sudan and South Sudan
 The countries of Sudan and South Sudan (Figure 3.45 and 3.46), which were the single country
of Sudan until 2011, have suffered food shortages for decades. The long civil war and drought have
been the main reasons for famine in Sudan, but there are many associated factors as well (Figure
3.47).
The civil war, which lasted for over 20 years, was between the government in Khartoum and rebel
forces in the western region of Darfur and in the south (now South Sudan). A Christian Aid document
in 2004 described Sudan as ‘A country still gripped by a civil war that has been fuelled, prolonged
and part-financed by oil’. One of the big issues between the two sides in the civil war was the
sharing of oil wealth between the government-controlled north and the south of the country
where much of the oil is found. The United Nations has estimated that up to 2 million people were
displaced by the civil war and more than 70,000 people died from hunger and associated
diseases. At times, the UN World Food Programme stopped deliveries of vital food supplies because
the situation was considered too dangerous for the drivers and aid workers.

Figure 3.45 Sudan and South Sudan

Figure 3.46 The fertile banks of the River Nile in Sudan, with desert beyond
The separation of Sudan into two countries has not occurred easily. There has been intermittent
fighting in border regions. This, along with economic instability, has undermined agricultural
production.
• In March 2013, the World Food Programme warned that more than 4.1 million people were
likely to be short of food in South Sudan in that year. This is approximately 40 per cent of the
new country’s population.
 • In July 2014, the UN described South Sudan’s food crisis as ‘the worst in the world’. The
UN said there was ‘catastrophic food insecurity’ in the country. It urged donor nations who had
pledged $618 million in aid to fulfil their promises.
• In May 2016, the UN warned that more than 5 million people in South Sudan would face
severe food shortage in the coming months.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of Sudan and South Sudan.
2 a With the help of Figure 3.47, explain the causes of food shortages in recent decades.
b Suggest what needs to happen for the situation to improve.
3 How bad has the food shortage situation in South Sudan been in recent years?
4 Use the internet to find out about the current situation in Sudan and South Sudan.

Figure 3.47 Summary of causes of famine in Sudan

Possible solutions to food shortages

Food aid
In the short term, and in some instances the medium term, food aid is absolutely vital to cope with food
shortages (Figure 3.48). When disaster strikes there is no alternative to this strategy. According to the charity
ActionAid there are three types of food aid:
• relief food aid, which is delivered directly to people in times of crisis
• programme food aid, which is provided directly to the government of a country for sale in local
markets (this usually comes with conditions from the donor country)
• project food aid, which is targeted at specific groups of people as part of longer-term development
work.
The USA and the EU together provide about two-thirds of global food aid deliveries. At the international
level the main organisations are the UN World Food Programme (WFP), the UN Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the Food Aid Convention.
 Figure 3.48 Food aid being delivered in Haiti
Food aid is vital to communities in many countries, particularly in Africa but also in parts of Asia and Latin
America. However, it is not without controversy:
• The charity CARE has criticised the method of US food aid to Africa. CARE sees the selling of heavily
subsidised US produced food in African countries as undermining the ability of African farmers to produce for
local markets, making countries even more dependent on aid to avoid famine. CARE wants the USA to send
money to buy food locally instead.
• Friends of the Earth say that a genetically modified rice, not allowed for human consumption and
originating in the USA, has been found in food aid in West Africa.
• Food aid is very expensive, not least because of the high transport costs involved.
There have been recent concerns that food aid may be required for even more people in the future. In recent
years, the term ‘global food crisis’ has been used more and more by the media. Steep increases in the price of
food have caused big problems in a number of countries. Major protests about the price of food have taken place
in countries including Haiti, Indonesia, the Philippines and Egypt. The World Bank has warned that progress on
development could be destroyed by rapidly rising food costs.

The Green Revolution

Figure 3.49 Green Revolution crops being harvested in Brazil

The package of agricultural improvements generally known as the Green Revolution was seen as the answer
to the food problem in many parts of the developing world in the post-1960 period. India was one of the first
countries to benefit when a high-yielding variety (HYV) seed programme started in 1966–67. In terms of
production it was a turning point for Indian agriculture, which had virtually reached stagnation. The programme
introduced new hybrid varieties of five cereals: wheat, rice, maize, sorghum and millet. All were drought-
resistant with the exception of rice, were very responsive to the application of fertilisers, and had a shorter
growing season than the traditional varieties they replaced (Figure 3.49). Although the benefits of the Green
Revolution are clear, serious criticisms have also been made. The two sides of the story can be summarised as
follows:

Advantages
• Yields are twice to four times greater than for traditional varieties.
• The shorter growing season has allowed the introduction of an extra crop in some areas.
• Farming incomes have increased, allowing the purchase of machinery, better seeds, fertilisers and
pesticides.
• The diet of rural communities is now more varied.
• Local infrastructure has been upgraded to accommodate a stronger market approach.
• Employment has been created in industries supplying farms with inputs.
• Higher returns have justified a significant increase in irrigation.

Disadvantages
• High inputs of fertiliser and pesticide are required to optimise production. This is costly in both
economic and environmental terms. In some areas rural indebtedness has risen sharply.
• HYVs require more weed control and are often more susceptible to pests and diseases.
• Middle and higher-income farmers have often benefited much more than the majority on low incomes,
thus widening the income gap in rural communities. Increased rural-to-urban migration has often been the
result.
• Mechanisation has increased rural unemployment.
• Some HYVs have an inferior taste.
• The problem of salinisation has increased along with the expansion of irrigated areas.
In recent years a much greater concern has arisen about Green Revolution agriculture. The problem is that the
high-yielding varieties introduced during the Green Revolution are usually low in minerals and vitamins.
Because the new crops have displaced the local fruits, vegetables and legumes that traditionally supplied
important vitamins and minerals, the diet of many people in the developing world is now extremely low in
zinc, iron, vitamin A and other micronutrients.
The Green Revolution has been a major factor in enabling global food supply to keep pace with population
growth, but with growing concerns about a new food crisis, new technological advances may well be required to
improve the global food security situation.

UNEP’s options for improving food security

The United Nations Environment Programme has argued that increasing food energy efficiency provides a
critical path for significant growth in food supply without compromising environmental sustainability.
• Options with short-term effects are: (a) price regulation on commodities and larger cereal stocks to
decrease the risk of highly volatile prices; and (b) reduce/remove subsidies on biofuels to cut the capture of
cropland by biofuels.
• Options with mid-term effects are: (a) reduce the use of cereals and food fish in animal feed; (b) support
farmers in developing diversified eco-agricultural systems that provide critical ecosystem services (for
example water supply and regulation) as well as adequate food to meet local and consumer needs; and
(c) increased trade and improved market access by improving infrastructure and reducing trade barriers.
• Options with long-term effects are: (a) limit global warming, including the promotion of climate- friendly
agricultural production systems and land use policies at a scale to help mitigate climate change; and

(b) raise awareness of the pressures of increasing population growth and consumption patterns on sustainable
ecosystem functioning.
Activities
1 List three physical and three human causes of food shortages.
2 What is malnutrition and how can it impact on people and countries?
3 Describe the different types of food aid.
4 Why is food aid sometimes controversial?
5 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Green Revolution farming.
6 Comment briefly on UNEP’s options for improving food security.
 Key questions
• What are the stages of an industrial system?
• What are the factors influencing the distribution and location of factories and industrial
zones?

3.3 Industry
Figure 3.50 Pulp and paper mill, British Columbia, Canada

Industrial systems and types

Manufacturing industry as a whole, or an individual factory, can be regarded as a system. Industrial systems,
like agricultural systems, have inputs, processes and outputs (Figure 3.51).
• Inputs are the elements that are required for the processes to take place. Inputs include raw materials,
labour, energy and capital.
• Processes are the industrial activities that take place in the factory to make the finished product. For
example, in the car industry, processes include moulding sheet steel into the shaped panels that make up the
car, welding and painting.
• Outputs comprise the finished product or products that are sold to customers. Sometimes by- products
may be produced. A by-product is something that is left over from the main production process that has
some value and therefore can be sold. All manufacturing industries produce waste products, which have no
value and must be disposed of. Costs will be incurred in the disposal of waste products.
To ‘manufacture’ means to ‘make’. Manufacturing industry is the general term used for the secondary
sector of economic activity. Manufacturing is often described or classified by the use of opposing terms, such as
‘heavy industry’ and ‘light industry’ (Table 3.12). In this case iron and steel would be an example of a heavy
industry, using large amounts of bulky raw materials, processing on a huge scale and producing final products of
a significant size. In contrast, the assembly of computers is a light industry. Figure 3.52 shows another example
of a light industry — a factory producing tapestries in Vietnam.
 Figure 3.51 Industrial systems diagram

Figure 3.52 Tapestry weaving in Vietnam

Processing and assembly industries

A significant distinction is between processing and assembly industries. Processing industries are based on
the direct processing of raw materials. Again, the iron and steel industry would be an example, using large
quantities of iron ore, coal and limestone. Processing industries are often located close to their raw materials. In
contrast, assembly industries put together parts and components that have been made elsewhere. A large car
assembly plant will use thousands of components to build a car. Assembly industries usually have a much wider
choice of location than processing industries and thus they are often described as footloose industries.

High-technology industry
High-technology industry is the fastest growing manufacturing industry in the world. It all began in the 1960s
in ‘Silicon Valley’ (the Santa Clara valley), south of San Francisco. Since then it has spread across the world.
Virtually all developed countries and NICs have at least one high-technology cluster (companies grouped
together in one region). ‘High-tech’ companies use or make silicon chips, computers, software, robots, aerospace
components and other very technically advanced products. These companies put a great deal of money into
scientific research. Their aim is to develop newer, even more advanced products. Think of the latest products
from companies such as Apple, Samsung and Sony.
High-technology industries often cluster together in science parks, the idea for which was originally created
in the USA. They are often found in close proximity to leading universities because of the need to employ well-
qualified graduates in science and technology, and to be aware of the latest research taking place in universities.
The Cambridge Science Park is a major example in the UK. The clustering of high-technology industry means
that companies can collaborate easily on joint projects, and highly skilled workers can move easily from one
company to another.
Table 3.12 Classification of industry
Classification Characteristics
contrasts
Large scale and Depending on the size of plant and machinery, and the numbers
small scale employed
Heavy and light Depending on the nature of processes and products in terms of
unit weight
Market oriented Depending on the location of the industry or firm, which is drawn
and raw either towards the market or the raw materials required —
material usually because of transportation costs
oriented
Processing and Processing involves the direct processing of raw materials;
assembly assembly is to do with putting together parts and components
Capital Depending on the ratio of investment in plant and machinery to
intensive and the number of employees
labour intensive
Fordist and Fordist industries, named after the assembly-line methods used
flexible in the early automobile industry, mass produce on a large scale,
making standardised products
Flexible industries make a range of specialised products
using high technology to respond quickly to changes in demand
National and Many firms in the small-to medium-size range manufacture in
transnational only one country
Transnationals, which are usually extremely large
companies, produce in at least two countries but may
manufacture in dozens of nations

Interesting note

The Boeing aircraft factory in Washington State, USA is the largest building in the world by
volume. This is the assembly site for the company’s largest aircraft.

Activities
1 Explain the industrial systems diagram shown in Figure 3.51.
2 With regard to manufacturing industry, explain the difference between:
a heavy and light
b processing and assembly
c capital intensive and labour intensive.
3 Suggest why high-technology industries often cluster together.

Factors affecting the location of industry

Every day, decisions are made about where to locate industrial premises, ranging from small workshops to
huge industrial complexes. In general, the larger the company the greater the number of real alternative locations
available. For each possible location a wide range of factors can have an impact on total costs and thus influence
the decision-making process. The factors affecting industrial location differ from industry to industry and their
relative importance is subject to change over time. These factors can be broadly subdivided into physical and
human (Table 3.13). They relate both to individual factories and to industrial zones.
The combined influence of a range of factors will have an impact on the decision making of a company in
terms of the following:
• Location — companies decide on particular locations for a variety of reasons. Most will look to the
location that is seen as the ‘least-cost location’ or the ‘highest-profit location’. A poor choice of location can
mean a company making a loss and eventually closing. An excellent location, resulting in considerable
profits, may prompt a company to expand.
• Scale of production — the amount of a product a company plans to produce will be an important
factor in deciding location. Companies can achieve economies of scale by manufacturing more of a product.
However, if they decide on a larger scale of production they have to be sure that they (a) have a physical site
large enough for the desired scale of production, (b) can recruit sufficient skilled labour in the region and (c)
will have enough customers for their higher scale of production.
• Methods of organisation — companies can follow various methods of organisation from traditional to
highly innovative. Location factors can influence such decisions. The most advanced companies in an
industry tend to be very capital intensive, while more traditional companies tend to be more labour intensive.
• The product or range of products manufactured — many large companies produce a range of products.
Some locations may be more suited to the production of one product than another because of the cost factors
involved.

Table 3.13 Physical and human factors influencing industrial location

Physical factors Human factors
Site: The availability and cost of land is Capital (money): Business people,
important. Large factories in particular will banks and governments are more
need flat, well-drained land on solid likely to invest money in some areas
bedrock. An adjacent water supply may be than others.
essential for some industries. Labour: Increasingly it is the
Raw materials: Industries requiring quality and cost of labour rather than
heavy and bulky raw materials that are the quantity that are the key factors
expensive to transport will generally locate here. The reputation, turnover and
as close to these raw materials as possible. mobility of labour can also be
Energy: At times in the past, industry important.
needed to be located near fast-flowing Transport and
rivers or coal mines. Today, electricity can communications: Transport costs
be transmitted to most locations. However, are lower in real terms than ever
energy-hungry industries, such as metal before but remain important for
smelting, may be drawn to countries with heavy, bulky items. Accessibility to
relatively cheap hydroelectricity, such as airports, ports, motorways and key
Norway. railway terminals may be crucial
factors for some industries.
Natural routeways and harbours: These Markets: The location and size of
 were essential factors in the past and are markets is a major influence for
still important today as many modern roads some industries.
and railways still follow natural routeways. Government influence:
Natural harbours provide good locations for Government policies and decisions
ports and the industrial complexes often can have a big direct and indirect
found at ports. impact on the location of industry.
Climate: Some industries, such as Governments can encourage
aerospace and film, benefit directly from a industries to locate in certain areas
sunny climate. Indirect benefits, such as and deny them planning permission
lower heating bills and a more favourable in others.
quality of life, may also be apparent. Quality of life: Highly skilled
personnel who have a choice about
where they work will favour areas
where the quality of life is high
(leisure facilities, good housing,
attractive scenery etc.).

Industrial agglomeration
Industrial agglomeration is the clustering together of economic activities. Agglomeration can result in
companies enjoying the benefits of external economies of scale. This means the lowering of a firm’s costs due to
external factors. The success of one company may attract other companies from the same industry group.
External economies of scale can be subdivided into:
• urbanisation economies, which are the cost savings resulting from urban location due to factors such
as the range of producer services available and the investment in infrastructure already in place
• localisation economies, which occur when a firm locates close to suppliers (backward linkages) or
firms that it supplies (forward linkages). This reduces transport costs, allows for faster delivery, and facilitates
a high level of personal communication between firms.

Industrial estates
An industrial estate is an area zoned and planned for the purpose of industrial development. Industrial
estates are also known as industrial parks and trading estates. A more ‘lightweight’ version is the business park
or office park, which has offices and light industry, rather than larger-scale industry.
Industrial estates can be found in a range of locations, from inner cities to rural areas. Industrial estates are
usually located close to transport infrastructure, especially where more than one form of transport meet. The
logic behind industrial estates includes:
• concentrating dedicated infrastructure in a small area to reduce the per-business expense of that
infrastructure
• attracting new business by providing an integrated infrastructure in one location
• separating industry from residential areas to try to reduce the environmental and social impact
• eligibility of industrial estates for grants and loans under regional economic development policies.

The changing location of manufacturing

Changes in the location of manufacturing industry can be recognised at a range of scales:
• The global shift in manufacturing industry from the developed world to NICs and developing countries
has already been discussed as part of the process of globalisation (see Topic 3.1).
• Within each country, rich or poor, there are areas where manufacturing is highly concentrated and
other regions where it is largely absent. In the USA the northeast ‘manufacturing belt’, which covers only
one-eighth of the country, has over 35 per cent of all manufacturing jobs although 100 years ago the figure
was around 70 per cent. Over the last 60 years in particular, industry in the USA has been drawn towards the
‘sunbelt’ states of the south and west for a number of important locational reasons. Similar concentrations
can be recognised in other countries as well as changes in location over time. In most cases the most
significant locational change has been from traditional manufacturing regions, more often than not on
coalfields, to higher quality of life regions offering the hard and soft infrastructural requirements of modern
industry.
• Within individual regions or countries, manufacturing has historically been concentrated in and around
the major urban areas. However, in recent decades there has been a significant shift of industry towards
 greenfield rural locations. This movement has been so great that it is generally recognised as the most
important locational change of manufacturing in the developed world since 1950.

• At the urban scale the relative shift from inner city to suburbs increased as the twentieth century
progressed. Although there has been much debate about the demise of the inner city in the developed world,
many would agree that the loss of employment, much of it in manufacturing, was the initiating factor in the
cycle of inner city decline.
Activities
1 Describe and explain two physical factors and two human factors that affect the location of
industry.
2 Why does industrial agglomeration occur?
3 What is an industrial estate?
4 Suggest reasons for the shift of manufacturing industry from urban to rural areas.
Case study: Bangalore — India’s high-tech city
Bangalore, the capital city of Karnataka State (Figure 3.53), is the most important city in India for
high-technology industry. Bangalore’s pleasant climate, moderated by its location on the Deccan
Plateau over 900 m above sea level, is a significant attraction to foreign and domestic companies
alike. Known as the ‘Garden City’, Bangalore claims to have the highest quality of life in the country.
Because of its dust-free environment, large public-sector undertakings, such as Hindustan
Aeronautics Ltd and the Indian Space Research Organisation, were established in Bangalore by the
Indian government. In addition, the state government has a long history of support for science and
technology. There are many colleges of higher education in this sector and there has been large-
scale investment in science and technology parks. The city prides itself on a ‘culture of learning’,
which gives it innovative leadership within India.
In the 1980s Bangalore became the location for the first large-scale foreign investment in high
technology in India when Texas Instruments selected the city above a number of other possibilities.
Other TNCs soon followed as the reputation of the city grew. Important backward and forward
linkages were steadily established over time. This was a classic example of the process of
cumulative causation. Apart from ICT industries, Bangalore is also India’s most important centre for
aerospace and biotechnology.

Figure 3.53 Location of Bangalore

India’s ICT sector has benefited from the filtering down of business from the developed world.
Many European and North American companies that previously outsourced their ICT requirements to
local companies are now using Indian companies (Figure 3.54). Outsourcing to India occurs because:
• labour costs are considerably lower
• a number of developed countries have significant ICT skills shortages
 • India has a large and able English-speaking workforce (there are about 80 million English
speakers in India).
Bangalore’s population grew from 2.4 million in 1981 to over 12 million in 2017. It is the fastest
growing Indian urban area after New Delhi. The city has grown into a major international hub for ICT
companies, giving it the nickname of the ‘Silicon Valley of India’. Bangalore has steadily built up a
large pool of highly skilled labour that can undertake a wide range of complex tasks in high-
technology industries. There has been very high investment into the city’s infrastructure to
accommodate such a high rate of expansion. The city’s landscape has changed dramatically, with
many new glass and steel skyscrapers and numerous cybercafés.

Figure 3.54 One of the modern office buildings in a suburb of Bangalore

Facts about Bangalore
• Bangalore is the fourth largest technology cluster in the world after Silicon Valley, Boston
and London.
• The number of ICT companies increased from 13 in 1991 to 2200 in 2013.
• The ICT industry is divided into three main clusters: Electronics City, International
Technology Park and the Software Technology Park. New, smaller clusters have emerged in
recent years.
• Major companies include Hewlett Packard, Siemens, Tata Consulting Services (TCS),
Infosys Technologies, Wipro and Kshema Technologies.
• The city has attracted outsourcing right across the IT spectrum from software development
to IT enabled services.
• The city boasts 21 engineering colleges.
• NASDAQ, the world’s biggest stock exchange, opened its third international office in
Bangalore in 2001.
• 80 per cent of global ICT companies have based their India operations and R&D centres in
Bangalore.
• Companies in Bangalore employ about 35 per cent of India’s pool of ICT professionals.
• Bangalore accounts for half of the 260 biotechnology companies in India.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of Bangalore.
2 Explain the reasons for the development of Bangalore as a major international ICT hub.
3 State four facts that illustrate the importance of Bangalore as a high-tech city.

Interesting note
Bangalore has a very skewed female–male gender ratio with 908 women for every 1000 men.
Suggest a reason for such a considerable imbalance.
 Key questions
• What are the reasons for the growth of tourism in relation to the main attractions of the
physical and human landscape?
• What are the benefits and disadvantages of tourism to receiving areas?
• Why is careful management of tourism required in order for the industry to be sustainable?

3.4 Tourism
Figure 3.55 Tourists in the ancient city of Ayutaya, Thailand

The growth of tourism

Over the last 50 years tourism has developed into a major global industry, which is still expanding rapidly
(Figure 3.56). It is one of the major elements in the process of globalisation. Tourism is defined as travel away
from the home environment:
• for leisure, recreation and holidays
• to visit friends and relations (VFR)
• for business and professional reasons.

Figure 3.56 Growth in global tourism

Tourism has developed in response to the main attractions of the physical and human landscape. The medical
profession was largely responsible for the growth of taking holidays away from home. During the seventeenth
century doctors increasingly began to recommend the benefits of mineral waters, and by the end of the eighteenth
century there were hundreds of spas in existence in Britain. Bath and Tunbridge Wells were among the most
famous (Figure 3.57). The second stage in the development of holiday locations was the emergence of the
seaside resort. Sea bathing is usually said to have begun at Scarborough in Britain in about 1730. Those who
could afford it were beginning to appreciate coastal landscapes in a new way.

Figure 3.57 Bath’s historical mineral waters

The annual holiday, away from work, for the masses was a product of the Industrial Revolution, which
brought big social and economic changes. However, until the latter part of the nineteenth century, only the very
rich could afford to take a holiday away from home.
The first package tours were arranged by Thomas Cook in 1841 in the UK. These took travellers from
Leicester to Loughborough, 19 km away, to attend temperance (abstinence from alcoholic drink) meetings. At
the time it was the newly laid railway network that provided the transport infrastructure for Cook to expand his
tour operations. Of equal importance was the emergence of a significant middle class, with time and money to
spare for extended recreation. It was not long before such activities spread to other countries. There was a
growing appreciation of what human landscapes could offer, in particular the attractions of large cities such as
Paris, Rome and London.
By far the greatest developments have occurred since the end of the Second World War, arising from the
substantial growth in leisure time, affluence and mobility enjoyed in developed countries. However, it took the
jet plane to herald the era of international mass tourism. In 1970, when Pan Am flew the first Boeing 747 from
New York to London, scheduled planes carried 307 million passengers. By 2016 the number had reached 3.8
billion. The International Air Transport Association expects this to grow to 7.2 billion by 2035.

Reasons for the growth of global tourism

Table 3.14 shows the range of factors responsible for the growth of global tourism. More and more people
have become aware of the attractions of the physical and human landscape in their own country and abroad, and
rising living standards have allowed an increasing number of people to experience such attractions.
Table 3.14 Factors affecting global tourism
Economic
• Steadily rising real incomes
• The decreasing real costs of holidays
• Widening range of destinations within the middle-income range
• Heavy marketing of shorter foreign holidays aimed at those who have the
time and disposable income to take an additional break
• Expansion of budget airlines
• ‘Air miles’ and other retail reward schemes aimed at travel and tourism
• ‘Globalisation’ has increased business travel considerably
Social
• Increase in the average number of days of paid leave
• Increasing desire to experience different cultures and landscapes
• Raised expectations of international travel with increasing media
coverage of holidays, travel and nature
• High levels of international migration over the last decade or so, which
means that more people have relatives and friends living abroad
Political
• Many governments have invested heavily to encourage tourism
• Government backing for major international events such as the Olympic
Games and the World Cup

Recent data
In 2012 international tourist arrivals (overnight visitors) worldwide exceeded 1 billion for the first time ever,
reaching a total of 1035 million tourists. By 2015 it had reached 1186 million. In 1950 there were only 25 million
international tourists. The World Tourism Organization forecasts an increase to 1.8 billion in 2030. International
tourism receipts reached $1260 billion in 2015. International tourism now represents 7 per cent of the world’s
exports in goods and services. As a global export category, tourism ranks third after fuels and chemicals.
Europe remains the world region with the greatest number of both tourist arrivals and tourism receipts
(Figure 3.58). People from developed countries still dominate global tourism, but many emerging economies
have shown very fast growth rates in recent years. When people can afford to travel they usually do. Tourist-
generating countries have a big impact on the flow of money around the world.
Fifty-three per cent of inbound tourism is for the purpose of leisure, recreation and holidays (Figure 3.59 and
3.60). The second most important reason is visiting friends and relatives. Inbound tourism by mode of transport
in 2015 comprised:
• air, 54 per cent
• road, 39 per cent
• water, 5 per cent
• rail, 2 per cent.
Seasonality is the major problem with tourism as a source of employment, having a major impact on incomes
and the quality of life during the less popular times of the year. Many popular tourist destinations try to extend
the tourist season by staging music festivals and other events.

Figure 3.58 International tourist arrivals and international tourism receipts, 2015

Figure 3.59 Inbound tourism by purpose of visit, 2015

 Figure 3.60 The London Eye — one of the most popular tourist attractions in the UK

Interesting note

In 2015, the countries with the largest numbers of international tourist arrivals were France (84.5
million), USA (77.5 million), Spain (68.2 million), China (56.9 million) and Italy (50.7 million).

Activities
1 Describe the growth of global tourism (Figure 3.56).
2 What were the factors responsible for the early development of tourism?
3 Discuss the economic, social and political factors affecting modern tourism.
4 Produce a bullet-point summary of the information shown in Figure 3.58.
5 Write a brief summary of Figure 3.59.

The benefits and disadvantages of

tourism to receiving areas
The economic impact
Many countries, both developed and developing, have put a high level of capital investment into tourism.
This is money invested in hotels, attractions, airports, roads and other aspects of infrastructure that facilitate
high-volume tourism. There has been considerable debate about the wisdom of such a strategy. Do the
economic benefits outweigh the economic costs? The majority of people concerned with the tourist industry
think they do, but critics of the impact of tourism have presented some strong arguments of their own. Figure
3.61 shows that tourism has many indirect as well as direct effects.
 Figure 3.61 The direct and indirect economic impact of the tourist industry
Supporters of the development potential of tourism put forward the following arguments:
• It is an important factor in the balance of payments of many nations. Tourism brings in valuable
foreign currency (Figure 3.62). This foreign currency is necessary for countries to pay for the goods and
services they import from abroad. Many small developing countries have few other resources that they can
use to obtain foreign currency.

Figure 3.62 Cruise ship on the River Nile — tourism is Egypt’s main source of foreign currency
• Tourism benefits other sectors of the economy, providing jobs and income through the supply chain. It
can set off the process of cumulative causation whereby one phase of investment can trigger other
subsequent phases of investment.
• It provides governments with considerable tax revenues, which help to pay for education, health and
other things for which a government has to find money.
• By providing employment in rural areas it can help to reduce rural-to-urban migration. Such migration is
a major problem in many developing countries.
• A major tourism development can act as a growth pole, stimulating the economy of the larger region.
• It can create openings for small businesses such as taxi firms, beach facility hire companies and small
cafés.
• It can support many jobs in the informal sector (Figure 3.63), which plays a major role in the economy
of many developing countries.

Figure 3.63 Beach artist, Agadir, Morocco — an example of informal sector employment
However, critics argue that the value of tourism is often overrated because of the following:
• Economic leakages (Figure 3.64) from developing to developed countries run at a rate of 60–75 per
cent. Economic leakages are the part of the money a tourist pays for a foreign holiday that does not benefit
the destination country because it goes elsewhere. With cheap package holidays, by far the greater part of
the money paid stays in the country where the holiday was purchased.
 Figure 3.64 Economic leakages
• Tourism is labour intensive, providing a range of jobs especially for women and young people.
However, most local jobs created are menial, low-paid and seasonal. Overseas labour may be brought in to fill
middle and senior management positions.
• Money borrowed to invest in the necessary infrastructure for tourism increases the national debt.
• At some destinations tourists spend most of their money in their hotels, with minimum benefit to the
wider community.
• Tourism might not be the best use for local resources, which could in the future create a larger
multiplier effect if used by a different economic sector.
• Locations can become over-dependent on tourism, which causes big problems if visitor numbers fall.
• The tourist industry has a huge appetite for resources, which often impinge heavily on the needs of
local people. A long-term protest against tourism in Goa highlighted the fact that one five-star hotel
consumed as much water as five local villages, and the average hotel resident used 28 times more electricity
per day than a local person.
• International trade agreements such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) allow the
global hotel giants to set up in most countries. Even if governments favour local investors there is little they
can do.

The social and cultural impact

The traditional cultures of many communities in the developing world have suffered because of the
development of tourism. The disadvantages include the following:
• the loss of locally owned land as tourism companies buy up large tracts of land in the most scenic and
accessible locations
• the abandonment of traditional values and practices
• the displacement of people to make way for tourist developments
• changing community structure — communities that were once very close socially and economically
may be weakened considerably due to a major outside influence such as tourism
• abuse of human rights by large companies and governments in the quest to maximise profits
• crime and anti-social behaviour
• visitor congestion at key locations, hindering the movement of local people
• local people denied access to beaches to provide ‘exclusivity’ for visitors
• loss of housing for local people as more visitors buy second homes in popular tourist areas (Figure
3.65).
Figure 3.66 shows how attitudes to tourism can change over time. An industry that is usually seen as very
beneficial initially can eventually become the source of considerable irritation, particularly where there is a big
clash of cultures.
 Figure 3.65 Entrance to a National Park in Andalucia, Spain — the graffiti refers to the number of foreigners
buying up houses in the nearby village of Frigiliana

Figure 3.66 Doxey’s ‘Index of Irritation’ caused by tourism

However, tourism can also have positive social and cultural impacts:
• Tourism development can increase the range of social facilities for local people.
 • It can lead to greater understanding between people of different cultures.
• Family ties may be strengthened by visits to relatives living in other regions and countries.
• Visiting ancient sites can develop a greater appreciation of the historical legacy of host countries.
• It can help develop foreign language skills in host communities.
• It may encourage migration to major tourist generating countries.
• A multitude of cultures congregating together for major international events such as the Olympic
Games can have a very positive global impact.
The tourist industry and the various scales of government in host countries have become increasingly
aware of the problems the industry creates. They are now using a range of management techniques in an attempt
to mitigate such effects. Education is the most important element, so that visitors are made aware of the most
sensitive aspects of the host culture.

Figure 3.67 Armed tourism police on a Nile cruise ship

Activities
1 Compare the direct and indirect effects of tourism.
2 Explain how economic leakages occur.
3 Explain the sequence of changes illustrated in Doxey’s Index (Figure 3.66).
4 Research the social impact of international tourism in one destination.

The management and sustainability of

tourism
Tourism has reached such a large scale in so many parts of the world that it can only continue with careful
management. In most popular tourist destinations the stated objective is that tourism should be sustainable.
However, sustainable tourism strategies have been much more successful in some areas than others. Sustainable
tourism is tourism organised in such a way that its level can be sustained in the future without creating
irreparable environmental, social and economic damage to the receiving area.
As the level of global tourism increases rapidly it is becoming more and more important for the industry to be
responsibly planned, managed and monitored. Tourism operates in a world of finite resources where its impact is
becoming of increasing concern to a growing number of people. At present, only about 5 per cent of the world’s
population have ever travelled by plane. However, this is undoubtedly going to increase substantially, putting
even greater pressure on tourist destinations.
Environmental groups are keen to make travellers aware of their destination footprint. This is the
environmental impact caused by an individual tourist on holiday in a particular destination.
They are urging people to:
• ‘fly less and stay longer’
• carbon-offset their flights
• consider ‘slow travel’.
Tourists might consider the impact of their activities both for individual holidays but also in the longer term.
For example, they may decide that every second holiday will be in their own country (not using air transport). It
could also involve using locally run guesthouses and small hotels as opposed to hotels run by international chains.
This enables more money to remain in local communities.

Figure 3.68 Sand dune restoration works, County Kerry, Ireland

Figure 3.69 Combating severe informal footpath erosion on Mt Vesuvius, Italy

Virtually every aspect of the industry now recognises that tourism must become more sustainable.
Ecotourism is at the leading edge of this movement. Ecotourism is a specialised form of tourism in which people
experience relatively untouched natural environments such as coral reefs, tropical forests and remote mountain
areas, and ensure that their presence does no further damage to these environments.

Protected areas
Over the course of the last 130 years or so, more and more of the world’s most spectacular and ecologically
sensitive areas have been designated for protection at various levels. The world’s first National Park was
established at Yellowstone in the USA in 1872. Now there are well over 1000 worldwide. Many countries have
National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, World Heritage Sites and other
designated areas that merit special status and protection. Wilderness areas with the greatest restrictions on access
have the highest form of protection.
In many countries and regions there are often differences of opinion when the issue of special protection is
raised. For example, in some areas jobs in mining, forestry and tourism may depend on developing presently
unspoilt areas. So it is not surprising that values and attitudes can differ considerably when big decisions about
the future of environmentally sensitive areas are being made. Often, a clear distinction has to be made between
the objectives of preservation and conservation. Preservation is maintaining a location exactly as it is and not
allowing development. Conservation is allowing for developments that do not damage the character of a location.

Tourist hubs
The concept of tourist hubs or clusters is a model that has been applied in a number of locations. The idea is
to concentrate tourism and its impact in one particular area so that the majority of the region or country feels
little of the negative impacts of the industry. Benidorm in Spain and Cancun in Mexico are examples where this
model was adopted but both locations show how difficult it is to confine tourism within preconceived boundaries
as the number of visitors increases and people want to travel beyond the tourist enclaves.

Quotas
Quotas seem to be one of the best remedies on offer. The UK Centre for Future Studies has suggested a
lottery-based entrance system, an idea endorsed by Tourism Concern. Here, the number of visitors would not be
allowed to exceed a sustainable level. This is an idea we are likely to hear much more about in the future.

Ecotourism in Ecuador
Ecuador’s tourism strategy has been to avoid becoming a mass market destination and to market ‘quality’ and
‘exclusivity’ instead, in as eco-friendly a way as possible.
Ecotourism has helped to bring needed income to some of the poorest parts of the country. It has provided
local people with a new alternative way of making a living. As such it has reduced human pressure on
ecologically sensitive areas.
The main geographical focus of ecotourism has been in the Amazon rainforest around Tena, which has
become the main access point. The ecotourism schemes in the region are usually run by small groups of
indigenous Quichua Indians (Figure 3.70).

Figure 3.70 Ecotourism in Ecuador’s rainforest

Activities
1 Define ‘sustainable tourism’.
2 What do you understand by the term ‘destination footprint’?
3 Which environments in the region in which you live are protected, and why?
4 What do you think of the idea of quotas for visitor numbers at certain locations?
5 What do you understand by the concept ‘slow travel’?
6 Describe the operation of ecotourism in Ecuador’s rainforest.
Case study: Jamaica — the benefits and disadvantages
associated with the growth of tourism
Economic importance
Tourism has become an increasingly vital part of Jamaica’s economy in recent decades. The
contribution of tourism to total employment and GDP has risen substantially. It has brought
considerable opportunities to its population, although it has not been without its problems. Jamaica
has been determined to learn from the mistakes of other countries and ensure that the population will
gain real benefits from the growth of tourism.
Tourism’s direct contribution to GDP in 2014 amounted to 8.1 per cent of total GDP. Adding all
the indirect economic benefits increased the figure to 27.2 per cent of total GDP. Direct employment
in the industry amounted to 90,000 but the overall figure, which includes indirect employment, is over
three times as large. In the most popular tourist areas the level of reliance on the industry is
extremely high.
In 2015, tourist arrivals totalled 2.12 million. In addition, 1.5 million visited on cruise ships. The
tourist industry in Jamaica has been growing at an annual average rate of about 4 per cent. Most
visitors arrive from the USA and the UK.
Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange for the country. The revenue from tourism
plays a significant part in helping central and local government fund economic and social policies.
Special industry taxes have gone directly into social development, healthcare and education, all of
which are often referred to as ‘soft infrastructure’. However, tourism has also spurred the
development of ‘hard infrastructure’ such as roads, telecommunications and airports. Also, as
attitudes within the industry itself are changing, larger hotels and other aspects of the industry have
become more socially conscious. Classic examples are the funding of local social projects.
National Parks and ecotourism
Figure 3.71 shows the location of Jamaica’s National and Marine Parks. Further sites have been
identified for future protection. The Jamaican government sees the designation of the parks as a
positive environmental impact of tourism. Entry fees to the Parks pay for conservation. The desire of
tourists to visit these areas and the need to conserve the environment to attract future tourism drives
the designation and management process.

Figure 3.71 Jamaica’s National and Marine Parks

The marine parks are attempting to conserve the coral reef environments off the coast of
Jamaica (Figure 3.72). They are at risk from damage from overfishing, industrial pollution and mass
tourism. The Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust is responsible for the management of
the National Parks, while the National Environmental Planning Agency has overseen the
government’s sustainable development strategy since 2001.
 Figure 3.72 A beach fringed with palm trees in Montego Bay Marine Park
Ecotourism is a developing sector of the industry with, for example, raft trips on the Rio Grande
river increasing in popularity. Tourists are taken downstream in very small groups. The rafts, which
rely solely on manpower, leave singly with a significant time gap between them to minimise any
disturbance to the peace of the forest.
Community tourism
Considerable efforts are being made to promote community tourism so that more money filters
down to the local population and small communities. The Sustainable Communities Foundation
Through Tourism (SCF) programme has been particularly active in central and southwest Jamaica.
Community tourism is seen as an important aspect of pro-poor tourism. This is tourism that results
in increased net benefits for poor people.
The Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB) is responsible for marketing the country abroad. Recently it
used the fact that Jamaica was one of the host countries for the 2007 Cricket World Cup to good
effect. The JTB also promotes the positive aspects of Jamaican culture — for example, the Bob
Marley Museum in Kingston has become a popular attraction. Such attractions are an important part
of Jamaica’s objective of reducing seasonality. The physical attractions of Jamaica almost sell
themselves, so the government is putting much effort in trying to boost the island’s human attractions.
The disadvantages of tourism
The high or ‘winter’ season runs from mid-December to mid-April when hotel prices are highest.
The rainy season extends from May to November. It has been estimated that 25 per cent of hotel
workers are laid off during the off-season. This has an adverse impact on the standard of living of
households reliant on the tourist industry. It also of course means that expensive tourism
infrastructure is underused for part of the year.
Although seasonality is seen as the major problem associated with tourism in Jamaica, other
negative aspects include:
• the environmental impact of tourism, which includes traffic congestion and pollution at
popular locations, and the destruction of the natural environment to make way for tourism
infrastructure
• the heavy use of resources, particularly water, by hotels
• underuse of facilities in the off-season
• socio-cultural problems, illustrated by the behaviour of some tourists, which clashes with
the island’s traditional morals; some people have a negative image of Jamaica because of its
perceived level of violent crime and harassment.
Case study analysis
1 Explain the importance of tourism to the economy of Jamaica.
2 Describe the location and importance of Jamaica’s National and Marine Parks.
3 Describe an example of ecotourism in Jamaica.
4 Define:
a community tourism
b pro-poor tourism.
 5 Discuss the main problems associated with tourism.

Key questions
• How important are non-renewable fossil fuels, renewable energy supplies, nuclear power
and fuelwood, globally and in different countries at different levels of development?
• What are the benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power and renewable energy sources?

3.5 Energy
Figure 3.73 Oil refinery, Milford Haven, UK

Non-renewable and renewable energy

supplies
Non-renewable sources of energy are the fossil fuels and nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels consisting of hydrocarbons
(coal, oil and natural gas) were formed by the decomposition of prehistoric organisms in past geological periods.
These resources are finite so that as they are used up the supply that remains is reduced. Eventually, these non-
renewable resources could become completely exhausted. The burning of fossil fuels (Figure 3.74) creates
considerable amounts of pollution and is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change due to
these emissions is by far the biggest environmental problem facing the planet.
Renewable energy can be used over and over again. These resources are mainly forces of nature that are
sustainable, and which usually cause little or no environmental pollution. Renewable energy includes
hydroelectric, biofuels, wind, solar, geothermal, tidal and wave power.
 Figure 3.74 Aircraft refuelling at Gatwick airport, UK
At present, non-renewable resources dominate global energy. The challenge is to transform the global
energy mix to achieve a better balance between renewables and non-renewables.
There is a huge gap in energy consumption between rich and poor countries. Wealth is the main factor
explaining the energy gap. The use of energy can improve the quality of life in so many ways. That is why most
people who can afford to buy cars, televisions and washing machines do so. However, there are other influencing
factors, with climate at the top of the list.
The demand for energy has grown steadily over time. Figure 3.75 shows the increase in world primary
energy consumption between 1990 and 2015. Between 2005 and 2015 the increase was 20.2 per cent. Fossil fuels
dominate the global energy situation. Their relative contribution in 2015 was: oil 37.3 per cent, coal 17.4 per cent
and natural gas 31.3 per cent. In contrast, hydroelectric power (HEP) accounted for 2.5 per cent and nuclear
energy 8.3 per cent. Figure 3.75 includes commercially traded energy only. It excludes fuels such as wood, peat
and animal waste, which, though important in many countries, are unreliably documented in terms of
consumption statistics.

Figure 3.75 Changes in world energy consumption by type, 1990–2015

Consumption by type of fuel varies widely by world region (Figure 3.76):
• Oil — is the main source of energy in three of the six regions shown in Figure 3.76, and second in
importance in the other three regions. The largest global consumers are the USA and China, with 19.7 per
cent and 12.9 per cent of the world total.
• Coal — only in the Asia Pacific region is coal the main source of energy. In contrast, it accounts for
only 1.2 per cent of consumption in the Middle East and just over 5 per cent in South and Central America.
China was responsible for 50 per cent of global coal consumption in 2015, followed by India (10.6 per cent)
and the USA (10.3 per cent). The share of coal in global energy consumption fell sharply between 2010 and
2015.
• Natural gas — natural gas is the main source of energy in Europe and Eurasia, and it has recently
taken over the number one spot from oil in the Middle East. Its lowest share of the energy mix is just over
11 per cent in Asia Pacific. The largest individual consumers were the USA and the Russian Federation,
with 22.8 per cent and 11.2 per cent of the world total.
• Hydroelectricity — the relative importance of HEP is greatest in South and Central America (22 per
cent). Elsewhere its contribution is much less.
• Nuclear energy — nuclear energy is not presently available in the Middle East and it makes the
smallest contribution of the five traditional energy sources in Asia Pacific, Africa and South and Central
America. It is most important in Europe and Eurasia and North America.
• Renewables — consumption of renewable energy other than HEP is rising rapidly, but from a very
low base. Renewables made the largest relative contribution to energy consumption in Europe and Eurasia.
 Figure 3.76 Regional energy consumption patterns, 1990–2015
Figure 3.77 shows per capita energy consumption around the world. The highest consumption countries, such
as the USA and Canada, use more than 6 tonnes oil equivalent per person, while almost all of Africa and much of
South America and Asia use less than 1.5 tonnes oil equivalent per person. Figure 3.78 is a model showing the
relationship between resource use in general and the level of economic development. This model applies well to
energy usage, with the newly industrialised countries having the highest rates of growth.
In terms of usage by type of energy, some general points can be made:
• The most developed countries tend to use a wide mix of energy sources as they are able both to invest
in domestic energy potential and to buy energy from abroad.
• The high investment required for nuclear electricity means that only a limited number of countries
produce electricity this way. However, many countries that could afford the investment chose not to adopt
this strategy.
• Richer nations have been able to invest more money in renewable sources of energy.
In the poorest countries fuelwood is an important source of energy, particularly where communities have no
access to electricity.

Figure 3.77 Energy consumption per capita, 2012

 Figure 3.78 Model of the relationship between resource use and the level of economic development

Fuelwood in developing countries

In developing countries about 2.5 billion people rely on fuelwood, charcoal and animal dung for cooking.
Fuelwood and charcoal are collectively called fuelwood, which accounts for just over half of global wood
production. Fuelwood provides much of the energy needs for sub-Saharan Africa. It is also the most important
use of wood in Asia. In 2012, 1.1 billion people were still living without electricity, with a global electrification
rate of 85 per cent. Figure 3.79 shows the countries with the greatest number of people lacking access to
electricity. Although at least one study claims that the global demand for fuelwood peaked in the mid-1990s,
there can be no doubt that there are severe shortages in many countries. This is a major factor in limiting
development.
In developing countries the concept of the ‘energy ladder’ is important. Here, a transition from fuelwood
and animal dung to ‘higher-level’ sources of energy occurs as part of the process of economic development
(Figure 3.80). Income, regional electrification and household size are the main factors influencing the demand for
fuelwood. Forest depletion is initially heavy near urban areas but slows down as cities become wealthier and
change to other forms of energy. It is the more isolated rural areas that are most likely to lack connection to an
electricity grid. In such areas the reliance on fuelwood is greatest. Wood is likely to remain the main source of
fuel for the global poor in the foreseeable future.
 Figure 3.79 Electricity access deficit, 2010
The collection of fuelwood does not cause deforestation on the same scale as the clearance of land for
agriculture, but it can seriously deplete wooded areas. The use of fuelwood is the main cause of indoor air
pollution in developing countries.

Figure 3.80 Fuel station on the river Amazon, Brazil

Interesting note

The individual countries consuming the most energy in 2015, as a percentage of the world total,
were: China (22.9), USA (17.3), India (5.3), Russia (5.1) and Japan (3.4).

Activities
1 List the non-renewable sources of energy.
2 Describe the changes in world energy consumption shown in Figure 3.75.
3 To what extent do the types of energy consumption vary by world region?
4 Provide a bullet-point summary of Figure 3.77. Refer to all classes in the key.
5 a What is fuelwood?
b Why is it such an important source of energy in the developing world?

The benefits and disadvantages of

nuclear power and renewable energy
Nuclear power
Until a few years ago the future of nuclear power looked bleak, with a number of countries apparently
‘running down’ their nuclear power stations and many other nations firmly set against the idea of introducing
nuclear electricity. However, heightened fears about oil supplies, energy security and climate change have
brought this controversial source of power back onto the global energy agenda.
The largest consumers of global nuclear energy in 2015 by percentage were the USA (32.6), France (17),
Russian Federation (7.6), China (6.6) and South Korea (6.4).
No other source of energy creates such heated discussion as nuclear power. Concerns include the following:
• Power plant accidents — could release radiation into air, land and sea.
• Radioactive waste storage/disposal — most concern is over the small proportion of ‘high-level waste’.
This is so radioactive that it generates heat and corrodes all containers. It would cause death within a few
days to anyone directly exposed to it. In the UK this amounts to about 0.3 per cent of the total volume of all
nuclear waste. However, it accounts for about half the total radioactivity. No country has yet implemented a
long-term solution to the nuclear waste problem. The USA and Finland have plans to build waste
repositories deep underground in areas of known geological stability.
• Rogue state or terrorist use of nuclear fuel for weapons — as the number of countries with access to
nuclear technology rises, such concerns are likely to increase. An interim report published in December
2008 by the US Congressional Commission on the Strategic Posture of the United States concluded: ‘It
appears that we are at a “tipping point” in nuclear proliferation. Part of the concern is that some countries
which claim to be developing nuclear electricity only may well put themselves in a position to develop
nuclear weapons.’
• High construction and decommissioning costs — recent estimates put an average price of about $6.3
billion on a new nuclear power plant. When a nuclear plant has come to the end of its useful life, the costs of
decommissioning are high.
• Because of the genuine risks associated with nuclear power and the level of security secrecy required, it
is seen by some people as less ‘democratic’ than other sources of power.
• The possible increase in certain types of cancer near nuclear plants — there has been much debate
about this issue, but the evidence appears to be becoming more convincing.
At one time the rise of nuclear power looked unstoppable. However, a serious incident at the Three Mile
Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania USA in 1979, and the much more serious Chernobyl disaster in the
Ukraine in 1986, brought any growth in the industry to a virtual halt. No new nuclear power plants have been
ordered in the USA since then, although public opinion has become more favourable in recent years as Three
Mile Island and Chernobyl recede into the past, and worries about polluting fossil fuels increase. Most of the
recent nuclear power plants constructed have been in Asia.
The advantages of nuclear power are as follows:
• Zero emissions of greenhouse gases — this has become more and more important as concern about
climate change has risen. Along with hydropower, nuclear electricity is the major source of ‘carbon-free’
energy used today.
• Reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels — more countries have become concerned about energy
security. Energy insecurity may lead to increased geopolitical tension and the potential for conflict as
consumers attempt to secure supplies. This will be most likely within a ‘business as usual’ framework of
reliance on fossil fuels. Nuclear power is seen by a number of governments as a tried and tested way of
reducing reliance on energy imports. France is a classic example of how this has been done.
• Nuclear power is not as vulnerable to fuel price fluctuations as oil and gas — uranium, the fuel for
nuclear plants, is relatively plentiful. Most of the main uranium mines are in politically stable countries.
• In recent years nuclear plants have demonstrated a very high level of reliability and efficiency as
technology has advanced and experience has been built up.
• Nuclear technology has spin-offs in fields such as medicine and agriculture.

This decade will be crucial to the future of nuclear energy, with many countries making final decisions to
extend or begin their nuclear electricity capability. The nuclear energy issue is likely to be a major political
battleground in some countries.
Activities
1 State three advantages and three disadvantages of nuclear power.
2 When did the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl occur?
3 Why might nuclear electricity become more important in the future?

Renewable energy supplies

 Countries are eager to harness renewable energy resources to:
• reduce their reliance on often dwindling domestic fossil fuel resources
• lower their reliance on costly fossil fuel imports
• improve their energy security with higher domestic energy production
• cut greenhouse gas emissions for a cleaner environment and to satisfy international obligations.

Hydroelectricity
Of the traditional five major sources of energy, HEP is the only one that is renewable. It is by far the most
important source of renewable energy. The ‘big four’ HEP nations of China, Brazil, Canada and the USA
account for almost 54 per cent of the global total (Table 3.15).
Table 3.15 HEP consumption, 2015: major countries

Most of the best HEP locations are already in use, so the scope for more large-scale development is limited.
However, in many countries there is scope for small-scale HEP plants to supply local communities.
Although HEP is generally seen as a clean form of energy, it is not without its problems, which include:
• large dams and power plants can have a huge negative visual impact on the environment
• the obstruction of the river for aquatic life
• deterioration in water quality
• large areas of land may need to be flooded to form the reservoir behind the dam
• submerging large forests without prior clearance can release significant quantities of methane, a
greenhouse gas.

Newer alternative energy sources

The first major wave of interest in new alternative energy sources resulted from the energy crisis of the early
1970s. However, the relatively low price of oil in the 1980s, 1990s and the opening years of the present century
dampened down interest in these energy sources. Then renewed concerns about energy in recent years and
corresponding price increases kick-started the alternative energy industry again.
The main drawback to the new alternative energy sources is that they invariably produce higher-cost
electricity than traditional sources. However, the cost gap with non-renewable energy is narrowing. Figure
3.81 shows the sharp increase in the consumption of renewable energy (other than HEP) in the last decade. In
2015, this accounted for almost 2.8 per cent of global primary energy consumption. The newer sources of
renewable energy making the largest contribution to global energy supply are wind power and biofuels.

Figure 3.81 Renewable energy consumption by world region, 1995–2015

Wind power
The worldwide capacity of wind energy (Figure 3.82) reached 432 GW by the end of 2015, up from 10 GW
in 1998. The leaders in global wind energy are China (145 GW), the USA (74 GW), Germany (45 GW), India
(25 GW) and Spain (23 GW). Together these countries account for over 67 per cent of the world total. In recent
years wind energy has reached the ‘take-off’ stage both as a source of energy and a manufacturing industry. The
main advantages of wind energy are that, compared with most other forms of renewable energy, it can generate
significant amounts of electricity, and it can be harnessed to a reasonable degree in most parts of the world.

Figure 3.82 A wind farm in California

Apart from establishing new wind energy sites, ‘repowering’ is also beginning to play an important role. This
means replacing first-generation wind turbines with modern multi-megawatt turbines, which give a much better
performance. As wind turbines have been erected in more areas of more countries, the opposition to this form of
renewable energy has increased. For example:
• People are concerned that huge turbines located nearby could blight their homes and have a significant
impact on property values.
• There are concerns about the hum of turbines disturbing both people and wildlife.
• Skylines in scenically beautiful areas might be spoiled forever.
• Turbines can kill birds. Migratory flocks tend to follow strong winds but wind companies argue that
they don’t place turbines near migratory routes.
• Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast where land is both scenically beautiful and
expensive.
The development of large offshore wind farms, for example in UK waters, has become an increasingly
debatable issue, mainly due to the visual impact of such large installations. Safety concerns with regard to the
movement of shipping are also an issue.
There has also been increasing debate about how much electricity wind turbines in many areas actually
produce. There can be a big difference between the technical capacity of a wind turbine and the amount of
electricity it actually produces.

Biofuels
Biofuels are fossil fuel substitutes that can be made from a range of crops, including oilseeds, wheat and
sugar. They can be blended with petrol and diesel. The biggest producers of biofuels are the USA (41.4 per cent),
Brazil (23.6 per cent) and Germany (4.2 per cent). By increasing biofuel production these countries have reduced
the amount of oil they need to consume, which is the main reason behind biofuel production. Advocates of
biofuels also argue that biofuels come from a renewable resource (crops); they can be produced wherever there is
sufficient crop growth, helping energy security; and they often produce cleaner emissions than petroleum-based
fuels.
However, there are clear disadvantages in biofuel production. Increasing amounts of cropland have been used
to produce biofuels, adding to the ‘global food crisis’. Large amounts of land, water and fertilisers are needed for
large-scale crop production. The manufacture of biofuels also uses significant amounts of energy, creating
greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels. Initially,
environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace were very much in favour of biofuels, but as
the damaging environmental consequences have become clear, such environmental organisations were the first to
demand a rethink of this energy strategy.
Global biofuel production increased from 19,651 thousand tonnes of oil equivalent in 2005 to 74,847
thousand tonnes of oil equivalent in 2015.

Geothermal electricity
Geothermal energy is the natural heat found in the Earth’s crust in the form of steam, hot water and hot rock
(Figure 3.83). Rainwater may percolate several kilometres down in permeable rocks, where it is heated due to the
Earth’s geothermal gradient. This is the rate at which temperature rises as depth below the surface increases. The
average rise in temperature is about 30°C per km, but the gradient can reach 80°C near plate boundaries. This
source of energy can be used directly for industry, agriculture, bathing and cleansing. For example, in Iceland hot
springs supply water at 86°C to 95 per cent of the buildings in and around Reykjavik.

Figure 3.83 Geothermal power

The USA is the world leader in geothermal electricity. However, total production accounts for less than 0.4
per cent of the electricity used in the USA. Other leading countries using geothermal electricity are the
Philippines, Italy, Mexico, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand (Figure 3.84) and Iceland. Global operating capacity
reached 13.3 GW at the beginning of 2016, spread across 24 countries. At present virtually all the geothermal
power plants in the world operate on steam resources, and have an extremely low environmental impact.
 Figure 3.84 Geothermal power, Wairakei, New Zealand
The advantages of geothermal power for those countries that have access to this form of energy are:
• extremely low environmental impact
• geothermal plants occupy relatively small land areas
• not dependent on weather conditions (like wind and solar power)
• relatively low maintenance costs.
The limitations of this form of energy are:
• there are few locations worldwide where significant amounts of energy can be generated
• total global generation remains very small
• some of these locations are far from where the energy could be used
• installation costs of plant and piping are relatively high.

Solar power
From a relatively small base the installed capacity of solar electricity is growing rapidly. In 2012, global solar
power capacity passed 100,000 MW, but by the end of 2016 it had reached 305 GW. This amounts to about 1.5
per cent of all global electricity generation. Experts say that solar power has huge potential for technological
improvement, which could make it a major source of global electricity in years to come. China, Japan, Germany,
the USA and Italy currently lead the global market for solar power.
Solar electricity is currently produced in two ways:
• Photovoltaic systems — these are solar panels that convert sunlight directly into electricity (Figure
3.85).
• Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems — these use mirrors or lenses and tracking systems to focus
a large area of sunlight into a small beam. This concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a
conventional thermal power plant.
Table 3.16 outlines advantages and disadvantages of solar power.
 Figure 3.85 Solar electricity being generated by photovoltaic panels in Spain

Table 3.16 Advantages and disadvantages of solar power

Advantages Disadvantages
A completely renewable resource Initial high cost of solar plants
No noise or direct pollution during Solar power cannot be harnessed
electricity generation during storms, on cloudy days or at
Very limited maintenance required to night
keep solar plants running Of limited use in countries with low
Solar power technology is improving annual hours of sunshine
consistently over time and reducing Large areas of land required to
costs capture the Sun’s energy in order to
Can be used in remote areas where generate significant amounts of power
it is too expensive to extend the
electricity grid
A generally positive public
perception

Tidal and wave power

Although currently in its infancy, tidal energy could eventually supply as much as 10 per cent of US
electricity, according to estimates by the Electric Power Research Institute. This potential could be equalled in
the UK and surpassed in Canada. So for some countries, potential energy production from this source could be
very high.
Tidal power plants act like underwater windmills, transforming sea currents into electrical current. Tidal
power is more predictable than solar or wind power, and the infrastructure is less obtrusive. However, start-up
costs are high. Thus, the 240 MW Rance facility in northwest France was the only utility-scale tidal power
system in the world for 45 years until the Sihwa Lake tidal power station opened in South Korea in 2011, which
uses sea wall defence barriers complete with 10 turbines to generate 254 MW.
The site with greatest potential is Canada’s Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, but there are environmental
concerns here. The main concerns are potential effects on fish populations and other marine life, levels of
sedimentation building up behind facilities, and the possible impact on tides along the coast.
Because predicted building and maintenance costs are expensive, the return on investment takes a long time.
Also, while generally predictable, tidal energy is not as dependable as fossil-fired or nuclear generation.
Wave energy is derived from generators placed on the ocean’s surface, and energy levels are determined

by the strength of the waves. The first experimental wave farm was opened in Portugal in 2008 at the
Agucadoura Wave Park. However, due to technical problems the facility was shut down 2 months after opening.
A number of research projects are in operation, including one off the shores of Oregon in the USA. The costs and
benefits of wave energy are broadly similar to those of tidal power.
 Activities
1 Explain the difference between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
2 Give two advantages and two disadvantages for each of the following forms of renewable
energy: wind, biofuels, solar, geothermal, tidal.
3 Apart from hydroelectricity, why does renewable energy contribute so little to global
energy supply?
4 For the country in which you live, find out which forms of renewable energy are used and
how much they contribute to total energy production.
Case study: Energy supply in China
China overtook the USA in total energy usage in 2009. The demand for energy in China
continues to increase significantly as the country expands its industrial base. In 2015, China’s energy
consumption breakdown by energy sources was as follows:
• coal 63.7 per cent
• oil 18.6 per cent
• hydroelectricity 8.5 per cent
• natural gas 5.9 per cent
• nuclear energy 1.3 per cent
• renewables 2.1 per cent.
China’s energy policy has evolved over time. As the economy expanded rapidly in the 1980s and
1990s, much emphasis was placed on China’s main energy resource, coal. China was also an
exporter of oil until the early 1990s; it is now a very significant importer. Chinese investment in
energy resources abroad has risen rapidly. Long-term energy security is viewed as essential if the
country is to maintain the pace of its industrial revolution.
In recent years China has tried to take a more balanced approach to energy supply and at the
same time reduce its environmental impact through:
• energy conservation
• placing a strong emphasis on domestic resources
• diversified energy development
• environmental protection
• mutually beneficial international cooperation.
The development of clean coal technology is an important aspect of China’s energy policy. China
is constructing clean coal plants at a rapid rate and gradually retiring older, more polluting power
plants. China has recently built a small experimental facility near Beijing to remove carbon dioxide
from power station emissions and use it to provide carbonation for beverages. Overall coal
consumption in China actually declined for the first time in 2015.
The further development of nuclear and hydropower is another important strand of Chinese policy.
The country also aims to stabilise and increase the production of oil while augmenting that of natural
gas and improving the national oil and gas network.
China’s strategic petroleum reserve
Priority was also given to building up the national oil reserve. In 2007 China announced an
expansion of its crude reserves into a two-part system. Chinese reserves would consist of a
government-controlled strategic reserve complemented by mandated commercial reserves. The
government-controlled reserves are being completed in three phases. This will protect China to a
certain extent from fluctuations in the global oil price, which can arise for a variety of reasons.
Renewable energy policy
Total renewable energy capacity in China reached 502 GW in 2015, up from 226 GW in 2009.
This included:
• 319.4 GW of hydroelectricity
• 129.3 GW of wind energy
• 43.2 GW of solar PV
• 10.3 GW of biomass.
China’s wind power capacity grew rapidly between 2005 and 2015 and is now the largest in the
world by a considerable margin. Its wind turbine manufacturing industry is now the largest in the
world, and it is now also the largest manufacturer of solar PV. China is very serious about tackling air
pollution and plans to have a total renewable capacity of more than 800 GW by 2021 (Table 3.17).
Table 3.17 China’s projected renewable electricity capacity (GW), 2015–21
 The Three Gorges Dam
The Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze river is the world’s largest electricity generating plant
of any kind (Figure 3.86). This is a major part of China’s policy in reducing its reliance on coal. The
dam is over 2 km long and 100 m high. The lake impounded behind it is over 600 km long. All of the
originally planned components were completed in late 2008. There are 38 main generators giving
the scheme a massive 22,500 MW generating capacity. The dam supplies Shanghai and
Chongqing in particular with electricity. This is a multipurpose scheme that also increases the river’s
navigational capacity and reduces the potential for floods downstream. However, there was
considerable opposition to the dam for a number of reasons (see page 123).

Figure 3.86 The Three Gorges Dam

Case study analysis
1 When did China overtake the USA in total energy usage?
2 Describe China’s energy consumption by source.
3 What are the main principles of China’s current energy policy?
4 What name is given to China’s stock of oil kept aside in case of an emergency?
5 Why has the Three Gorges Dam been so important to energy development in China?
 Key questions
• What are the methods of water supply?
• How does the use of water vary between countries at different levels of economic
development?
• What are the reasons for water shortages in some areas?
• Why is careful management required to ensure future supplies of water?

3.6 Water
Figure 3.87 Reservoir with water tower in Wales

The global water crisis

The longest a person can survive without water is about 10 days. All life and virtually every human activity
needs water. It is the world’s most essential resource and a pivotal element in poverty reduction. But for about 80
countries, with 40 per cent of the world’s population, lack of water is a constant threat. And the situation is
getting worse, with demand for water doubling every 20 years. In those parts of the world where there is enough
water, it is being wasted, mismanaged and polluted on a grand scale. In the poorest nations it is not just a
question of lack of water; the paltry supplies available are often polluted.

Methods of water supply

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations or by community
endeavours. The objective in all cases is to supply water from its source to the point of usage. In 2015, 91 per
cent of the global population had access to a piped water supply through house connections or an improved water
source through other means than house supply, including standpipes, water kiosks, spring supplies and protected
wells. This compares with 76 per cent in 1990. This left over 660 million people who did not have access to an
improved water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs.

Dams and reservoirs

In the twentieth century, global water consumption grew sixfold — twice the rate of population growth.
Much of this increased consumption was made possible by significant investment in water infrastructure,
particularly dams and reservoirs, affecting nearly 60 per cent of the world’s major river basins. Figure 3.88
shows water supply and management methods in the large Canadian province of Alberta, where water supply is a
concern in many parts of the region.
A dam is a barrier that holds back water. Dams are mainly used to save, manage and prevent the flow of
excess water into specific regions. They may also be used to generate hydroelectricity and provide road bridges
across valleys. A reservoir is an artificial lake primarily used for storing water. Not all reservoirs are held behind
dams, but the really large ones usually are. These are ‘on-channel’ reservoirs where a dam has been built across
an existing river. In contrast, ‘off-channel’ reservoirs usually use depressions in the existing landscape or human-
dug depressions to store water. They may be in close proximity to rivers so that water can be moved from one to
the other, depending on whether storage or supply is the immediate objective.
The world’s major dams are really massive structures capable of holding huge amounts of water in the
reservoirs behind them. The volume of water in Lake Kariba, held behind the Kariba Dam in Zimbabwe, is a
staggering 180.6 km3. This water can be released gradually as and when required by the settlements downstream
of the dam. Reservoir storage needs have increased as world population has grown. There are approximately
80,000 dams of varying sizes in the USA alone. Globally the construction of dams has declined since the height
of the era in the 1960s and 1970s. This is because most of the best sites for dams are already in use or such sites
are strongly protected by environmental legislation and therefore off-limits for construction.

Figure 3.88 Alternative water supply and management methods in Alberta, Canada
An alternative to building new dams and reservoirs is to increase the capacity of existing reservoirs by
extending the height of the dam. For example, the San Vicente Dam Raise Project in southern California is
adding 36 m to the existing 67 m structure. At a cost of $530 million it will more than double the current capacity
of the reservoir.

Wells and boreholes

A well or borehole is a means of tapping into various types of aquifers (water-bearing rocks), gaining access
to groundwater. They are sunk directly down to the water table. The water table is the highest level of
underground water. For many communities groundwater is the only water supply source. Aquifers provide
approximately half of the world’s drinking water, 40 per cent of the water used by industry and up to 30 per cent
of irrigation water.
Typically a borehole is drilled by machine and is relatively small in diameter. Wells are relatively large in
diameter and are often sunk by hand, although machinery may be used.
Water from groundwater sources can be used directly or stored to build up a considerable surface supply.
Figure 3.89 shows two types of artesian well. These are wells sunk through impermeable strata into strata
receiving water from an area at a higher altitude than that of the well, so that there is sufficient pressure to force
water to flow upwards. The well on the left in Figure 3.89 will require pumping or manually drawn buckets to
bring water from the level to which it rises to the surface. The artesian well on the right is below the water table,
so water will flow to the surface unaided (a flowing artesian well). About 35 per cent of all public water supply
in England and Wales comes from groundwater. Groundwater is even more important in arid and semi-arid areas.
This is the main source of water in oasis settlements such as those in the Sahara desert in north Africa.

Figure 3.89 An aquifer and artesian wells

Desalination: the answer to water shortages?

Desalination plants are in widespread use in the Middle East where other forms of water supply are
extremely scarce. Most of these plants distill water by boiling, generally using waste gases produced by oil wells.
Without the availability of waste energy the process would be extremely expensive. This is the main reason why
desalination plants are few and far between outside of the Middle East.
However, another method of desalination does exist. Originally developed in California in the mid-1960s for
industrial use, the ‘reverse osmosis’ technique is now being applied to drinking water. Recent advances have
substantially reduced the cost of reverse-osmosis systems. Large-scale systems using this new technology have
been built in Singapore and Florida.
The sea water will still have to undergo conventional filter treatment to rid it of impurities such as
microbes pumped into the sea from sewage plants. Thus it is likely that even when the technology has been
highly refined, desalinated water will always be more expensive than water from conventional sources. However,
desalination does have other advantages:
• It does not affect water levels in rivers.
• It could mean that controversial plans for new reservoirs could be shelved.
However, desalination plants are expensive and do not offer a viable solution to the poorest countries unless
costs can be drastically reduced.

Cloud seeding
Cloud seeding is a technique used to increase rainfall (or snowfall) in an area. It can be used directly over an
agricultural area where rainfall is required immediately, or mountain or ‘orogenic’ cloud seeding can be used for
snowpack augmentation, particularly in snowmelt-dominated basins like those originating in the Rocky
Mountains in the USA and Canada (Figure 3.88 and 3.90). The more snow that falls in winter, the more water
there is from snowmelt in spring. Cloud seeding is also sometimes used in major ski resorts to increase snowfall.

Figure 3.90 How cloud seeding works

Other methods of water supply

Other methods of water supply, shown in Figure 3.88, are largely self-explanatory:
• Forest water management can be very important in many areas. Land management activities can affect
water flow and degrade the quality of water. Many countries rely on ‘protection forests’ to preserve the quality
 of drinking water supplies, alleviate flooding and guard against erosion, landslides and the loss of soil.
• Water can be stored underground as well as on the surface, thus reducing losses from evaporation.
Underground storage usually uses existing chambers, such as abandoned mines.
• Water pricing and the granting of licences to use certain amounts of water from the public supply are
now commonplace measures for large-scale users of water. If a licence holder does not need to use all the
water it is entitled to use under the licence, the surplus water can be sold (water licence exchange).

• Households may be encouraged to use water butts and to trap rainwater by other methods, thus taking
less from the piped public supply. They may also be encouraged to use ‘grey water’ to water gardens, for
example. Grey water is water that has already been used, such as bath water.
Activities
1 Define:
a a dam
b a reservoir.
2 Write a paragraph to explain Figure 3.89.
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of desalination?
4 Look at Figure 3.90 and explain how cloud seeding works.

How water use varies

Figure 3.91 shows the contrasts in water use in developed and developing countries. In the latter, agriculture
accounts for over 80 per cent of total water use, with industry using more of the remainder than domestic
allocation. In the developed world agriculture accounts for slightly more than 40 per cent of total water use. This
is lower than the amount allocated to industry. As in the developing world, domestic use is in third place.
As developing countries industrialise and urban-industrial complexes expand, the demand for water grows
rapidly in the industrial and domestic sectors. As a result the competition with agriculture for water has
intensified in many countries and regions. This is a scenario that has already played itself out in many developed
countries, where more and more difficult decisions are having to be made about how to allocate water.
There can also be large variations in water allocation within countries. For example, irrigation accounts for
over 80 per cent of water demand in the west of the USA, but only about 6 per cent in the east. In general,
precipitation declines from east to west in the USA.
The amount of water used by a population depends not only on water availability but also on levels of
urbanisation and economic development. As global urbanisation continues, the demand for potable water
(drinking water) in cities and towns will rise rapidly. In many cases demand will outstrip supply. In some
countries water is delivered on a daily basis to urban areas that are not yet connected to the mains supply (Figure
3.92).

Figure 3.91 Water used for agriculture, industry and domestic purposes in the developed and developing worlds
 Figure 3.92 Water collection and distribution in central Asia
In terms of agriculture, more than 80 per cent of crop evapotranspiration comes directly from rainfall, with
the remainder from irrigation water diverted from rivers and groundwater. However, this varies considerably by
region. In the Middle East and North Africa, where rainfall is low and unreliable, more than 60 per cent of crop
evapotranspiration originates from irrigation.

Water shortages
110,000 km3 of precipitation falls onto the Earth’s land surface each year. This would be more than adequate
for the global population’s needs, but much of it cannot be captured and the rest is very unevenly distributed. For
example:
• Over 60 per cent of the world’s population live in areas receiving only 25 per cent of global annual
precipitation.
• The arid regions of the world cover 40 per cent of the world’s land area, but receive only 2 per cent of
global precipitation.
• The Congo river and its tributaries account for 30 per cent of Africa’s annual runoff in an area
containing 10 per cent of Africa’s population.
Water scarcity is to do with the availability of potable water. Physical water scarcity is when physical
access to water is limited. This is when demand outstrips a region’s ability to provide the water needed by the
population. It is the arid and semi-arid regions of the world that are most associated with physical water scarcity.
Here temperatures and evapotranspiration rates are very high and precipitation low. In the worst affected areas,
points of access to safe drinking water are few and far between. Egypt is a clear example of physical water
scarcity, having to import more than half of its food because it does not have enough water to grow it
domestically.
Economic water scarcity exists when a population does not have the necessary monetary means to utilise an
adequate source of water. The unequal distribution of resources is central to economic water scarcity, where the
crux of the problem is lack of investment. This occurs for a number of reasons, including political and ethnic
conflict. Figure 3.93 shows that much of sub-Saharan Africa is affected by this type of water scarcity.
 Figure 3.93 Physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity worldwide
Securing access to clean water is a vital aspect of development. The lack of clean, safe drinking water is
estimated to kill over 4000 children per day. While deaths associated with dirty water have been virtually
eliminated from developed countries, in developing countries most deaths still result from water-borne disease.
Water scarcity has been presented as the ‘sleeping tiger’ of the world’s environmental problems, threatening to
put world food supplies in jeopardy, limit economic and social development, and create serious conflicts between
neighbouring drainage basin countries. The UN estimates that two-thirds of the world’s population will be
affected by ‘severe water stress’ by 2025. The situation will be particularly severe in Africa, the Middle East and
south Asia. The UN notes that already a number of the world’s great rivers are running dry (Figure 3.94), such as
the Colorado in the USA, and that groundwater is also being drained faster than it can be replenished. Many
major aquifers have been seriously depleted, which will present serious consequences in the future. In China, the
over-exploitation of aquifers has been a major factor in the decline in
rice production in some areas.

Figure 3.94 The dried-up bed of the Rio Oja, northern Spain
The Middle East and North Africa face the most serious problems. Since 1972 the Middle East has
withdrawn more water from its rivers and aquifers each year than is being replenished. Yemen and Jordan are
withdrawing 30 per cent more from groundwater resources annually than is being naturally replenished.
Israel’s annual demand exceeds its renewable supply by 15 per cent. In Africa, about 200 million people live in
water-stressed or water-scarce areas.
A country is judged to experience water stress when water supply is below 1700 m3 per person per year.
When water supply falls below 1000 m3 per person a year, a country faces water scarcity for all or part of the
year.
The Water Project, a leading NGO, has recently stated the following with regard to water:
• At any one time, half of the world’s hospital beds are occupied by patients suffering from water-borne
diseases.
• Over one-third of the world’s population has no access to sanitation facilities.
• In developing countries, about 80 per cent of illnesses are linked to poor water and sanitation conditions.
• One out of every four deaths of children under the age of 5 worldwide is due to a water-related
disease.
• In developing countries, it is common for water collectors — usually women and girls — to have to
walk several kilometres every day to fetch water. Once filled, pots and jerry-cans can weigh as much as 20
kg.
The link between poverty and water resources is very clear, with those living on less than $1.25 a day
roughly equal to the number without access to safe drinking water. Access to safe water is vital in the prevention
of diarrhoeal diseases, which result in 1.5 million deaths a year, mostly among children under 5. Improving
access to safe water can be among the most cost-effective means of reducing illness and mortality. The UN
World Water Development Report stated: ‘The real tragedy is the effect it has on the everyday lives of poor
people, who are blighted by the burden of water-related disease, living in degraded and often dangerous
environments, struggling to get an education for their children and to earn a living, and to get enough to eat. The
brutal truth is that the really poor suffer a combination of most, and sometimes all, of the problems in the water
sector.’

The future
Scientists expect water scarcity to become more severe, largely because:
• the world’s population continues to increase significantly
• increasing affluence is inflating per capita demand for water
• of the increasing demands of biofuel production — biofuel crops are heavy users of water
• climate change is increasing aridity and reducing supply in many regions
• many water sources are threatened by various forms of pollution.
Water management
The general opinion in the global water industry is that in the past the cost of water in the developed world
has been too low to encourage users to save water. Higher prices would make individuals and organisations, both
public and private, think more carefully about how much water they use. Higher prices would:
• encourage the systematic re-use of used or ‘grey’ water
• spur investment in recycling and reclamation systems
• lead to greater investment in the reduction of water losses.
However, many consumers still see water as a ‘free’ or very low-cost resource, and campaign groups are
concerned that higher prices would have an unfair impact on people on low incomes. Water pricing for both
domestic and commercial users is a sensitive issue. It has also become much more of a political issue as more
and more countries have privatised their water resources.
Conserving irrigation water would have more impact than any other measure. Most irrigation is extremely
inefficient, wasting half or more of the water used. A 10 per cent increase in irrigation efficiency would free up
more water than is evaporated by all other users. The most modern drip irrigation systems are up to 95 per cent
efficient, but require significant investment.
Although some industries have significantly reduced their use of water per unit of production, most water
analysts believe that much more can be done. For example, production of 1 kg of aluminium can require up to
1500 litres of water. Other industries, such as paper production, are also very water intensive. Some countries,
such as Japan and Germany, have made considerable improvements in industrial water use. For example,
Japanese industry recycles more than 75 per cent of process water.
As water scarcity becomes more of a problem, the investment required to tackle this global challenge will rise.
Table 3.18 shows the estimated investment needed by regions of the world for the period 2005–30. There are
very large contrasts between the different regions. Delivering water to the points where it is required is a costly
business in terms of both constructing and maintaining infrastructure. Overall, the sums of money illustrated in
Table 3.18 are huge and money may need to be diverted from other sectors of national government funding.
However, investment in water as a proportion of GDP has fallen by half in most countries since the late
1990s.
Urban sanitation services are very heavy users of water. Demand could be reduced considerably by
adopting dry or low-water-use systems, such as dry composting toilets with urine separation systems. A number
of pilot projects are in operation, such as in the Gebers Housing Project in Stockholm.

Table 3.18 Water investment needs by area, 2005–30

$ (trillions)
Asia/Oceania 9.0
South/Central America 5.0
Europe 4.5
USA/Canada 3.6
Middle East 0.3
Africa 0.2

Activities
1 Describe the differences shown in Figure 3.91.
2 Define:
a physical water scarcity
b economic water scarcity.
3 In which world region is economic water scarcity most widespread?
4 Why is water scarcity likely to become more severe in the future?
5 Give two examples of water management.

Case study: The water problem in southwestern USA

The USA is a huge user of water. Over the country as a whole there would not seem to be a
water problem. However, the western states of the USA, covering 60 per cent of the land area with
40 per cent of the total population, receive only 25 per cent of the country’s mean annual
precipitation. Yet each day the west uses as much water as the east. It is the southwest in particular
where the water problem is most intense (Figure 3.95). This is the area of the USA most vulnerable
to water shortages.

Figure 3.95 Desert region in southwestern USA

Figure 3.96 Water management schemes in California

The southwest has prospered due to a huge investment in water transfer schemes. This has
benefited agriculture, industry and settlement. Hundreds of aqueducts take water from areas of
surplus to areas of shortage. The federal government has paid most of the bill but now the demand
for water is greater than the supply. If the west is to continue to expand, a solution to the water
problem must be found.
Although much of the southwest is desert or semi-desert, large areas of dry land have been
transformed into fertile farms and sprawling cities. It all began with the Reclamation Act of 1902
which allowed the building of canals, dams and hydroelectric power systems in the states that lie, all
or in part, west of the 100th meridian. Water supply was to be the key to economic development in
general, benefiting not only the west, but the USA as a whole.
California has benefited most from this investment in water supply. A great imbalance exists
between the distributions of precipitation and population in the state. Seventy per cent of runoff
originates in the northern one-third of the state, but 80 per cent of the demand for water is in the
southern two-thirds. While irrigation is the prime water user, the sprawling urban areas have also
greatly increased demand. The 3.5 million hectares of irrigated land in California are situated mainly
in the Imperial, Coachella, San Joaquin and lower Sacramento valleys. Figure 3.96 shows the major
component parts of water transfer and storage in the state.
Agriculture uses more than 80 per cent of the state’s water, though it accounts for less than a
tenth of the economy. Water development, largely financed by the federal government, has been a
huge subsidy to California in general and to big water users in particular. However, recently there
has been a move to bringing the price mechanism to bear on water resources.
The Colorado: a river under pressure
The 2333 km long Colorado River is an important source of water in the southwest. Over 30
million people in the region depend on water from the river. The river rises 4250 m up in the Rocky
Mountains of northern Colorado and flows generally southwest through Colorado, Utah, Arizona and
between Nevada and Arizona, and Arizona and California, before crossing the border into Mexico.
The river drains an area of about 632,000 km2.
The Colorado was the first river system in which the concept of multiple water use was
attempted by the US Bureau of Reclamation. In 1922 the Colorado River Compact divided the seven
states of the basin into two groups: Upper Basin and Lower Basin. Each group was allocated 9.25
trillion litres of water annually, while a 1944 treaty guaranteed a further 1.85 trillion litres to Mexico.
Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, completed in 1936, marked the beginning of the era of artificial control
of the Colorado. Despite the interstate and international agreements (between the USA and Mexico),
major problems over the river’s resources have arisen because population has increased alongside
rising demand from agriculture and industry.
The $4 billion Central Arizona Project (CAP) is the latest, and probably the last, big money
scheme to divert water from this great river (Figure 3.97). Before CAP, Arizona had taken much less
than its legal entitlement from the Colorado. It could not afford to build a water transfer system from
the Colorado to its main cities and at the time the federal government did not feel that national
funding was justified. Most of the state’s water came from aquifers but it was overdrawing this supply
by about two million acre-feet a year. If thirsty Phoenix and Tucson were to remain prosperous,
something had to be done. The answer was CAP, which the federal government agreed to part-fund.
Since CAP was completed in 1992, 1.85 trillion litres of water a year has been distributed to farms,
Native American reservations, industries and fast-growing towns and cities along its 570 km route
between Lake Havasu and Tucson. However, providing more water for Arizona has meant that less
is available for California. In 1997 the federal government told California that the state would have to
learn to live with the 5427 million m3 of water from the Colorado it is entitled to under the 1922
Compact, instead of taking 6414 million m3 a year.
 Figure 3.97 Part of the Central Arizona Project
Resource management strategies
Implementation of the following strategies would conserve considerable quantities of water in the
southwest of the USA:
• measures to reduce leakage and evaporation losses — up to 25 per cent of all water
moved is currently lost in these ways
• recycling water in industry where, for example, it takes 225,000 litres to make one tonne of
steel
• recycling municipal sewage for watering lawns, gardens and golf courses, which could be
implemented or extended, as Los Angeles has already shown
• introducing more efficient toilet systems
• charging more realistic prices for irrigation water — many farmers pay well below the true
cost of water pumped to them, while the rest is subsidised by the federal government
• extending the use of the most efficient irrigation systems
• changing from highly water-dependent crops, such as rice and alfalfa, to those needing
less water
• requiring both cities and rural areas to identify the source of water to be used before new
developments can begin.
Future options
Several ideas have been put forward for future strategies:
• New groundwater resources could be developed. Although groundwater has been heavily
depleted in many areas, in regions of water surplus such as northern California they remain
virtually untapped. However, the transfer of even more water from such areas would probably
prove politically unacceptable.
 • It has been claimed that various techniques of weather modification, especially cloud
seeding, can provide water at reasonable cost. However, environmental and political
considerations cannot be ignored here.
• In 1991, after several years of drought, the city of Santa Barbara approved the construction
of a $37.4 million desalination plant. Although much too expensive for irrigation water, it is likely
that more will be built for urban use.
• The frozen reserves of Antarctic water could be exploited. Serious proposals have been
made to find a 100 million tonne iceberg (1.5 km long, 300 m wide, 270 m deep) off Antarctica,
wrap it in sailcloth or thick plastic, and tow it to southern California. The critical questions here
are cost, evaporation loss, and the environmental effects of anchoring such a huge block of ice
off an arid coast. There could also be political implications.
• Offshore aqueducts might be constructed that would run under the ocean from the
Columbia river in the northwest of the USA to California.
There is now general agreement that planning for the future water supply for the southwest
should embrace all practicable options. Sensible management of this vital resource should rule out
no feasible strategy if this important region is to sustain its economic viability and growing population.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the imbalance in population and precipitation between the eastern and western
parts of the USA.
2 Discuss the main uses of water in California.
3 Why is the Colorado River under so much pressure?
4 Explain the resource management strategies that can be used to try to improve the
balance between supply and demand.

Interesting note
The water level in the Colorado-fed Lake Mead, the USA’s largest reservoir, has dropped by
more than 30 m since the beginning of the twenty-first century. The basin is now only just over half
full.

Key questions
• How can economic activities pose threats to the natural environment, locally and globally?
• How important are sustainable development and management to economic development?
• How important is resource conservation?

3.7 Environmental risks of economic

development
Figure 3.98 Polluting factories and smog over Ulaanbaatar — flights in and out of the airport are regularly
delayed due to smog in one of the world’s most polluted cities

The threat of economic activities to the

natural environment
As the scale of global economic activity has increased, bringing considerable benefits to many people, the
strain on the natural environment has become more obvious at all scales from local to global. The planet is
experiencing a range of serious environmental challenges, many of which are interlinked. At the largest scale
enhanced global warming is having an impact, or will have an impact, on the whole of the world.

Pollution
Pollution is contamination of the environment. It can take many forms — air, water, soil, noise, visual and
others. Pollution has a major impact on people and the environment. Figure 3.99 shows how people are exposed
to chemicals and how exposure to these chemicals can affect human health. The methods of exposure to
pollutants are:
• breathing in chemical vapours and dust (inhalation)
• drinking or eating the chemical (ingestion)
• absorbing the chemical through the skin (absorption).

Figure 3.99 How exposure to pollution can affect human health

Air pollution
Of all types of pollution, air pollution has the most widespread effects on human health and the environment.
Air pollution affects people and the environment at a range of scales, from local to global. In many parts of the
developing world indoor air pollution is more severe than that experienced outdoors. This is the result of the use
of biomass fuels for cooking and heating. In many poor countries this is the only option available.
Virtually every substance is toxic at a certain dosage. The most serious polluters are the large-scale
processing industries, which tend to form agglomerations as they have similar locational requirements (Table
3.19). The impact of a large industrial agglomeration may spread well beyond the locality and region to cross
international borders. For example, prevailing winds in Europe generally carry pollution from west to east. Thus
the problems caused by acid rain in Scandinavia have been due partly to industrial activity in the UK. Dry and
wet deposition can be carried for considerable distances. For example, pollution found in Alaska in the 1970s
was traced back to the Ruhr industrial area in Germany.

Table 3.19 The most polluting industries

Industrial sector Examples
Fuel and power Power stations, oil refineries
Mineral industries Cement, glass, ceramics
Waste disposal Incineration, chemical recovery
Chemicals Pesticides, pharmaceuticals, organic and inorganic
chemicals

Metal industries Iron and steel, smelting, non-ferrous metals

 Others Paper manufacture, timber preparation, uranium
processing
Table 3.20 summarises the sources and effects on people and the environment of the major air pollutants. Air
pollution is a massive environmental problem leading to, among other things, global warming, acid rain and the
deterioration of the ozone layer.

Table 3.20 Major air pollutants

Pollutant Sources Effects
Ozone: a gas that can Ozone is not created directly, Ozone near the ground
be found in two places. but is formed when nitrogen can lead to more
Near the ground (the oxides and volatile organic frequent asthma attacks
troposphere) it is a compounds mix in sunlight. in people who have
major part of smog. Nitrogen oxides come from asthma, and can cause
This should not be burning gasoline, coal and sore throats, coughs and
confused with the other fossil fuels. The many breathing difficulty, even
protective layer of types of volatile organic leading to premature
ozone in the upper compounds come from death. It can also
atmosphere sources ranging from damage plants and
(stratosphere), which factories to trees. crops.
screens out harmful
ultraviolet rays.

Carbon monoxide: a Carbon monoxide is released Carbon monoxide makes

gas that comes from when engines burn fossil it hard for body parts to
the burning of fossil fuels. Emissions are higher get the oxygen they
fuels, mostly in cars. It when engines are not tuned need. Exposure to
cannot be seen or properly, and when fuel is not carbon monoxide makes
smelt. completely burnt. Cars emit a people feel dizzy and
lot of the carbon monoxide tired and gives them
found outdoors. Furnaces headaches. In high
and heaters in the home can concentrations it can be
emit high concentrations of fatal.
carbon monoxide if they are
not properly maintained.
Nitrogen dioxide: a Nitrogen dioxide mostly High concentrations of
reddish-brown gas that comes from power plants and nitrogen dioxide can give
comes from the cars. It is formed in two ways: people coughs and make
burning of fossil fuels. when nitrogen in fuel is burnt, them short of breath.
It has a strong smell at and when nitrogen in the air People exposed to
high concentrations. reacts with oxygen at very nitrogen dioxide for a
high temperatures. It can also long time are more
react in the atmosphere to vulnerable to respiratory
form ozone, acid rain and infections. Nitrogen
particles. dioxide reacts in the
atmosphere to form acid
rain, which can harm
plants and animals.
Particulate matter: Particulate matter can be Particulate matter that is
solid or liquid matter divided into two types: coarse small enough can enter
that is suspended in and fine. Coarse particles are the lungs and cause
the air. To remain in formed from sources such as health problems, for
the air, particles must road dust, sea spray and example more frequent
usually be between construction. Fine particles asthma attacks,
0.00005 mm and 0.1 are formed when fuel is respiratory problems and
mm. burned in vehicles and power premature death.
plants.
Sulfur dioxide: a Sulfur dioxide mostly comes Sulfur dioxide exposure
corrosive gas that from burning coal or oil in can affect people who
cannot be seen or power plants. Also from have asthma or
smelt at low levels, but factories making chemicals, emphysema by making it
has a ‘rotten egg’ paper or fuel. It reacts in the more difficult for them to
smell at higher atmosphere to form acid rain breathe. It can also
concentrations. and particles. irritate eyes, nose and
throat. It can harm trees
and crops, damage
buildings, and reduce
visibility.
Lead: a blue-grey Outside, lead comes from Large amounts of lead
metal that is very toxic; cars using fuel that is not can affect young
found in a variety of unleaded. Also from power children’s brain
forms and places. plants and other industrial development and cause
sources. Inside, lead paint kidney problems. For
can still be found in older adults, exposure to lead
houses; old lead pipes can be can increase the chance
a source of lead in drinking of heart attack and
water. stroke.
Toxic air pollutants: Each pollutant comes from a Toxic air pollutants can
include a number of different source, but many are cause cancer, and some
chemicals, for created in chemical plants can cause birth defects,
example arsenic, when fossil fuels are burned. skin and eye irritation,
asbestos, benzene Some pollutants can be found and breathing problems.
and dioxin. in building materials or in food
and water supplies.
Stratospheric ozone CFCs are used in air If stratospheric ozone is
depleters: chemicals conditioners and refrigerators, destroyed, people are
that can destroy the because they work well in exposed to more
ozone in the coolants. Also in aerosol ultraviolet radiation from
stratosphere. These cans, fire the Sun, which can lead
include extinguishers and solvents. to skin cancer and eye
chlorofluorocarbons problems. It can also
(CFCs), halons, harm plants and animals.
chlorine and bromine.
 Greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide is the most The greenhouse effect
gases that stay in the important greenhouse gas. It can lead to changes in
air for a long time and comes from burning fossil the climate, for example
warm the planet by fuels in vehicles, power more extreme
trapping sunlight. This plants, houses and industry. temperatures, higher sea
is called the Methane is released during levels and changes in
‘greenhouse effect’ the processing of fossil fuels; forest composition, which
because the gases act also from natural sources in turn cause health
like glass in a such as cows and padi-fields. problems for people.
greenhouse. Nitrous oxide comes from
Greenhouse gases industrial sources and
include carbon decaying plants.
dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide.

Pollution is the major externality of industrial and urban areas. Externalities are the side-effects —
positive and negative — of an economic activity that are experienced beyond its site. Pollution is at its most
intense at the focus of pollution-causing activities, declining with distance from such concentrations (Figure
3.100). For some sources of pollution it is possible to map the externality gradient and field. In general, health
risk and environmental damage are greatest immediately around the source of pollution and the risk decreases
with distance from the source. However, atmospheric conditions and other factors can complicate this pattern.

Figure 3.100 Externality gradient and field

Interesting note
• The countries with the largest total carbon dioxide emissions are China, the USA, India,
Russia and Japan. In terms of emissions per capita, the USA and Russia are the largest
polluters.

Water pollution
Each year about 450 km3 of wastewater are discharged into rivers, streams and lakes around the world
(Figure 3.101). While rivers in more affluent countries have become steadily cleaner in recent decades, the
reverse has been true in much of the developing world. It has been estimated that 90 per cent of sewage in
developing countries is discharged into rivers, lakes and seas without any treatment. The UN estimates that
almost half the population in many developing world cities do not have access to safe drinking water. For
example, the Yamuna river, which flows through Delhi, has 200 million litres of sewage drained into it each day.
For many people the only alternative to using this water for drinking and cooking is to turn to water vendors who
sell tap water at greatly inflated prices.
 Although most people in developed countries think that their water supplies are clean and healthy there is
growing concern in some quarters about traces of potentially dangerous medicines that may be contaminating tap
water and putting unborn babies at risk, according to a report published in the UK in September 2008. One
newspaper headline read: ‘Is our water being poisoned with a cocktail of drugs?’. Scientists are worried that
powerful and toxic anti-cancer drugs are passing unhindered through sewage works and making their way back
into the water supply.

Figure 3.101 A polluted river in Christchurch, New Zealand

China’s rapid economic growth has led to widespread environmental problems. Pollution problems are so
severe in some areas that the term ‘cancer village’ has become commonplace. In the village of Xiditou, southeast
of Beijing, the cancer rate is 30 times the national average. This has been blamed on water and air contaminated
by chemical factories. Tests on tap water have found traces of highly carcinogenic benzene that were 50 per cent
above national safe limits. In the rush for economic growth, local governments eagerly built factories, but they
had very limited experience of environmental controls.
• The Chinese government admits that 300 million people drink polluted water.
• This comes from polluted rivers and groundwater.
• 30,000 children die of diarrhoea or other water-borne illnesses each year.
• The river Liao is the most polluted, followed by waterways around Tianjin and the River Huai.

Noise and light pollution

Not all pollution involves inhalation, ingestion and absorption. Noise and light pollution are increasing
hazards in developed societies. Noise pollution is disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or
balance of human or animal life. Most outdoor noise is caused by machines and modes of transport. Outdoor
noise is generally referred to as ‘environmental noise’.

Figure 3.102 London’s Heathrow airport (UK), with surrounding noise levels
The increase in air traffic is one of the major contributors to noise pollution (and air pollution). A large area
is currently affected by aircraft noise from Heathrow airport, near London, stretching from the southern outskirts
of Maidenhead in the west to the edge of Camberwell in the east (Figure 3.102). In this area, 600,000 people are
affected by noise levels of 55 decibels or over. People living close to the airport are affected by noise levels of 75
decibels. Significant annoyance from aircraft noise begins at 50 decibels.
The proposed third runway at Heathrow will increase the number of flights from 420,000 a year to 700,000
and will bring far more people within the area affected by aircraft noise. A recent study has highlighted the link
between exposure to noise and ill-health, noting in particular exposure to night-time aircraft noise and high blood
pressure. The latter can lead to heart attacks and strokes.
Light pollution is excessive or obtrusive artificial light. It is an externality of a developed society. Its sources
include the interior and external lighting of all sorts of buildings, advertising and street lighting. It is most severe
in highly industrialised and densely populated areas. It can have a serious impact on human health, causing
fatigue, loss of sleep, headaches and loss of amenity.

The relative risks of incidental and sustained

pollution
It is important to consider the different impacts associated with incidental pollution (one-off pollution
incidents) and sustained pollution (longer-term pollution). The former is mainly linked to major accidents
caused by technological failures and human error. Causes of the latter include ozone depletion and global
warming. Some of the worst examples of incidental pollution are shown in Table 3.21.
Major examples of incidental pollution such as Chernobyl and Bhopal can have extremely long-lasting
consequences, which are often difficult to determine in the earlier stages. The effects of both accidents are still
being felt more than two decades after they occurred.
It is usually the poorest people in a society who are exposed to the risks from both incidental and sustained
pollution. In the USA the geographical distribution of both ethnic minorities and people on the lowest incomes
has been found to be strongly linked to the distribution of the worst kinds of pollution.

Table 3.21 Major examples of incidental pollution

Location Causes and consequences
Seveso, Italy In July 1976 a reactor at a chemical factory near Seveso
in northern Italy exploded, sending a toxic cloud into the
atmosphere. An 18 km2 area of land was contaminated
with the dioxin TCDD. The immediate after-effects — a
small number of people with skin inflammation — were
relatively mild. However, the long-term impact has been
much worse. The population is suffering increased
numbers of premature deaths from cancer,
cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
Bhopal, India A chemical factory owned by the US company Union
Carbide leaked deadly methyl isocyanate gas during the
night of 3 December 1984. The plant was operated by a
separate Indian subsidiary, which worked to much lower
safety standards than those required in the USA. It has
been estimated that 8000 people died within two weeks
and a further 8000 have since died from gas-related
diseases. The NGO Greenpeace puts the total fatality
figure at over 20,000. Bhopal is recognised as the
world’s worst industrial disaster.
 Chernobyl, Ukraine The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred
at Chernobyl, Ukraine in April 1986. Reactor number
four exploded, sending a plume of highly radioactive
fallout into the atmosphere, which drifted over extensive
parts of Europe and eastern North America. Two people
died in the initial explosion and over 336,000 people
were evacuated and resettled. In total, 56 direct deaths
and an estimated 4000 extra cancer deaths have been
attributed to Chernobyl. The estimated cost of $200
billion makes Chernobyl the most expensive disaster in

modern history.
Harbin, China An explosion at a large petrochemical plant in the
northeast Chinese city of Harbin in 2005 released toxic
pollutants into a major river. Benzene levels were 108
times above national safety levels. Benzene is a highly
poisonous toxin, which is also carcinogenic. Water
supplies to the city were suspended. Five people were
killed in the blast and more than 60 injured. Ten
thousand residents were temporarily evacuated.

Activities
1 Define ‘pollution’.
2 What are the means of human exposure to pollutants?
3 Which industries are the largest polluters?
4 Describe the sources and effects of two major air pollutants.
5 Briefly explain Figure 3.100.
6 Why is water pollution much more of a problem in the developing world than in the
developed world?
7 What are the main sources of noise pollution?
8 Define light pollution.
9 What is the difference between incidental pollution and sustained pollution?

Acid deposition
Acid deposition (Figure 3.103) refers to the mix of air pollutants that together lead to the acidification of
fresh water bodies and soils:
• Dry deposition: the direct uptake by the ground of pollutants in the form of particles, aerosols and
gases in the absence of precipitation.
• Wet deposition: acid rain, snow, fog and mist.
 Figure 3.103 Acid deposition
Acid deposition began entering the atmosphere in large amounts during the Industrial Revolution. Acidity is
measured on the pH scale, which ranges from 0 to 14. Pure water is neutral and has a pH of 7. However, natural
rainwater is slightly acidic mainly because of dissolved CO2, which produces carbonic acid (H2CO3). Thus, the
pH of unpolluted rainwater ranges from pH 5 to pH 6. Acid rain is generally viewed as rainwater with a pH of
less than 5. In some parts of the northern hemisphere the pH of the rainwater has been recorded as low as 2.
Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can cause acid deposition, but the vast
majority of these chemicals result from human activity. Acid precipitation is mainly caused by the conversion of
sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (NOx), produced when fossil fuels are burned, into the sulfates and nitrates
of dry deposition and the sulfuric acid and nitric acids of wet deposition. Wet deposition occurs when sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere where they can react with water, oxygen and other
chemicals to form mild solutions of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Coal-burning power plants are major producers
of sulfur dioxide, but all processes that burn coal and oil contribute to emissions of this gas. A range of industries
also produce significant amounts of sulfur dioxide. In contrast, nitrogen oxides emanate mainly from vehicle
emissions.
Dry deposition is logically more important in areas of low precipitation. When it falls to the surface it can
stick to the ground, buildings, cars and vegetation. It can be washed from these surfaces by precipitation at a later
time. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to Earth through dry deposition. Dry
deposition generally occurs relatively close to emission sources. In contrast, wet deposition can be carried great
distances, sometimes thousands of miles, and thus it is a significant factor in trans-boundary pollution.
Acid deposition has a wide range of environmental implications, which include:
• damaging forests, especially those at higher elevations. Trees’ leaves and needles are harmed by acids
(Figure 3.104).
• robbing the soil of essential nutrients and releasing aluminium in the soil, which makes it hard for
trees to take up water
• increasing the acidity of lakes, streams, wetlands and other aquatic environments. This causes water
bodies to absorb the aluminium, which makes its way from soil into lakes and streams. This can make waters
toxic to crayfish, clams, fish and other aquatic animals.
• reducing crop yields because of increased acidity
• reducing visibility and harming public health
• accelerating the decay of building materials and paints. Acid deposition can cause significant damage
to historical buildings and other structures over time (Figure 3.105).

Figure 3.104 The impact of acid deposition on forests

 Figure 3.105 Acid deposition has significantly damaged the ancient monuments at Angkor Wat, Cambodia;
acid deposition has darkened the stone, and eventually leads to its decay
Strategies to manage acid deposition come in two forms:
• Preventing its occurrence — burning less fossil fuel; switching to lower-sulfur fossil fuels; reducing
vehicle emissions; advocating public transport over private car ownership.

• Repairing the damage — this mainly involves liming acid waters. Such measures are expensive and
may not be sustainable in the long term.
Activities
1 Distinguish between wet and dry deposition.
2 Explain how forests can be damaged by acid deposition.
3 How can acid deposition adversely affect (a) soils and crops and (b) lakes?
4 What strategies can be used to manage acid deposition?

Enhanced global warming

Economic activities generating greenhouse gases
There is no doubt among geographers and scientists that the Earth’s climate is changing and that human
economic activities are at the very least a significant cause of these changes. The Earth–atmosphere system has a
natural greenhouse effect (Figure 3.106) that is essential to all life on Earth, but large-scale pollution of the
atmosphere by economic activities has created an enhanced greenhouse effect. This is causing temperatures to
increase beyond the limits of the natural greenhouse effect. Many parts of the world are experiencing unexpected
changes in their weather. Some of these changes could have disastrous consequences for the populations of the
areas affected if they continue to get more severe. Human activity has significantly increased the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and this has caused temperature to rise more rapidly than ever before. As the
economies of China, India and other NICs expand even further, greenhouse gas emissions will continue to
increase.
• The present rate of change is greater than anything that has happened in the past. In the twentieth
century, average global temperatures rose by 0.6°C. Most of this increase took place in the second half of
the century.
• The predictions are for a further global average temperature increase of between 1.6°C and 4.2°C by
2100.
The main greenhouse gases being created by human activity are:
• carbon dioxide
• methane
• nitrous oxides
• chlorofluorocarbons
• ozone.

Figure 3.106 The greenhouse effect

The consequences of enhanced global

warming
There are many potential consequences of enhanced global warming, including the following:
• Global temperature variations and heatwaves: in general, higher latitudes and continental regions
will experience temperature increases significantly greater than the global average. There will be a rising
probability of heatwaves, with more extreme heat days and fewer very cold days.
• Rising sea levels: sea levels will respond more slowly than temperatures to changing greenhouse gas
concentrations. Sea levels are currently rising at around 3 mm per year and the rise has been accelerating.
Rising sea levels are due to a combination of thermal expansion and the melting of ice sheets and glaciers.
Thermal expansion is the increase in water volume due to temperature increase alone. A global average sea
level rise of 0.4 m from this cause has been predicted by the end of this century.
• Increasing acidity in oceans: as carbon dioxide levels rise in the atmosphere, more of the gas is
dissolved in surface waters, creating carbonic acid. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution the acidity
activity of the oceans has increased by 30 per cent. This is having a significant impact on coral reefs and
shellfish (Figure 3.107).

Figure 3.107 Great Barrier Reef, Australia — increasing acidity in oceans is having an impact on coral reefs
• Melting of ice caps and glaciers: satellite photographs show ice melting at its fastest rate ever. The
area of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean has decreased by 15 per cent since 1960, while the thickness of the ice
has reduced by 40 per cent. In 2007, the sea ice around Antarctica had melted back to a record low. At the
same time, the movement of glaciers towards the sea has speeded up. A satellite survey between 1996 and
2006 found that the net loss of ice rose by 75 per cent. Temperatures in western Antarctica have increased
sharply in recent years, melting ice shelves and changing plant and animal life on the Antarctic Peninsula
(Figure 3.108). Ice melting could cause sea levels to rise by a further 5 m (on top of thermal expansion).
Hundreds of millions of people live in coastal areas within this range.

Figure 3.108 Ice melting at the edge of Antarctica

• The warm water of the Gulf Stream: the Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, and its
continuation — the North Atlantic Drift — has a major influence on the climates of the east coast of North
America and western Europe. Climatologists are concerned that melting Arctic ice could disrupt these warm
ocean currents, resulting in temperatures in western Europe falling by at least 5°C. Winters in the UK and
other neighbouring countries would be much colder than they are now.
• Thawing peat bogs: an area of permafrost spanning 1 million km2 has started to melt for the first
time since it formed 11,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. The area, which covers the entire sub-
Arctic region of western Siberia, is the world’s largest frozen peat bog and scientists fear that, as it thaws, it
will release billions of tonnes of methane, a greenhouse gas 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide, into the
atmosphere.
• El Niño: this phenomenon involves a change in the pattern of wind and ocean currents in the Pacific
Ocean. This causes short-term changes in weather for countries bordering the Pacific, such as flooding in
Peru and drought in Australia. El Niño events tend to occur every 2–7 years. There is concern that rising
temperatures could increase their frequency and/or intensity.
• Growth of the tropical belt: a study published in 2007 warned that the Earth’s tropical belt was
expanding north and south. A further 22 million km2 of the Earth are experiencing a tropical climate compared
with 1980. The poleward movement of subtropical dry belts could affect agriculture and water supplies over
large areas of the Mediterranean, southwestern USA, northern Mexico, southern Australia, southern Africa and
parts of South America. The extension of the tropical belt will put more people at risk from tropical diseases.
• Changing patterns of rainfall: the amount and distribution of rainfall in many parts of the world
could change considerably. Generally, regions that get plenty of rainfall now are likely to receive even more.
And regions with low rainfall are likely to get less. The latter will include the poor arid and semi-arid
countries of Africa. In 2009, the heaviest rain in 53 years battered Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh.
• Declining crop yields: higher temperatures have already had an impact on global yields of wheat, corn
and barley. A recent study revealed that crop yields fall between 3 and 5 per cent for every 0.5°C increase in
average temperature. Food shortages could begin conflicts between different countries.
• Impact on wildlife: many species of wildlife may be wiped out because they will not have a chance to
adapt to rapid changes in their environment. For example, the loss of Arctic ice will have a huge effect on
polar bears and other species that live and hunt among the ice floes.

Figure 3.109 Giant climate change banner, Brussels

 Activities
1 a Describe the natural greenhouse effect.
b How has this effect been ‘enhanced’ by economic activities?
2 List the main greenhouse gases.
3 Discuss three potential consequences of enhanced global warming.

Soil erosion and desertification

The extent and causes of soil erosion
Soil degradation is a global process. It involves both the physical loss (erosion) and the reduction in quality
of topsoil associated with nutrient decline and contamination. It has a significant impact on agriculture and also
has implications for the urban environment, pollution and flooding. The loss of the upper soil horizons containing
organic matter and nutrients and the thinning of soil profiles reduces crop yields on degraded soils. Soil
degradation can cancel out gains from improved crop yields. The statistics on soil degradation make worrying
reading:
• Globally it is estimated that 2 billion hectares of soil resources have been degraded. This is equivalent
to about 15 per cent of the Earth’s land area.
• During the past 40 years nearly one-third of the world’s cropland has been abandoned because of soil
erosion and degradation.
• In sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 2.6 million km2 of cropland have shown a ‘consistent significant
decline’ according to a March 2008 report. Some scientists consider this to be a ‘slow-motion disaster’.
• It takes natural processes about 500 years to replace 25 mm of topsoil lost to erosion. The minimum
soil depth for agricultural production is 150 mm.
In temperate areas much soil degradation is a result of market forces and the attitudes adopted by
commercial farmers and governments. In contrast, in the tropics much degradation results from high population
pressure, land shortages and lack of awareness. The greater climate extremes and poorer soil structures in tropical
areas give greater potential for degradation in such areas compared with temperate latitudes. This difference has
been a significant factor in development, or the lack of it.
The main cause of soil degradation is the removal of the natural vegetation cover, leaving the surface exposed
to the elements. Figure 3.110 shows the human causes of degradation, with deforestation and overgrazing being
the two main problems. The resulting loss of vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion.

Figure 3.110 Causes of land degradation

Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons, including the clearing of land for agricultural use, timber and
other activities, such as mining. Such activities tend to happen quickly, whereas the loss of vegetation for
fuelwood — a massive problem in many developing countries — is generally a more gradual process.
Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity.
Population pressure in many areas and poor agricultural practices have resulted in serious overgrazing. This is a
major problem in many parts of the world, particularly in marginal ecosystems.
Agricultural mismanagement is also a major problem due to a combination of a lack of knowledge and the
pursuit of short-term gain against consideration of longer-term damage. Such activities include shifting
cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, cultivation of fragile or
marginal lands, unbalanced fertiliser use and the use of poor irrigation techniques.

Local soil degradation

Figure 3.111 illustrates how a combination of causes and processes can operate in an area to result in soil
degradation. The diagram shows a range of different economic activities that have an impact on the soil. Can you
think of other economic activities that you could reasonably expect to find in such an area? What impact would
these activities have on the soil? Notice how the diagram shows an increase in the area characterised by sealing
as the urban area expands at the expense of farmland.

Figure 3.111 The causes and processes of local soil degradation

Environmental and socio-economic

consequences of soil erosion
The environmental and socio-economic consequences of soil degradation are considerable. Such
consequences can occur with little warning as damage to soil is often not perceived until it is far advanced.
Socio-economic consequences are both on-site (local) and off-site (beyond the locality), while environmental
consequences are primarily off-site.
Desertification is the gradual transformation of habitable land into desert. It is arguably the most serious
environmental consequence of soil degradation. Desertification is usually caused by climate change and/or by
destructive use of the land. Natural causes of desertification include temporary drought periods of high
magnitude and long-term climate change towards aridity. The main human causes are:
• overgrazing
• overcultivation
• deforestation.
Desertification occurs when already fragile land in arid and semi-arid areas is overexploited. It is a
considerable problem in many parts of the world, for example on the margins of the Sahara desert in northern
Africa and the Kalahari desert in southern Africa. In semi-arid areas such as the edge of the Kalahari desert in
southern Africa, a combination of low and variable precipitation, nutrient-deficient soils and heavy dependence
on subsistence farming makes soil degradation a significant threat. At present, 25 per cent of the global land
territory and nearly 16 per cent of the world’s population are threatened by desertification. Table
3.22 summarises the consequences of desertification.
Dust storms, which can seriously damage crops, may also be a problem in such areas (Figure 3.112). Dust
storms occur naturally wherever dry soils and strong winds combine, but human activity can increase their
severity significantly. These human activities are removal of vegetation, overgrazing, overcultivation and surface
disturbance by vehicles. All these practices can add to the severity of the problem. In the Sahel the increase in
dust-storm frequency has been shown to coincide with periods of severe drought.

Table 3.22 The consequences of desertification

Environmental Economic Social and cultural
 Loss of soil nutrients Reduced income from Loss of traditional
through wind and water traditional economy knowledge and skills
erosion (pastoralism and cultivation Forced migration
Changes in composition of food crops) due to food scarcity
of vegetation and loss of Decreased availability Social tensions in
biodiversity as vegetation is of fuelwood, necessitating reception areas for
removed purchase of oil/kerosene migrants
Reduction in land Increased dependence
available for cropping and on food aid
pasture Increased rural poverty
Increased
sedimentation of streams
because of soil erosion,
and sediment
accumulations in reservoirs
Expansion of area
under sand dunes

Figure 3.112 Darkhan, Mongolia: (a) on a clear day and (b) during one of the regular dust storms that are
contributing to soil degradation. The number and strength of dust storms have increased in recent years

Soil degradation: a threat to food security?

The increasing world population and the rapidly changing diet of hundreds of millions of people as they
become more affluent is placing more and more pressure on land resources. Some soil and agricultural experts
say that a decline in long-term soil productivity is already seriously limiting food production in the developing
world.
Activities
1 What is soil erosion?
2 To what extent is soil erosion a major global problem?
3 Discuss the causes and processes of local soil degradation shown in Figure 3.111.
4 a Define ‘desertification’.
b Explain the causes of desertification.
5 Compare the photographs in Figure 3.112.

Examples of environments under threat

Agricultural change in Argentina’s Pampas
Traditionally, cattle rearing has dominated farming in the Pampas of Argentina. The Pampas is one of the
world’s great grasslands. It is a flat prairie with deep, fertile topsoil. However, rapid change is underway as crop
production replaces cattle rearing over significant areas of the Pampas (Figure 3.113). There are undoubted
benefits to this process as farmers are responding to changing patterns of global demand. But there are also risks
involved in such a radical change in land use.
The change from pastoral to arable farming has considerably increased chemical input onto the land. This is
having a significant impact on the ecosystem. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is concerned that the
Pampas is now being over-farmed. This is endangering wildlife, including South American ostriches, pumas and
wildcats. The WWF is also concerned about the widespread destruction of native grass.

Figure 3.113 Cropland in the Pampas, Argentina

Oil production in the Niger delta

The Niger delta covers an area of 70,000 km2, making up 7.5 per cent of Nigeria’s land area. It contains over
75 per cent of Africa’s remaining mangrove. A report published in 2006 estimated that up to 1.5 million tonnes
of oil have been spilt in the delta over the past 50 years. The report compiled by WWF says that the delta is one
of the five most polluted spots on Earth. Pollution is destroying the livelihoods of many of the 20 million people
who live there. The pollution damages crops and fishing grounds and is a major contributor to the upsurge in
violence in the region. People in the region are dissatisfied with bearing the considerable costs of the oil industry
while seeing very little in terms of the benefits. The report accused the oil companies of not using the advanced
technologies to combat pollution that are evident in other world regions. However, Shell claims that 95 per cent
of oil discharges in the last 5 years have been caused by sabotage.
The flaring (burning) of unwanted natural gas found with the oil is a major regional and global environmental
problem. The gas found here is not useful because there is no gas pipeline infrastructure to take it to consumer
markets. It is estimated that 70 million m3 are flared off each day. This is equivalent to 40 per cent of Africa’s
natural gas consumption. Gas flaring in the Niger delta is the world’s single largest source of greenhouse gas
emissions.

Figure 3.114 Environmental problems in the Niger delta, Nigeria

The threat to Australia’s Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef (Figure 3.115) is one of the great tourist attractions in Australia. It includes over 2900
reefs, around 940 islands and cays, and stretches 2300 km along the coast of Queensland. The Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park covers an area of 345,000 km2. This is an ecosystem of immense diversity. However, there are
several significant problems relating to the Great Barrier Reef:
• The impact of land-based pollution from agriculture, industry, residential areas and tourism is causing
significant damage to the reef ecosystem.
• Overfishing — the use of dragnets in particular — can damage the coral.
• Coral bleaching is exacerbated by increasing sea temperatures due to global warming. This causes
coral polyps to die, leaving only the white ‘skeleton’ of the coral, and the range of colours is lost.
• Tourists visiting the reef cause damage by dropping and dragging anchors, walking and diving on the
reef and by pollution from the tourist boats visiting the area.

Figure 3.115 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Sustainable development and

management
The two key terms that have become increasingly important in terms of economic activity are resource
management and sustainable development. Resource management is the control of the exploitation and use of
resources in relation to environmental and economic costs. Sustainable development is a carefully calculated
system of resource management, which ensures that the current level of exploitation does not compromise the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Resource management in the EU

Figure 3.116 shows what has happened in so many of the world’s fishing grounds. Without careful resource
management fish stocks could be totally depleted in some areas. Yet it is often difficult to get countries to agree
on what to do. The European Union’s Common Fisheries Policy is perhaps the most advanced international
attempt to manage the fishing grounds belonging to this group of countries. While the fishing industry in the EU
frequently complains that the amount of fish it is allowed to catch (the total allowable catch) is too low,
environmental groups argue that the total allowable catch is much too high and that fishing in EU waters cannot
be sustainable in the long term. Other people have an interest too. For example, consumers worry that if fewer
fish are caught the price will increase.
 Figure 3.116 Fishing and resource management
The European Union also tries to manage agriculture in its member countries through its Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP). In the early years the CAP’s generous incentives for farmers encouraged high levels
of production and the farming of marginal lands. It didn’t seem that there was much thought about the
environmental and other adverse consequences of maximising production. However, as the disadvantages
became more obvious the CAP was reformed to take greater account of the environment. For example, farmers
can now receive payments for taking their land out of agricultural production (set-aside).
It can be argued that the CAP is still a long way from truly sustainable agriculture, but there is no doubt it is
moving in the right direction. The development of sustainable policies often occurs in stages.

Environmental impact statements and pollution control

Most countries now require some form of environmental impact statement for major projects such as a new
road, an airport or a large factory. The objective is to identify all the environmental consequences and to try to
minimise these as far as possible.
Industry has spent increasing amounts on research and development to reduce pollution — the so-called
‘greening of industry’. In general, after a certain stage of economic development the level of pollution will
decline (Figure 3.117). This is because countries have become more aware of their environmental problems, with
higher levels of economic activity, and they have also created the wealth to invest in improving the environment.
The 1990s witnessed the first signs of ‘product stewardship’. This is a system of environmental responsibility
whereby producers take back a product, recycling it as far as possible, after the customer has finished with it.
For example, in Germany the 1990 ‘take-back’ law required car manufacturers to take
responsibility for their vehicles at the end of their useful lives.
 Figure 3.117 The relationship between GDP and pollution

Figure 3.118 The role of ecotourism in rainforest conservation

International action
Increasingly, successful policies developed in one country are being followed elsewhere. A good example is
the role of ecotourism in rainforest conservation (Figure 3.118). International organisations are the only hope of
getting to grips with the really big problems, such as climate change. The success of international cooperation in
tackling the hole in the ozone layer gives us reasonable hope for the future.
Activities
1 What is meant by the terms:
a resource management
b sustainable development?
2 Explain the sequence of events shown in Figure 3.116.
3 Look at Figure 3.118. Describe and explain how ecotourism can enhance rainforest
conservation.

The importance of resource conservation

The conservation of resources is the management of the human use of natural resources to provide the
maximum benefit to current generations while maintaining capacity to meet the needs of future generations.
Conservation includes both the protection and rational use of natural resources. Conservation and the use of
natural resources are social processes because they rely on people’s behaviour, values and decisions. Both the
demand for, and supply of, resources need to be planned and managed to achieve a sustainable system. In
addition, there is growing pressure from individual governments and international organisations for a greater
degree of equity in the use of the world’s resources. They argue that there is a need for environmental policies
and laws that contribute to more equitable sharing of the costs and benefits of conservation.
Conservation involves actions to use these resources most efficiently, thus extending their life as long as
possible. For example, by recycling aluminium, the same piece of material is re-used in a series of products,
reducing the amount of aluminum ore that must be freshly mined. Similarly, energy-efficient products help to
conserve fossil fuels since the same energy services, such as lighting or transportation, can be attained with
smaller amounts of fuel.
Conservation also involves the re-use of resources. Plastic bags are an obvious example, but there are many
others. Returning wire clothes hangers to dry cleaners, donating clothes and other items you no longer want to
charities rather than dumping them, and repairing household items where possible rather than buying anew are all
common examples in developed countries. In the recent recession, many shoe repairers increased their trade as
people looked to extend the life of their shoes rather than have the expense of buying new ones.
In many developing countries re-using plastic bottles, tins and other containers is a common form of
conservation. There has long been a culture of re-use and recycling because people could not afford to buy new
replacements. It is a common sight to see waste collectors roaming streets in search of re-usable items. The re-
use of rubber tyres is an example.
Renewable resources, in contrast, can be seriously depleted if they are subjected to excessive harvest or
otherwise degraded. No substitutes may be available for food products such as fish or agricultural crops. When
the demise of biological resources causes the complete extinction of a species or the loss of a particular habitat,
there can be no substitute for that diversity of life.
Various strategies can be used in the attempt to conserve resources. The agreement of quotas is an
increasingly frequent resource management technique, illustrated by the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy.
Quotas involve agreement between countries to take only a predetermined amount of a resource. Quotas may
change on an annual or longer time period basis. Much further along the line is rationing. This is very much a
last-resort management strategy when demand is massively out of proportion to supply. For example, individuals
might only be allowed a very small amount of fuel and food per week. Some senior citizens will remember that
this happened during the Second World War.
At various times the use of subsidies has been criticised by environmentalists. It has been argued that
reducing or abandoning some subsidies would aid conservation.

Waste reduction and recycling

Recycling involves the concentration of used or waste materials, their reprocessing, and their subsequent use
in place of new materials. If organised efficiently, recycling can reduce demand considerably on fresh deposits of
a resource. Recycling also involves the recovery of waste. New technology makes it possible to recover mineral
content from the waste of earlier mining operations. However, the proportion of a material recycled is strongly
influenced by the cost of the process in comparison with the price of the original raw material, although
governments are doing more and more to weaken this relationship.

Figure 3.119 Various categories of recycling

 Figure 3.120 Green waste recycling in the UK
Supermarkets have made significant efforts in recent years to reduce the number of plastic bags used. Some
now charge for bags while others just encourage re-use of bags. Supermarkets, like Tesco in the UK, claim to
have drastically reduced the number of new plastic bags used by customers each year. However, environmental
groups are putting pressure on supermarkets to do more, claiming that many products have far too much
packaging, while the supermarkets themselves are high users of energy.
Recycling does not only conserve valuable resources of — it is also fundamental in the reduction of
landfill. Landfill is undesirable for a number of reasons:
• Leachate pollution: leachate is a solution formed when water percolates through a permeable medium.
The leachate may be toxic or carry bacteria when derived from solid waste.
• Biodegradable waste rotting in landfill creates methane, which is 21 times more potent as a
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
• Increasingly large areas of land are required for such sites.

Figure 3.121 Collecting and sorting plastic bottles in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Product stewardship
Product stewardship is an approach to environmental protection in which manufacturers, retailers and
consumers are encouraged or required to assume responsibility for reducing a product’s impact on the
environment. Also called ‘extended producer responsibility’, it is a growing aspect of recycling. In many cases
this is a system of environmental responsibility whereby producers take back a product, recycling it as far as
possible, after the customer has finished with it. For manufacturers, this includes planning for — and if necessary
paying for — the recycling or disposal of the product at the end of its useful life. This may be achieved, in part,
by redesigning products to use fewer harmful substances, to be more durable, re-useable and recyclable, and to
make products from recycled materials.
Substitution
Substitution is the use of common and thus less valuable resources in place of rare, more expensive resources.
An example is the replacement of copper by aluminium in the manufacture of a variety of products. Historically,
when non-renewable resources have been depleted, new technologies have been developed that effectively
substitute for the depleted resources. New technologies have often reduced pressure on these resources even
before they are fully depleted. For example, fibre-optic cables have replaced copper ones in many electrical
applications.
Activities
1 Explain the term ‘conservation of resources’.
2 Define:
a re-use
b recycling.
3 What is product stewardship?
4 How can substitution help to conserve important resources?

Energy efficiency
Meeting future energy needs in developing, emergent and developed economies while avoiding serious
environmental degradation will require increased emphasis on radical new approaches, which include:
• much greater investment in renewable energy
• conservation
• recycling
• carbon credits
• ‘green’ taxation.
Managing energy supply is often about balancing socio-economic and environmental needs. We have all
become increasingly aware that this requires detailed planning and management. Carbon credits and carbon
trading are an important part of the EU’s environment and energy policies. Under the EU’s emissions trading
scheme, heavy industrial plants have to buy permits to emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed
(carbon credits) by government. However, this could be extended to other organisations such as banks and
supermarkets. From 2008 the UK government has been offering the free provision of visual display electricity
meters so that people can see exactly how much energy they are using at any time. Many countries are looking
increasingly at the concept of community energy. Much energy is lost in transmission if the source of supply is
a long way away. Energy produced locally is much more efficient. This will invariably involve microgeneration
(Figure 3.122).

Figure 3.122 Microgeneration — a small wind turbine on the roof of a school

Table 3.23 summarises some of the measures governments and individuals can undertake to reduce the
demand for energy and thus move towards a more sustainable situation.

China’s Pearl River delta

The Chinese economy has attained such a size and is continuing to grow so rapidly that it is now being called
the ‘new workshop of the world’, a phrase first applied to Britain during the height of its industrial revolution in
the nineteenth century. However, in the main industrial areas, the environment has been put under a huge strain,
leaving China with some of the worst pollution problems on the planet. One of China’s main industrial regions is
the Pearl River delta in Guangdong province. It faces the challenge of continuing to grow economically while
trying to protect its environment. The Pearl River is China’s third longest river.

Table 3.23 Examples of energy conservation measures

Government Individuals
Improve public transport to encourage Transport:
higher levels of usage Walk rather than drive for short local
Set a high level of tax on petrol, journeys
aviation fuel etc. Use a bicycle for short-to-moderate
Ensure that public utility vehicles are distance journeys
energy efficient Buy low fuel consumption/low
Set minimum fuel consumption emission cars
requirements for cars and commercial Reduce car usage by planning more
vehicles ‘multi-purpose’ trips
Impose congestion charging to deter Use public rather than private
non-essential car use in city centres transport
Offer subsidies/grants to households Join with others in a car pool
to improve energy efficiency In the home:
Encourage business to monitor and Use low-energy light bulbs
reduce its energy usage Install cavity wall insulation
Encourage recycling Improve loft insulation
Promote investment in renewable Turn boiler and radiator settings
forms of energy down slightly
Pass laws to compel manufacturers Wash clothes at lower temperatures
to produce more efficient electrical Purchase high-energy-efficiency
products appliances
Don’t leave appliances on standby

Activities
1 Briefly explain the use of carbon credits and carbon trading.
2 What is the advantage of community energy?
3 Define microgeneration.
4 Give three energy conservation measures that individual people can take.

Case study: Environmental problems in the Pearl River

delta
The Pearl River delta region, an area the size of Belgium in southeast China (Figure 3.123), is the
focal point of a massive wave of foreign investment into China. The Pearl River drains into the South
China Sea. Hong Kong is located at the eastern extent of the delta, with Macau situated at the
western entrance. The region’s manufacturing industries already employ 30 million people, but this
number will undoubtedly increase in the future. Major industrial centres include Shunde,
Shenzhen, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Zhuhai and Guangzhou. In 2011, the Pearl River delta
accounted for:
• 4.2 per cent of China’s population
• 9.2 per cent of China’s GDP
• 26.7 per cent of China’s total exports.
The region is gradually growing into a single, colossal megalopolis as individual cities expand
outwards and move closer together. In 2015, a World Bank report described the delta region as the
world’s largest megacity.
 Figure 3.123 The Pearl River delta
The three major environmental problems in the Pearl River delta are air pollution, water pollution
and deforestation.
Rapid industrialisation resulted in serious pollution of the river system. In many tributaries
pollution levels became worse than the lowest national surface water quality standard, and therefore
unfit as drinking water sources. The World Bank has supported the provincial government’s efforts to
improve environmental quality, particularly in terms of expanding waste water treatment.
In 2007, eight out of every ten rainfalls in Guangzhou were classified as acid rain. The high
concentration of factories and power stations is the source of this problem, along with the growing
number of cars in the province. The city has the worst acid rain problem in the province of
Guangdong. The province’s environmental protection bureau has reported that two-thirds of
Guangdong’s 21 cities were affected by acid rain in 2007.
Almost all the urban areas have overexploited their neighbouring uplands, causing a considerable
reduction in vegetation cover. This has resulted in serious erosion. Half of the wastewater in
Guangdong’s urban areas is not treated before being dumped into rivers, compared with the national
average of 40 per cent. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a key measurement
of water pollution. Guangdong’s government is working to reduce COD and also to cut sulfur dioxide
emissions.
The environmental protection bureau classifies the environmental situation as ‘severe’ and
says the government is committed to taking the ‘necessary measures’ to reduce pollution. Among
the measures used to tackle the problems are (a) higher sewage treatment charges, (b) stricter
pollution regulations on factories and (c) tougher national regulations on vehicle emissions.
Analyses of pollution problems in the Pearl River delta and elsewhere in China have focused
strongly on institutional factors relating to the incentive structure for local government officials (to
achieve a high level of economic growth) and the limited powers and independence of the Ministry of
Environmental Protection.
Case study analysis
1 Describe the location of the Pearl River delta.
 2 List four major urban areas in this region.
3 What are the causes of pollution in the Pearl River delta?
4 List the main measures used to tackle pollution in the Pearl River delta.

End-of-theme questions
Topic 3.1 Development

Figure 3.124 Global trends in the electrification rate, 1990–2010

Figure 3.125 Electricity access deficit for the 10 major countries

1 a How many people worldwide still lack access to electricity?
b Describe the trends illustrated in Figure 3.124.
2 a Discuss the reasons for the different access rates in urban and rural areas.
b Why has there been little or no change in the overall access to electricity?
3 a Comment on location and characteristics of the 10 countries with the greatest
electricity access deficit (Figure 3.125).
b How does lack of access to electricity hinder the development process?
Topic 3.2 Food production
Table 3.24 Adverse influences on global food production and distribution
Nature of Effect of adverse influence
adverse
influence
Economic Demand for cereal grains has outstripped supply in recent years
Rising energy prices and agricultural production and transport
costs have pushed up costs along the farm-to-market chain
Serious underinvestment in agricultural production and
technology in LEDCs has resulted in poor productivity and
underdeveloped rural infrastructure
The production of food for local markets has declined in many
LEDCs as more food has been produced for export
Ecological Significant periods of poor weather and a number of severe weather
events have had a major impact on harvests in key food-exporting
countries
Increasing problems of soil degradation in both MEDCs and
LEDCs
Declining biodiversity may impact on food production in the
future
Socio- The global agricultural production and trading system, built on
political import tariffs and subsidies, creates great distortions, favouring
production in MEDCs and disadvantaging producers in LEDCs

An inadequate international system of monitoring and deploying

food relief
Disagreements over the use of trans-boundary resources such
as river systems and aquifers
1 a Study Table 3.24. Why has the demand for cereal grains increased in recent years?
b Suggest why the demand for cereal grains has outstripped supply.
c Why has the production of food for local markets declined in many developing
countries (LEDCs)?
2 a Discuss the ways in which severe weather conditions can reduce food production.
b What is soil degradation and how does it affect food production?
3 a What is food aid (food relief)?
b Why are people often critical of the way in which food aid is organised?
Topic 3.3 Industry
Figure 3.126 Groupings of factories
1 a Look at Figure 3.126. How do Plans A and B differ?
b Describe the characteristics of an industrial estate.
c Suggest two ways in which the factories might save money by locating together on
an industrial estate.
2 a Why might the local council and people living in the general area prefer Plan B to
Plan A?
b Discuss one possible disadvantage to the local community of Plan B.
3 Suggest why high-technology industries often cluster together.
Topic 3.4 Tourism
1 a Define ‘tourism’.
b Look at Figure 3.127. Describe the increase in international tourism between 1950
and 2012 and the forecast for 2030.
c Discuss three reasons for the growth of international tourism.
2 a What proportion of global employment is related to tourism?
b Explain the difference between direct and indirect employment in the tourist industry.
3 a What proportion of world trade is related to tourism?
b Why is tourism more important to the economies of some countries than others?
4 Discuss the disadvantages of tourism to developing countries.
 Figure 3.127 Tourism in the world — key figures
Topic 3.5 Energy

Figure 3.128 Global nuclear electricity production, 1971–2012

1 a How many countries operate nuclear power reactors?
b Name two countries that produce nuclear electricity.
2 a Describe the changes in global nuclear electricity production between 1971 and
2012 (Figure 3.128).
b Suggest reasons for the changes you identify.
3 a Some countries that could build nuclear power plants have decided not to. Explain
three concerns about the production of nuclear electricity.
b Give three advantages of nuclear power according to people who support the use of
this form of electricity production.
Topic 3.6 Water
Figure 3.129 The global water crisis
1 a Study Figure 3.129. How many people worldwide lack access to clean water and
proper sanitation?
b In which parts of the world are these problems most severe?
c How do water and sanitation problems impact on: i health; ii education; and iii
employment?
2 a Define ‘potable water’.
b Explain the difference between physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity.
3 How can the problems of lack of access to clean water and proper sanitation in poor
countries be tackled?
Topic 3.7 Environmental risks of economic development
Figure 3.130 The efficiency of energy conversion in arable and pastoral farming

Figure 3.131 The environmental impact of the increasing demand for meat
1 a Compare the production of wheat grain and beef from 1 hectare of land (Figure
3.130).
b Which type of farming will feed the most people?
2 a To what extent and why does the consumption of meat vary between developed and
developing countries?
b Why is the global demand for meat increasing at a significant rate?
3 Discuss the impact of this increasing demand for meat on the environment (Figure 3.131).
THEME 4 Geographical skills and investigations

Topics
 4.1 Geographical and mathematical skills
4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative to coursework
This theme Looks at a range of skills that geographers should be able to use. These include:
• mathematical skills, e.g. means, range and inverse proportions • mapwork skills, e.g. grid
and square references, distance, direction and land use • graphical skills, e.g. scatter graphs, pie
charts and triangular graphs • fieldwork skills, e.g. sampling, pilot studies and questionnaires.

4.1 Geographical and mathematical

skills

Figure 4.1 Urban environments offer a range of coursework opportunities

Scale
Most Ordnance Survey maps that we use are either at a 1:50,000 or a 1:25,000 scale. On a 1:50,000 map, 1
cm on the map relates to 50,000 cm on the ground. On a 1:25,000 map every 1 cm on the map relates to 25,000
cm on the ground. In every kilometre there are 100,000 centimetres (1000 × 100 cm). So:
• on a 1:50,000 map every 2 cm corresponds to a kilometre
• on a 1:25,000 map every 4 cm corresponds to a kilometre.
A 1:25,000 map is more detailed than a 1:50,000 map and is therefore an excellent source for geographical
enquiries. 1:50,000 maps provide a more general overview of a larger area. You may come across other scales,
for example 1:10,000 and 1:2500.
Measurement on maps is made easier by grid lines. These are the regular horizontal and vertical lines you can
see on an Ordnance Survey map.
The horizontal lines are called northings and the vertical lines are called eastings. They help to pinpoint the
exact location of features on a map.

Grid and square references

Grid references are the six-figure references that locate precise positions on a map. The first three figures are
the eastings and these tell us how far a position is across the map. The last three figures are the northings and
these tell us how far up the map a position is. An easy way to remember which way round the numbers go is
‘along the corridor and up the stairs’.
In Figure 4.2, the church at Rose Hill is located at 691045 and the church at Davis Town is found at 737043.
Sometimes a feature covers an area rather than a point, for example all of the villages and the areas of
woodland in Figure 4.2. Here a grid reference is inappropriate, so we use four-figure square references.
 • The first two numbers refer to the eastings.
• The last two numbers refer to the northings.
The point where the two grid lines meet is at the bottom left-hand corner of the square. So in Figure 4.2, most
of the village of Seafield is found in 7504. Some features may occur in two or more squares, for example Long
Bay is found in squares 7006 and 7106.

Direction
Directions can be expressed in two ways:
• compass points, for example southwest
• compass bearings or angular directions, for example 45°
Sixteen compass points are commonly used. Some of these are shown in Figure 4.3.
Compass bearings are more accurate than compass points but they can be quite confusing. Compass bearings
show variations from magnetic north. This is slightly different from the grid north on the Ordnance Survey map
(which is the way in which the northings go). True north is different again — this is the direction of the North
Pole.

Figure 4.2 Part of the 1:50,000 map of Jamaica

 Figure 4.3 Compass points

Relief and gradient

Contour lines
A contour line is an imaginary line that joins places of equal height.
• When the contour lines are spaced far apart the land is quite flat.
• When the contour lines are very close together the land is very steep (when the land is too steep for
contour lines a symbol for a cliff is used).
• When contour lines are close together at the top, and then get further apart lower down, this suggests a
concave slope.
• When contour lines are close together at the bottom and far apart at the top, this suggests a convex
slope (Figure 4.4).

Gradients
The gradient of a slope is its steepness. We can get a rough idea of the gradient by looking at the contour
pattern. If the contour lines are close together the slope is steep, and if they are far apart the land is quite flat.
However, these are not very accurate descriptions. To measure gradient accurately we need two
measurements:
• the vertical difference between two points (this can be worked out using the contour lines or spot
heights)
• the horizontal distance between two places — this may or may not be a straight line (for example, a
meandering stream would not be straight).
 Figure 4.4 Part of the 1:25,000 map showing Marmaloda Glacier and Lago di Fadala in the Dolomites,
northeastern Italy
 Figure 4.5 Cable car from Lago di Fadala to Marmaloda Glacier

Working out gradient

Make sure that you use the same units for both vertical and horizontal measurements.
Divide the difference in horizontal distance (D) by the height (H). If the answer is, for example, ‘10’ or ‘5’
express it as ‘1:10’ (‘one in ten’) or ‘1:5’ (‘one in five’). This means that for every 10 metres along you rise (or
drop) 1 metre, or for every 5 metres in length the land rises (or drops) 1 metre. Alternatively, divide the height

(H) by the difference in horizontal distance (D) and multiply by 100 per cent ([H/D] × 100%). This expresses
the gradient as a percentage.
Activities
Study the OS map shown in Figure 4.2.
1 How far is it:
a in a straight line
b by road
from the school in Goodwill to the school in the middle of Dundee?
2 What is the length of the coastline (to the nearest kilometre) as shown on the map
extract?
3 Approximately how long is the airstrip?
4 How wide is:
a the coral in Long Bay
b the mangrove forest between Minto and Salt Marsh?
5 What is the six-figure grid reference for:
a the two schools at Dundee
b Greenwood Great House?
6 What is found at 705023?
7 Give the four-figure grid reference for Chatham and for Davis Town.
8 Suggest reasons why there is an airstrip in grid square 6905.
9 In what direction is:
a Long Bay from Davis Town
 b Goodwill from Rose Hill?
10 Copy Figure 4.3 and complete the missing compass points.
Study Figure 4.4 and 4.5.
11 In what direction is the cable car moving (towards the glacier)?
 12 Approximately what is the altitude of:
a the lake
b the Marmaloda Glacier?
(Note that contours are shown at 25 m intervals.)
13 Using map evidence, suggest why a hydroelectric power station was built at the head of
Lago di Fadala.
Study Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 Part of the 1:25,000 map of northern Montserrat in the Caribbean
14 What is the height of
 a Silver Hill (8658)
b Baker Hill (8455)?
(Note that the contours on this map are drawn at 50 feet intervals; assume that 3 feet equals
1 m.)
15 In what direction does Little Bay (8457) face?
16 How steep is the slope between Silver Hill and the coastline at Thatch Valley (8659)?
Measure from the peak of Silver Hill to the nearest point of the coast in Little Redonda. Express
your answer as a ‘one in x slope’.
17 Describe the relief (height and gradient) of squares 8658 (Silver Hill), 8457 (Potato Hill)
and 8655 (Judy Piece).
18 Following an eruption of the Soufrière volcano in 1997, much of the southern third of the
island was evacuated. Plans were made to develop the northern part of Montserrat. Study the
map.
a Comment on the problems of developing the northern part of the island.
b Which, in your opinion, is the best location to develop housing, services and
economic activity?
Give reasons for your answer.

Cross-sections
A cross-section is a view of the landscape as it would appear if sliced open, or if you were to walk along it. It
shows variations in gradient and the location of important physical and human features. Here’s how to draw a
cross-section:
1 Place the straight edge of a piece of paper between the two end points (Figure 4.7).
a Mark off every contour line (in areas where the contours are very close together you could
measure every second contour or significant contours, for example every 100 m).
b Mark off important geographical features.
2 Align the straight edge of the piece of paper against a horizontal line on graph paper, which is exactly
the same length as the line of the section. Use a vertical scale of 1 cm:50 m, or 1 cm:100 m; if you use a
smaller scale (for example 1 cm:5 m) you will end up with a slope that looks Himalayan!
a Mark off with a small dot each of the contours and the geographic features.
b Join up the dots with a freehand curve.
c Label the features.
d Remember to label the horizontal and vertical scales, the title, and the grid references for the
starting and finishing points.
 Figure 4.7 Drawing a cross-section—the Massif Central in France
Figure 4.8 shows a cross-section of an extinct volcano in France. See how steep the volcano looks when a
scale of 1 cm:50 m is used compared with 1 cm:100 m.

Describing river landscapes

The long profile of a river can be shown on a line graph when the height of a river above base level is plotted
against distance from its source. As rivers evolve through time and over distance, streams pass through a series of
distinct changes. Figure 4.9 shows the long profile of a river and illustrates these stages.
 Figure 4.8 Cross-sections of Puy de Vichatel

Describing the stage of a river

• Is the river in its upper, middle or lower course?
• Use the contour lines to describe the shape of the river valley — a V-shaped valley with close contour
lines suggests the upper course; more gentle slopes with a broad, flat floodplain suggests the lower course.
• Look at the size and shape of the river channel.
• Is the channel constrained by relief — that is, does it flow around interlocking spurs?
• Does the river meander across a flat floodplain?
• What are the features of the river? Can you identify any of the features listed in Figure 4.9 from map
evidence?
Rivers have had a profound effect on both the site and situation of human settlements. Human activities
have also had an increasing impact on drainage basins and river channels. Map evidence can be used to identify
the relationship between rivers and human activities.

Describing a river’s influence on site and

situation
• Is the river navigable? (Is it straight and wide enough to allow boats to pass up it?)
• Does the river valley provide the only flat land in an area of rough terrain?
• Does the valley provide a natural routeway for roads and railway lines?
• Do settlements avoid the river’s floodplain and locate on higher dry-point sites?
• Are settlements located at crossing points on a river? (The name endings of the settlement, such as
‘ford’ and ‘bridge’, are evidence of this.)
 Figure 4.9 Features associated with different stages of a river

The human impact on river systems

• Is there evidence of forest clearance and wetland reclamation for agriculture?
• Does the map show any of the following land use changes which can affect a river and its drainage
basin: mining activity, industrialisation, urbanisation, land drainage schemes?
• Has there been any direct interference with rivers through reservoir construction, channel
straightening, dams, new channels?
 • Are there any obvious sources of pollution (industry, sewage works) on the map?
Activities
Figure 4.10 Part of the 1:14,000 map of the West Coast Trail in British Columbia, Canada
Study Figure 4.10.
1 Describe the relief (height and gradient) of the map extract.
2 In which direction does the Fairy Creek flow?
3 a Describe the valley of the San Juan river.
b How does this compare with the southern part of Fairy Creek?
4 a What is the altitude (height) of the source (start) of Fairy Creek?
b What is its altitude when it reaches Fairy Lake?
 c What is the distance from the source of Fairy Creek to Fairy Lake?
d What is the gradient of Fairy Creek between its source and Fairy Lake? (Express the
answer as a 1:x gradient, where gradient = vertical difference/horizontal distance.)

Coastal landforms
Describing coastal scenery
• Does the coastline have steep slopes and cliffs, suggesting a coastline of erosion? Or are there wide
expanses of sand and mud suggesting deposition?
• Are there many headlands and bays indicating local changes in processes?
• Is the coastline broken by river mouths or estuaries?
• What is the direction of the coastline?
• Is there any evidence of longshore drift, for example spits, bars, tombolos?
• Are any of the features named? Give names and grid references.
• Is there any map evidence of human attempts to protect the coastline, for example groynes, sea walls,
breakwaters?
 • Does the map tell you whether the stretch of coastline is protected or open?
Activities

Figure 4.11 Extracts from a 1: 25,000 map of Antigua in the Caribbean

Figure 4.12 Some coastal landforms on the Caribbean island of Antigua
1 Match each of the map extracts in Figure 4.11 with the three photographs in Figure 4.12.
2 Try to identify the cliff that is shown on Figure 4.12c. What is the map evidence to support
your answer?
3 What type of feature is shown in Figure 4.12a? Try to find the named example of the
feature on one of the maps.
4 What features are shown in Figure 4.12b? Find located examples of these features on the
map extracts.
5 What is the map evidence to suggest that tourism and recreation are important to this
area?
6 Using map evidence, suggest how easy or difficult it may be to develop tourism further in
the area.
Describing volcanic landscapes
When describing volcanic landscapes consider the following questions:
• Is the land gently sloping or steep?
• Is there a crater present at the top of the volcano?
• Is there a central cone or are there lots of secondary cones?
• Are there any lava flows present?
• Is there vegetation present?
• Is there any other map evidence (quarrying, mining, tourism) that can be used to infer volcanic
activity?

Rural settlements
Geographers should be able to find various types of information when studying rural settlements on a map.
They should be able to comment on the following key terms:
• Site: the immediate location of a settlement — that is, the land upon which it is built, for example on a
floodplain, close to a river, on a south-facing slope, on a crossroads, or at a wet point or dry point.
 Activity
Using Figure 4.13, give reasons why this area may be volcanic in origin.

Figure 4.13 Extract from the 1:25,000 map of Lac d’Aydat in the Massif Central, France

• Situation: the relative location of a settlement to a larger area.

• Function: any service or employment opportunities that a settlement offers, for example commercial,
recreational, industrial or agricultural.
• Shape: the appearance of the settlement, for example linear, compact, T-shaped.

Describing and explaining the site and

importance of a settlement
• Describe its location in relation to the relief of the area, for example valley floor, near or away from a
river, direction of slope, dry point, wet point, exposed, sheltered etc.
• Describe how many routes there are and which forms of transport are available. How important are the
routes that meet at the settlement? How does the relief affect these routes?

Describing the form or shape of a settlement

• Is it nucleated or dispersed?
• Is it a linear or cruciform settlement?
• Is any of it modern? (Modern settlement may be recognised by a regular geometric street pattern and
more widely spaced houses.)
• Have physical features influenced its shape? For example, a steep hillside or a floodplain may limit the
growth of a town so that it becomes elongated, following the direction of the level or dry land.

Describing the size and function of a

settlement
• What is the size of the settlement? How many grid squares does it cover? (Each grid square represents 1
2
km .)
• Are the houses tightly packed together or dispersed?
• What functions are evident? For example, is it residential (housing), commercial (post office,
administrative buildings), schools, industrial (works, quarries, railway sidings) and/or tourist-related (tourist
information centre, viewpoints)?

Describing the situation of a settlement

• Using the whole map area, describe the site of the settlement in relation to large urban centres,
motorways, roads, large rivers or other large-scale physical features such as hills or valleys.
• Is the settlement on a rail link?
• How accessible is the settlement to motorways, railways and large urban areas? It might be situated
close to a motorway but have no direct access to it.

Describing and accounting for the general

distribution of settlement
• Locate areas with little or no settlement. Account for the lack of settlement in terms of natural
disadvantage, for example exposed position, steep gradient, flat land in danger of flooding. How is this land
used?
 • Locate areas of fairly close settlement. Account for this in terms of natural advantages for land use and
occupation, for example farming, water, soil or south-facing slope.
Activities
Figure 4.14 Part of southwest Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
Figure 4.15 Masca, Tenerife Canary Islands, Spain
Study Figure 4.14.
1 Describe the pattern of settlement (grey squares) as shown on the map extract.
2 Describe the relief and gradient of the area west of Masca.
3 Describe the road network (yellow lines) on the map extract.
4 What opportunities does this environment offer? Suggest reasons and use the map
evidence and Figure 4.15 to help you.
5 What difficulties does this environment create? Again give evidence and suggest reasons.
(Note: The red line is a hiking trail, the dashed red line is a steep hiking trail, and the red dots
are climbing trails.)
Urban settlements
Urban landscapes
It is important to identify different land use types when describing an urban landscape.
• Identify the lines of communication, for example roads, railways, airports.
• Identify the types of land use, for example residential, industrial, commercial. What kind of residential
land use is it? Is it terraced, semi-detached, working class, middle class? Is there industry present? If so,
what kind? Can you see a CBD or grouping of shops?
• If the map is of a whole settlement, can you identify old and new areas?
• Use descriptive words when discussing the area: high-density/low-density housing; regular/haphazard
roads; derelict/high-tech industry.
• Can you identify any other land uses, for example green spaces, derelict land, churches, schools,
hospitals?

Industrial location
 The factors determining industrial location are changing. In the early part of the twentieth century, heavy
industries like iron and steel and car manufacturing were located close to raw materials and/or markets. Today,
manufacturing industry is drawn to out-of-town or edge-of-town sites. One of the factors is space and another is
cost. There is more, cheaper land available away from the built-up urban areas. Another factor is accessibility:
edge-of-town sites are closer to communications (motorways and railways) and the residential areas where
workers live. For many heavy industries, location by a deepwater channel is important for the import of raw
material and the export of finished goods.
Activities
Figure 4.16 1:50,000 map of St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
Study Figure 4.16.
1 Describe the site of St Catharines.
2 Suggest contrasting reasons for the lack of settlement in parts of squares 4081 and 4679.
 3 a What industries are located in 4681 and 4781?
b Suggest reasons for the large-scale industry in squares 4581 and 4681.
4 Describe the distribution of shopping centres, as shown on the map.
5 Contrast the pattern of roads in square 4280 with those in 4183 and 4083.
6 Give a four-figure grid reference for:
a Martindale Pond
b Port Weller Harbour.
7 Give a six-figure grid reference for Niagara College (near the centre of St Catherines).

Figure 4.17 1:50,000 map of Hong Kong

Study Figure 4.17.
8 Give the square references for two (industrial) estates.
9 Compare the two sites that you have identified.
10 Suggest the reasons for the development at Tseung Kwan O industrial estate.
11 Approximately what size are Sheung Tak Estate and Tseung Kwan O?
12 How does the land in the two estates differ from the land on the rest of the island, as
shown on the map?

Sketch maps and annotated photographs

You can label a photograph or diagram to make it very informative. It is important that you label clearly all
the important features.
 Many photographs that are used in exams are aerial views, which show industrial, residential, recreational
and commercial land uses. In your projects, however, you are more likely to use much simpler photos. If you
study these carefully you can find out a number of interesting features.
Activities
Figure 4.18 Aerial view of Hyundai shipyard in Pusan, South Korea

Figure 4.19 Sketch drawing of Figure 4.18

Study Figure 4.18.
1 a Copy Figure 4.19 and add the following labels in the most appropriate locations.
• Harbour wall to reduce wave energy
• Flat land for large-scale industrial development
 • Lack of development on steep ground
• Deep estuary allows development of port industries
• High-rise residential accommodation
• Large docks for ships to be repaired or built
b Add a couple of other labels based on your own observations.
Figure 4.20 Jolly Harbour resort in Antigua
Study Figure 4.20.
2 Make a sketch diagram of the resort and add the following labels:
 • Purpose-built holiday resort
• Easy access to the beach
• Boat moorings
• Fine, white sandy beach
• Bay
• Lagoon

Figure 4.21 Caledonian canal, Scotland

3 Make a sketch of Figure 4.21, the Caledonian canal, and add the following labels:
• The main river
• The Caledonian canal
• A lock
• Barges and river boats
• Large pastoral fields
• An arable field
• Areas of woodland
• Settlement — possibly tourist accommodation
Using mathematical skills in geography
There are a number of mathematical skills that you should be able to perform. These include:
• adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing
• understanding map scale and the use of scale line and representative fractions
• understanding the terms ‘mean’ and ‘range’
• using averages, decimals, fractions, percentages and ratios
• using standard index notation (standard form), including both positive and negative indices
• understanding significant figures and using them appropriately
• recognising positive and negative relationships shown by scatter graphs
• drawing and interpreting graphs from given data
• selecting suitable scales and axes for graphs
• using a ruler and protractor.

Map scale
If the map scale is 1:50,000 every 1 cm on the map represents 50,000 cm on the ground (in reality). The
 Activities

Figure 4.22 A map of Woodstock, UK

Study Figure 4.22.
1 a State the scale of the map.
b Measure, in cm, the distance from the roundabout by Campsfield Wood (458157) to
the junction of Upper Campsfield Road and the Banbury Road (473173).
c State the distance from the roundabout by Campsfield Wood to the junction of Upper
Campsfield Road and the Banbury Road in (i) metres and (ii) km.
d Estimate the length of the River Glyme from the footbridge at 437152 to Lince Bridge
(443146).
e Work out the distance of the longest runway at Oxford Airport.

representative fraction is expressed as 1/50,000 — no units are given, as it could be cm, m, km etc.

Mean, averages and range

The mean is a type of average. It is found by totalling (Σ) the values for all observations (Σ x) and then
dividing by the total number of observations (n):

For example, the mean number of services in eight villages was found to be:

There are other types of average. The mode refers to the group/value that occurs most often. In this example
there are two modes, 1 and 4. A pattern that has two peaks (or two modes) is called bimodal, whereas a pattern
with one peak is unimodal.
The median is the middle value when all the data are placed in either ascending or descending order. In this
case, we have 8, 7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 1, 1. When there are two middle values (as in this case), we take the average of the
two values, which is this case is very easy as both middle values are 4, hence the median is 4.
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest value. In this example it is 8 − 1 = 7.

Decimals, fractions, percentages and ratios

A decimal is a number between two whole numbers. For example, the world’s population is around 7.5
billion, which means that it is more than 7 billion but less than 8 billion.
A fraction is part of a whole — for example, of Borneo’s rainforest has been deforested.
 A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100 (%). To convert a fraction to
a percentage, convert first to a decimal and multiply by 100%. To convert a fraction to a decimal, simply
divide the number above the line (the numerator) by the number below the line (the denominator). You can
use a calculator for this. Thus, in Borneo or 0.33 × 100% = 33% of its forest has been deforested.
A ratio is a method of comparing relative size or proportions. The area deforested in Borneo compared

with forested is 1:2 (one-third has been deforested and there are two-thirds left).
Activity
The world’s population is approximately 7.5 billion, and China’s population is approximately 1.3
billion. Express China’s population as a percentage of the world’s population.

Standard notation
Standard notation is the number that we would normally write, e.g. 567. The expanded standard index
notation shows that 567 is 5.67 × 102.
A positive index is a power value that is positive, for example 22 = 2 × 2 = 4, or 33 = 3 ×3 × 3 = 27.

Negative indices are powers that have a minus sign, for example 2−3 =

Significant figures
The significant figures are the numbers that give some meaning to the measurement/size of a feature.
Numbers are often rounded up or down to make them easier to understand. The world’s population is said to be 7
billion — this is one significant figure — seven times a billion. The world’s population was 7,503,875,592 at
20.30 hours on 11 May 2017. This figure is too detailed (and now out of date). A value of 7 billion (one
significant figure) or 7.5 billion (two significant figures) gives a better ‘feel’ for the size of the world’s
population.
Activity
Express 7,503,875,592 in terms of:
a 4 significant figures
b 7 significant figures
c 9 significant figures.

Positive and negative relationships shown by

scatter graphs
A positive relationship exists between two values when one is a multiple of the other, for example 1 cm =
10 mm. To convert cm to mm you always multiply by 10. The symbol ∝ is shorthand for proportional, for
example y ∝ x.
A negative relationship exists when one value increases at the same rate as another decreases, i.e
For example, if it takes three people 8 hours to harvest a field, how long would it take four people
(all working at the same rate as the original three people) to harvest the same field?

where k = the constant of proportionality.

, so if it takes three workers 8 hours, k = 8 × 3 = 24 hours of work in
total are required.
When k = 4, and k is still 24 hours, . So it will take 6 hours for the four workers to
complete the harvest.
Relationships between values can be investigated using scatter graphs. Figure 4.23 shows a positive
relationship (a), a negative relationship (b), a curved relationship (c) and a positive relationship when all values
are considered but no relationship when a sub-set is used (d).
 Figure 4.23 Relationships on a scatter graph

Mathematical skills: graphical techniques

You may come across the techniques demonstrated below in all parts of your geography course. Guidance is
given here on how to construct graphs for coursework and the alternative to coursework, as well as how to
interpret them.

Pictograms
Pictograms (or picture graphs) use pictures or symbols to represent the data. The number of times a symbol
occurs can represent the value or amount — in this way the pictogram acts very much like a bar chart (Figure
4.24).

Figure 4.24 What goods did you buy today?

Line graphs
A line graph shows points plotted on a graph whereby the points are connected to form a line. This type of
graph is used to show continuing data. It shows the relationship between two variables, which are clearly labelled
on both axes of the graph. Many line graphs show changes over time. However, time does not have to be one of
the variables of a line graph. Examples of the use of line graphs include:
• temperature changes during the course of a day
• pedestrian counts by time of day
• temperature change with altitude.
The axes of a line graph should begin at zero and the variable for each axis should be clearly labelled. Be
careful with the choice of scale, as this will determine the visual impression given by the graph. Figure 4.25 is an
example of a line graph. Here, only one line has been drawn but it is valid to show a number of lines so long as
the course of each line is absolutely clear from start to finish.

Figure 4.25 Example of a line graph

Line graphs can be simple (showing one feature) or they may be multiple (showing many features and trends,
e.g. the demographic transition model shown on page 5). Compound or stacked line graphs show the value of
each category on top of the previous ones (e.g. page 222 Changes in world energy consumption, and page 211
Growth in global tourism). This is done in this way to show the value of total energy consumption or total world
tourism, which would not be clear from a multiple line graph.

Pie charts and proportional pie charts

 Activities
1 Study Figure 4.24. How many people bought:
a groceries
b clothing
on their visit?
2 Using the data in Table 4.1, draw a line graph to show world population growth, 1800–
2024.

Pie charts are subdivided circles. These are frequently used on maps to show variations in the composition of
a geographical feature, for example gross regional domestic product (Figure 4.26). The pie chart may also be
drawn proportional in size, to show an extra dimension, in this case the size of GRDP.

Table 4.1
Year Population (billions)
1800 1
1930 2
1960 3
1974 4
1987 5
1999 6
2011 7
2024 8
 Figure 4.26 Example of the use of pie charts: employment and gross regional domestic product (GRDP) in
South Korea, 2000

Plotting the pie chart

The following steps should be followed in the construction of a pie chart:
1 Convert the data into percentages.
2 Convert the percentages into degrees (by multiplying by 3.6 and rounding up or down to the nearest
whole number).
3 Draw appropriately located circles on your base map.
4 Subdivide the circles into sectors using the figures obtained in step 2.
5 Differentiate the sectors by means of different shadings or colours.
6 Draw a key explaining the scheme of shading and/or colours.
7 Give your diagram a title.

Bar charts
In a bar chart, the length of the bar represents the quantity of the component being measured, for example
places or time intervals. The vertical axis has a scale that measures the quantity. There are four main types of bar
chart:
• Simple bar chart — each bar indicates a single factor, for example Figure 1.3, page 3.
• Multiple or group bar chart — features are grouped together on one graph to help comparison, for
example Figure 3.30, page 189.
• Compound bar chart — various elements or factors are grouped together on one bar (the largest or
most stable element or factor, i.e. the one with least variation, is placed at the bottom of the bar to avoid
confusion).
• Percentage compound bar chart — this is a variation on the compound bar chart. It is used to
compare features by showing the percentage contribution, for example Figure 3.76, page 222. These graphs
do not give a total in each category but compare relative changes in terms of percentages.

Median-line bar graphs

Median-line bar graphs are useful when the objective is to show both positive and negative changes. The
median line is set at zero with the positive scale above the median line and the negative scale below it (Figure
4.27). This type of bar graph can create a very good visual impression. You can see instantly whether changes are
positive or negative and exactly what the extent of the individual changes are.
 Figure 4.27 Example of a median-line bar graph

Histograms
A histogram is a special type of bar graph (Figure 4.28). It shows the frequency distribution of data. The x-
axis must be a continuous scale, with the values marked on it representing the lower and upper limits of the
classes within which the data have been grouped. The y-axis shows the frequency within which values fall into
each of the classes. A vertical rectangle or bar represents each class. The bars must be continuous without any
gaps between them.
 Activities
Table 4.2
Figure 4.28 Example of a histogram and the data used

City Micrograms per m3

1 Delhi, India 153
2 Doha, Qatar 93
3 Dhaka, Bangladesh 86
4 Kabul, Afghanistan 86
5 Cairo, Egypt 74
6 Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 68
7 Abu Dhabi, UAE 64
8 Beijing, China 56
9 Kathmandu, Nepal 50
10 Accra, Ghana 49
1 Table 4.2 shows data for air pollution in ten cities. Construct a bar chart to show these
data. Remember to add a scale and a title.
2 a Using the data in Table 4.3, draw a pie chart showing the contribution of each
economic sector to Korean GDP.
b Comment on the chart you have drawn.
Table 4.3 Contribution of the main economic sectors to Korea’s GDP
 Agriculture Industry Services
2.6% 39.2% 58.2%

Kite diagrams
A kite diagram is a form of line graph where the scale is split in two, i.e. half the values are shown above a
horizontal line and half below. They are most commonly used to show vegetation distribution, for example along
a sand dune or across a footpath and its surrounding area (Figure 4.29).

Figure 4.29 Kite diagram

Flow-line diagrams
Flow-line diagrams and maps are used to illustrate movements or flows (Figure 4.30). One might be used to
show the variation in volumes of traffic from different smaller settlements into a larger settlement. Straight lines
are used but the width of the individual flow lines will be proportional to the amounts of traffic they represent.
Thus, a line 10 mm wide may represent 500 vehicles an hour along a road. On the same scale a line 2 mm wide
would represent 100 vehicles an hour. Flow lines could also be used to show the number of buses coming into a
town on a particular day.
 Figure 4.30 Flow-line diagram to show sources of water contributing to the River Nile

Dispersion diagrams
A dispersion diagram is very useful for showing the range of a data set, the tendency to group or disperse,
and for comparing two sets of data. It involves plotting the values of a single variable on a vertical axis. The
horizontal axis shows the frequency. The resulting diagram shows the frequency distribution of a data set (Figure
4.31).

Figure 4.31 Dispersion diagrams showing the distribution of lichens on east-and west-facing gravestones

Ray diagrams
There are two main types of ray diagram: wind roses and desire lines. Ray diagrams are made up of straight
lines (rays), which show a connection or movement between two places.
Wind rose diagrams (Figure 4.32) show the variations in wind direction for a certain time period. The
direction of each ray to the centre is the direction from which the wind is blowing. Each ray is proportional in
length to the number of days the wind blew from that direction.
 Figure 4.32 Example of a wind rose diagram
Desire-line diagrams show movement from one place to another. This type of diagram could be used to show
where people live and the supermarket they use. If there are four supermarkets in an area then the rays would
focus on four points rather than just one as in a wind rose diagram. Desire-line diagrams are therefore more
complicated than wind rose diagrams.

Semantic differential profiles

Semantic differential profiles (SDPs) (Figure 4.33) are useful for recording perceptions of environmental
quality. They consist of a series of pairs of words with opposite meanings. There should generally be a minimum
of five gradations between each pair of words. The observer must decide where to place a cross or other mark to
state the condition of the environment they are observing. When all the observations have been made the crosses
are joined up with a ruler. If, for example, you were studying three different housing areas in a town you could
show all three profiles on one SDP diagram by using different colours for each area.
 Figure 4.33 A semantic differential profile

Radial (circular) graphs

Radial (or circular) graphs (Figure 4.34) can be used to plot:
• a variable that is continuous over time, such as temperature data over the course of a year
• data relating to direction using the points of the compass.
The two axes of a radial graph are the circumference of the circle and the radius. Values increase from the
centre of the circle outwards.
 Figure 4.34 A radial graph

Isoline diagrams
Isolines join points of equal value on a map. They are similar to contours on an Ordnance Survey map.
Isolines can only be drawn when the values under consideration change in a fairly gradual way over the area of
the map. Data for quite a large number of locations are required in order to draw a good isoline map. Isoline
maps are unsuitable for patchy data. Figure 4.35 is an isoline map showing pedestrian flow in and around a
central business district.
 Figure 4.35 An isoline map

Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs show how two sets of data are related to each other, for example population size and number
of services, or distance from the source of a river and average pebble size. To plot a scatter graph, decide which
variable is independent (population size/distance from the source) and which is dependent (number of
services/average pebble size). The independent is plotted on the horizontal or x-axis and the dependent on the
vertical or y-axis. For each set of data, project a line from the corresponding x- and y-axis, and where the two
lines meet mark the point with a dot or an X (Figure 4.36).

Figure 4.36 Scatter graph

When all the data are plotted, a line of best fit is drawn. This does not have to pass through the origin. It is
useful to label some of the points, for example the highest and smallest anomalies (exceptions), especially if
these are referred to in any later description.

Choropleth maps
Choropleth maps can use variations in colour or different densities of black and white shading. The following
steps should be followed in the construction of a choropleth map:
• Look at the range of data and divide it into classes. There should be no less than four classes and no
more than eight.
• Allocate a colour to each class. The convention is that shading gets darker as values increase.
• Now apply each colour to the applicable areas of the map.
• Provide a key, scale and north point.
The choropleth map is a popular technique, frequently used in atlases, textbooks and many other types of
publication. It can convey a lot of information in a straightforward and visually appealing way.
The main disadvantage of the choropleth is that it can show abrupt changes at boundary lines, when in reality
change is much more gradual. It also gives the impression of uniformity within individual areas on the map,
when in reality a reasonable degree of variation may be present. Careful selection of class sizes can reduce this
problem.

Proportional circles
Proportional circles are the next step up from pie charts. While pie charts are viewed as a basic graphical
technique, proportional circles are a higher-level technique. Proportional circles are useful when illustrating the
differences between two or more amounts. They are particularly effective when placed on location maps. In
Figure 4.37 the three circles shown are proportional in area to the total number of offences recorded in the three
urban areas. The method used to decide the radius of each circle is as follows:
1 Write out each of the total figures for which circles are to be drawn in the first column.
2 Find the square root for each figure and write this down in a second column.
3 Use the square root for the radius of each circle. By doing this the area of each of the circles will be
mathematically proportional to the figures they are representing. For the radii you can use any units you
want providing they are the same for each of the circles.
Table 4.4 shows a simple example.

Table 4.4 To prepare proportional circles: an example

Totals Square root Radius of circle
4 2 2 cm
9 3 3 cm
16 4 4 cm
 Figure 4.37 Example of a choropleth map with proportional circles

Triangular graphs
Triangular graphs are used to show data that can be divided into three parts, for example soil (sand, silt and
clay), employment (primary, secondary and tertiary), or population (young, adult and elderly) (Figure 4.38).
They require that the data are in the form of a percentage and that the percentages total 100%. The main
advantages of the triangular graph are:
• they allow a large number of data to be shown on one graph (think how many pie charts or bar charts
would be needed to show all the data on Figure 4.38)
• groupings are easily recognisable, for example in the case of soils groups of soil texture can be
identified
• dominant characteristics can be shown easily
• classifications can be drawn up.
Triangular graphs can be tricky and it is easy to get confused, especially if care is not taken, but they do
provide a fast, reliable way of classifying large amounts of data that have three components.
 Figure 4.38 Triangular graph to show population composition in selected countries

Activities
1 Construct a scatter graph using the data in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5
Site Discharge (m3/sec) Suspended load (g/m3)
1 0.45 10.8
2 0.42 9.7
3 0.51 11.2
4 0.55 11.3
5 0.68 12.5
6 0.75 12.8
7 0.89 13.0
8 0.76 12.7
9 0.96 13.0
10 1.26 17.4
 2 On a copy of Figure 4.39 and using the data in Table 4.6, show how the workforce of
Korea has changed over time.
Table 4.6 Percentage of Korean workforce employed in primary, secondary and tertiary industries, 1970–2015

Figure 4.39 Outline for a triangular graph

3 Find two examples of line graphs in a geography textbook. What do the line graphs show
in these examples?
4 What is the difference between a histogram and an ‘ordinary’ bar graph?
5 Discuss the merits and limitations of choropleth maps.
6 Draw a series of proportional circles using fieldwork data or data from a textbook.
7 Construct a semantic differential profile that could be used in your local area.
8 Look at Figure 4.35, which shows an isoline map. Suggest two more examples for which
isoline maps could be drawn.

4.2 Geographical investigations:

coursework and the alternative to
coursework
 Figure 4.40 Risk assessment is essential for all geographical investigations
The assessment structure is different for IGCSE and O Level. IGCSE centres can choose between Component
3 Coursework and Paper 4 Alternative to Coursework, whereas O Level students must take Paper 3 Geographical
Investigations. IGCSE Paper 4 is identical to O Level Paper 3.
For IGCSE Component 3, which is entitled ‘Coursework’, a school-based assignment set by teachers of up to
2000 words must be completed. The proposals for the coursework undertaken by students must be approved
beforehand by the examination board, Cambridge Assessment International Education. An example of an outline
submission to Cambridge is provided in the syllabus document.
The coursework investigation can be based on human geography, physical geography, or on an interaction
between the two. The assignment must be clearly related to one or more of the syllabus themes.
Examples of suitable coursework assignments can be found in the syllabus document. The wide-ranging
scope of this syllabus offers many possibilities for coursework.
IGCSE Component 3 is not compulsory because IGCSE Paper 4 (Alternative to Coursework) can be taken
instead. Here students answer two compulsory questions, completing a number of written tasks based on the
three themes covered in Paper 1. The questions in Paper 4 involve an appreciation of techniques used in
fieldwork studies. Guidance on the enquiry skills for Paper 4 is provided in the syllabus document.
The enquiry skills for IGCSE Component 3, known as the route to geographical enquiry, can be set out in
the following stages:
1 Identification of an issue, question or problem
2 Defining the objectives of the study
3 Collection of data
4 Selection and collation of data
5 Presentation and recording of results
6 Analysis and interpretation
7 Conclusions, evaluation and suggestions for further work.

Identification of an issue, question or

problem
This section effectively forms your introduction to the investigation. Here you clearly identify a topic for
investigation through observation, discussion, reading or previous study. Many geographical investigations begin
by stating one or a number of hypotheses used to test the issue, question or problem. Hypotheses are the ideas
you intend to test. Before you can set out your hypotheses with confidence you need to ensure that you have a
good understanding of the topic (for example, sand dunes) under consideration. Studying the geographical
background should ensure that you have clear knowledge and understanding of the theories or models that are
used to try to explain your enquiry. You will refer back to these theories and models in your conclusion.
Examples of hypotheses are as follows:
• Pedestrian density is highest at the centre of the CBD, and declines with increasing distance from the
centre.
 • The sphere of influence of settlements increases with settlement size.
• The pH of sand dunes decreases with distance inland.
• Population density is higher in inner urban areas than in the suburbs.
• Average temperatures in urban areas are higher than in surrounding rural areas.
For each hypothesis you investigate you should describe what you expect to find and explain why. Within
this section of the investigation you should also justify the geographical location of your inquiry. It should
clearly be a good location to address the issue, question or problem you intend to investigate. Make sure that you
include the area’s site as well as its regional situation. Include clearly labelled location maps. Give each map or
diagram used in this section a figure number. For example, a map showing the location of your study area within
its wider region might be labelled ‘Figure 1: The location of Studland in Dorset’. Follow this procedure for all
illustrations used throughout your investigation. Also make sure that you refer to each ‘Figure’ in your text.

Defining the objectives of the study

You now move on to define the objectives of the study in specific terms, refining the content of the previous
section. You will also make decisions concerning:
• what data are relevant to the study
• how the data can be collected.

It is useful in this section to briefly state the sequence of investigation you are going to follow. This should
ensure that you are clear about the remaining stages of the investigation and that you tackle the route to
geographical enquiry in a logical manner.
Activities
1 Draw a diagram to illustrate the route to geographical enquiry.
2 a What is a hypothesis?
b Give two examples.
3 Why is it important to study the geographical background of your coursework topic?
4 How would you go about justifying the geographical location of your enquiry?

Collection, selection and collation of data

Data can be collected on a group or individual basis, which may include:
• fieldwork to collect primary data, such as taking measurements and undertaking questionnaires
• gathering data from secondary sources, such as from census information and published maps,
newspapers and the internet.
Make sure that you clearly explain the difference between primary data and secondary data. Use as many
different techniques as possible to gather information, for example interviews, observations, surveys,
questionnaires, maps and looking at figures. Describe and justify each method. Describe the use of primary
fieldwork methods and in particular the method and/or equipment used to collect each type of information.
Equally, describe and explain the use of secondary sources, for example parish records.
Explain clearly how you decided to use your figures, maps, answers to questions etc. Some reasoning is
necessary here — that is, justify why you used that method or source. Explain in detail, for example, how you
questioned people, collected census figures, obtained maps etc. Write this up almost like the method for a
scientific experiment. You can use a planning sheet here, stating when you collected data, where from, at what
time, places you visited, observations you made, interviews you conducted etc. If you are using a questionnaire
then you must justify the questions that you use, for example explain why you have recorded the age and gender
of respondents in a shopping survey. You need a range of methods to obtain full marks.
To collect data in a sound and logical way so that valid conclusions can be drawn, you should be aware of
the characteristics and importance of:
• sampling
• pilot surveys
• questionnaires and interviews
• methods of observing, counting and measuring
• health and safety, and other restrictions.

Sampling
The reasons for sampling
For many geographical investigations it is impossible to obtain ‘complete’ information. This is usually
because it would just take too long in terms of both time and cost. For example, if you wanted to study the
shopping habits of all 1000 households in a suburban area by using a doorstep questionnaire, it would be a huge
task to visit every household.
However, it is valid to take a ‘sample’ or proportion of this total ‘population’ of 1000 households, providing
you follow certain rules. The idea is that you are selecting a group that will be representative of the total
population.
You might decide to take a 5% or 10% sample, which would involve talking to 50 or 100 of the 1000
households in the area. But how do you decide which 50 or 100 households to sample? There are three
recognised methods of sampling that are considered scientifically valid. All three methods avoid bias, which
would make results unreliable.

Sampling types
Before selecting the sampling method you need to consider how you are going to take a sample at each
location. There are three alternatives:
• Point sampling — making an observation or measurement at an exact location, such as an individual
house or at a precise six-figure grid reference.
• Line sampling — taking measurements along a carefully chosen line or lines, such as a transect across a
sand dune ecosystem.
• Quadrat (or area) sampling — quadrats are mainly used for surveying vegetation and beach deposits.
A quadrat is a gridded frame.
All three sampling types are shown in Figure 4.41. Here all of the sampling types are illustrated using the
systematic method of sampling. When you have read the next section you might think how these diagrams would
look using random and stratified sampling.

Figure 4.41 Point, line and quadrat sampling

Sampling methods
Random sampling
This method involves selecting sample points by using random numbers (Figure 4.42 and 4.43). Tables of
random numbers can be used or the numbers can be generated by most calculators. The use of random numbers
guarantees that there is no human bias in the selection process.
 Figure 4.42 Section of a table of random numbers

Figure 4.43 How a grid and map can be used for random sampling

Systematic sampling
With this method the sample is taken in a regular way. It might, for example, involve every tenth house or
person. When using an Ordnance Survey map it might mean analysing grid squares at regular intervals.
Stratified sampling
Here the area under study divides into different natural areas. For example, rock type A may make up 60%
of an area and rock type B the remaining 40%. If you were taking soil samples for each type, you should ensure
that 60% of the samples were taken on rock type A and 40% on rock type B (Figure 4.44).
 Figure 4.44 Random, systematic and stratified sampling

Deciding on the size of the sample

The larger the sample the more likely you are to obtain a true reflection of the total population. However, this
could happen with a very small sample by chance. But, equally, a small sample could give a very misleading
picture of the total population.
A good rule to follow at IGCSE with regard to sample size is to take as many samples as possible with regard
to:
• the time available
• available resources
• the number of samples required for a particular statistical technique, such as Spearman’s rank
correlation coefficient
• your capacity to handle the data collected (there are many computer programs available to help with
this).

Pilot surveys
A pilot study or trial run can play an important role in any geographical investigation. A pilot study involves
spending a small amount of time testing your methods of data collection. For example:
• If you are using equipment, does all the equipment work and can everyone in the group use it
correctly?
• If your data collection involves a questionnaire, can the people responding understand all the questions
clearly?
• If a method of sampling is used, does everyone know how to select the sample points accurately?

A small-scale pilot study allows you to make vital adjustments to your investigation before you begin the
main survey. This can save a great deal of time in the long run.
Activities
1 Why is sampling so important in geographical investigation?
2 Work in groups to provide outlines of different geographical investigations that would
involve:
a random sampling
b systematic sampling
c stratified sampling.
3 Why might it be beneficial to conduct a pilot study prior to beginning a geographical
investigation?

Questionnaires and interviews

Questionnaire surveys involve both setting questions and obtaining answers. The questions are pre-planned
and set out on a specially prepared form. This method of data collection is used to obtain opinions, ideas and
information from people in general or from different groups of people. The questionnaire survey is probably the
most widely used method to obtain primary data in human geography. In the wider world questionnaires are used
for a variety of purposes, including market research by manufacturing and retail companies and to test public
opinion prior to political elections.
One of the most important decisions you are going to have to make is how many questionnaires you are
going to complete. The general rules to follow here are similar to those for sampling, set out in the previous
section. Remember, if you have too few questionnaire results, you will not be able to draw valid conclusions. For
most types of study, 25 questionnaires is probably the minimum you would need to draw reasonable conclusions.
On the other hand it is unlikely you would have time for more than 100 unless you were collecting data
as part of a group.
 A good questionnaire (Figure 4.45):
• has a limited number of questions that take no more than a few minutes to answer
• is clearly set out so that the questioner can move quickly from one question to the next — people do
not like to be kept waiting; the careful use of tick boxes can help this objective
• is carefully worded so that the respondents are clear about the meaning of each question
• follows a logical sequence so that respondents can see ‘where the questionnaire is going’ — if a
questionnaire is too complicated and long-winded people may decide to stop halfway through
• avoids questions that are too personal
• begins with the quickest questions to answer and leaves the longer/more difficult questions to the end
• reminds the questioner to thank respondents for their cooperation.
The disadvantages of questionnaires are as follows:
• Many people will not want to cooperate for a variety of reasons. Some people will simply be too busy
while others may be uneasy about talking to strangers. Some people may be concerned about the possibility
of identity theft.
• Research has indicated that people do not always provide accurate answers in surveys. Some people
are tempted to give the answer that they think the questioner wants to hear or the answer they think shows
them in the best light.
As with other forms of data collection, it is advisable to carry out a brief pilot survey first. It could be that
some words or questions you find easy to understand cause problems for some people. Amending the
questionnaire in the light of the pilot survey before you begin the survey proper will make things go much more
smoothly.

Delivering the questionnaire

There are really three options here:
• Approach people in the street or in another public environment.
• Knock on people’s doors.
• Post questionnaires to people. With this approach you could either collect the questionnaire later or
enclose a stamped addressed envelope. This last method is costly and experience shows that response rates
are rarely above 30 per cent. Another disadvantage is that you will be unable to ask for clarification if some
responses are unclear.
If you are conducting a survey of shopping habits you may want to find out if there are significant
differences between males and females or between different age groups. In this case you would use a stratified
sample divided by gender and the percentage of population in each age group.
The time of day may also be important. In the example given above, very few people in some age groups may
be around at a certain time of day. For example, most teenagers will be in school or college at mid- morning on a
weekday.
 Figure 4.45 Two questionnaires, one good and one bad

Interviews
Interviews are more detailed interactions than questionnaires. They generally involve talking to a relatively
small number of people. A study of an industrial estate might involve interviews if you were trying to find out
why companies chose to locate on the estate. An interview is much more of a discussion than a questionnaire,
although you should still have a pre-planned question sheet. It can be a good idea to record interviews but you
should ask the interviewee’s permission first.

Health and safety and other restrictions

It may be sensible to work in pairs when conducting questionnaires as some people can act in an unfriendly
manner when approached in the street. Working in pairs can also speed the process up considerably, with one
person asking the questions and the other noting the answers. Also, be aware that shopping malls, individual
shops and other private premises may not allow you to conduct questionnaires without seeking permission
beforehand.
Activities
1 Design a questionnaire that might be used as part of an investigation into tourism in a
small resort.
2 Briefly outline a geographical investigation in your local area that could involve the use of
interviews.

Observations, counts and measurements

Field sketches
Personal observations or perceptions may form an important element of a coursework investigation. A field
sketch is a hand-drawn summary of an environment you are looking at. In both urban and rural environments
field sketching is a very useful way of recording the most important aspects of a landscape and noting the
relationships between elements of such landscapes. The action of stopping for a period of time to sketch the
landscape in front of you will often reveal details that may not have been immediately apparent.
Figure 4.46 is an example of a good field sketch. This sketch highlights the important geographical
features of the landscape. Key features should be clearly labelled but make sure that your sketch is not too
cluttered. This will detract from the really important details. A good field sketch will be viewed as a higher- level
technique by your coursework moderator.

Annotated photographs
Annotated photographs should be seen as complementing field sketches rather than just being an alternative
to them. Like field sketches, good, fully annotated photographs are regarded as a higher-level skill. Always
record the precise location and conditions of the photographs you take. This should include a grid reference, the
direction the photograph was taken in, weather conditions and time of day. Such information will make
annotation quicker and easier in the long run.
An annotated photograph shows your key perceptions about a location you have visited on fieldwork. A
series of such photographs might show:
• how the type and quality of housing varies in an inner city or suburban area
• how a river and its valley changes from source to mouth.
Annotations should be in the form of short, sharp sentences (Figure 4.47). Moderate abbreviation is fine
providing the meaning of the comment remains clear. Some annotations will be just descriptive, but where the
opportunity arises some explanation should also be included. Annotation can be most effective when the
photograph is placed on the page in landscape format, which will allow more space for annotations on all four
sides. As with field sketches, a series of annotated photographs could form a very effective part of your analysis.
You should look to correlate annotated photographs with the tables and graphs showing your data analysis.
Photographs are also useful to show how you carried out surveys and field measurements.

Figure 4.46 Example of a field sketch

 Figure 4.47 A river has overflowed its banks: example of an annotated photograph

Activities
1 a Draw a field sketch of an urban or rural environment within easy reach of your
school.
b Suggest why this location has geographical interest.
2 Annotate a photograph of a location of interest you have visited.

Recording tables
The most straightforward method of observation is noting whether a physical or human feature exists in an
area or not. Figure 4.48 is an example of a recording table showing park facilities. The objective here is to
compare the facilities in four parks before attempting to explain the differences between them. Recording is done
by placing a tick in the appropriate square. Notice that there is a final column to accommodate any unexpected
findings.

Figure 4.48 Example of a recording table showing park facilities

Scoring systems
Scoring systems are used in quality of life and other types of survey. Figure 4.49 is an example of a scoring
system used to study variations in environmental quality in different parts of a residential area. Figure 4.49a
shows that in this example ten local environmental factors are being observed. Figure 4.49b shows how the
scoring system works. Here a score of 5 is the maximum possible for the best environmental conditions. The
minimum score is 1. For each location the individual environmental scores are added together to achieve a total
environmental score. In this example, the lowest possible total score is 10, and the highest is 50. It can be useful
to practise the system in class using photographs before going out to conduct fieldwork.
 Figure 4.49 Example of an environmental scoring system

Tally charts
Counts of various kinds are an element of many geographical investigations. Figure 4.50 is an example of a
tally chart used to record visitor numbers at key locations in a park. The convention is to show counts in groups
of five, with the fifth count as a line drawn across the previous four counts.

Figure 4.50 Example of a tally chart

You will notice that Figure 4.50 does not give a time when the count took place or state how long counting
went on. In this example the number of visitors could vary significantly according to the time of day. It is
therefore very important to plan carefully for your counts so that when you have collected and presented your
data you can justify the conclusions you have drawn.

Pedestrian counts often form part of urban geography investigations. You could see how pedestrian counts
decline with distance from the centre of the CBD. Pedestrian counts could be conducted every 50 m or 100 m
from this point.
 Activities
1 Produce a recording table that could be used as part of a geographical investigation in
your local area.
2 Look at the scoring system shown in Figure 4.49. Discuss the merits and limitations of this
example.

Presentation and recording of results

A wide variety of graphical techniques can be used to present geographical data (see pages 284–291). The
skill is in choosing the best type of graph for the particular data set under consideration. Coursework marks can
be lost by the incorrect use of graphical techniques. You should also consider the size of any graph or diagram
you use. It is important that the labels of axes and all other information can be clearly read.
It is important to integrate all maps, graphs, photographs and diagrams with the text. The most elementary
way of doing this is to use a sentence such as ‘Figure X is a line graph showing temperature change in my
garden’.

Analysis and interpretation

Here you will analyse and interpret your findings on the issue/question/problem set out in the first section of
your investigation. This will be done with reference to relevant geographical concepts.
You need to describe the patterns in data presented in your graphs and tables of results.
• After each graph or technique, describe fully the results or trend or association (using simple
descriptive statistics). What do your results tell you? Describe your findings in detail by quoting the evidence
from your methods of analysis.
• Do the graphs and other techniques used help to answer the question set?
• Make comments to link the data. For example, show how one diagram, graph or map relates to others.
• Where relevant, consider the values and attitudes of people involved.

Making effective conclusions

Using the evidence from the data you should be able to make judgements on the validity of the original
hypothesis or aims of the assignment. Compare the results of the data analysis against standard models and
theories.
Link what you have discovered in your enquiry to what you have studied in the syllabus. For example, if you
have looked at shopping, have you talked about high-order and low-order shops, shopping hierarchies and other
relevant concepts? If your investigation is on leisure, have you linked this to the amount of leisure time people
have, spheres of influence of leisure centres, how accessible places are and other key aspects of the topic? These
things should be mentioned briefly in the first section of your assignment and need to be discussed now in
relation to your findings.
Having described your results, you need to explain and discuss them. Why have you arrived at such results?
Do they confirm (accept) or refute (reject) your hypotheses?

Evaluation and suggestions for further

work
Your investigation is likely to be slightly less than perfect, and you need to show the examiner that you are
aware of this. It is important to realise that you will not be marked down for showing an awareness of the
limitations of methods, results and conclusions.
There may be limits to where and when you could carry out a survey, or the number of people you could
interview. There may be constraints in terms of expense, in terms of the equipment you are able to use, or how
often you can visit the fieldwork location(s). The last item can also be due to a busy school timetable, which can
mean your time at a fieldwork location is limited. Investigations in physical geography may be hampered by
unexpected conditions. For example, river measurements may be affected by floods or a drought.
You need to make an assessment and state whether or not such limitations have impaired your investigation.
If they have, then your results are likely to be compromised, and so will any conclusions that you have drawn.
For example, a survey of tourists to Oxford on a Tuesday afternoon in April found that most people were
attracted to the university buildings and the colleges, and listed the poor weather as their main criticism. Had the
survey taken place in another kind of tourist destination, the attractions listed would have been very different.
Similarly, had the survey taken place in July or August the weather might not have been mentioned as a problem.
On the other hand, congestion due to too many tourists might have been mentioned. This example shows that the
methods (including the date and time of any survey) produce results that can affect our conclusions and, therefore,
your evaluation.
The final part of your evaluation can lead you to suggest future lines of enquiry from the insights you have
developed by following the route to geographical enquiry in your investigation.

Coursework assessment
Before you begin your coursework enquiry you should be aware of how your coursework will be assessed.
The mark scheme for the assessment of coursework is in the syllabus document. This is in the form of a matrix,
which shows what you need to do to meet each of the five assessment criteria.
Activities
1 What is the difference between analysis and interpretation?
2 Write an analysis and interpretation of the isoline pattern shown in Figure 4.35.
3 What might you include in the evaluation of your coursework?

Case studies
Analysing sand dunes

Figure 4.51 Sand dunes at Studland, Dorset, UK

Sand dunes provide an interesting and manageable ecosystem for study at IGCSE. This is because significant
changes can be identified over a relatively small area. In a sand dune system the most recently formed dunes are
by the sea. The dunes become older with distance inland. Sand dunes form a series of ridges with intervening
‘slacks’ between them.
A useful starting point is to survey the morphology (size and shape) of the dunes. Figure 4.52a shows how
measurements can be taken across a sand dune ecosystem using a tape measure and a clinometer. The transect
line should be at right-angles to the coast. The first ranging pole is carefully placed where there is a distinct break
in slope from the back of the beach, marking the beginning of the sand dunes. The second ranging pole is placed
at the next break of slope. The angle of slope is read from the clinometer. This process is repeated for each break
of slope. With about four people working as a team, all the measurements required to draw a cross- section of the
dunes (Figure 4.52b) can be taken in a couple of hours. If a larger group of people is available a number of
transects could be taken across the sand dunes. Transects could be compared and any differences discussed.
As the dune survey proceeds, other measurements can also be taken. At regular locations across the sand
dune system the following can be measured:
• vegetation cover, with the dominant plant species noted
• maximum height of vegetation
• wind speed
• soil moisture content
• soil organic content
 • soil pH.
Figure 4.52c provides an example of a recording sheet that could be used for such a survey. While the first
few readings might take a little time, once you become familiar with what is required the process should speed
up considerably.
All these measurements can be used to test the standard theories about sand dunes presented in textbooks,
which can be set out in a series of hypotheses to be tested:
• Vegetation density increases with distance inland.
• The number of species increases with distance inland.
• The height of vegetation increases with distance inland.
• Soil organic content increases with distance inland.
• Soil pH decreases with distance inland.
• Wind speed decreases with distance inland.

Figure 4.52 Conducting a survey of a sand dune ecosystem

Investigating rivers
Streams and small rivers are a popular focus for geographical investigation because most schools will not be
too far from a suitable example. Figure 4.53 shows some of the measurements that can be taken at various
locations along the course of a river. For safety reasons it is best to avoid working in streams above the height of
your knees.
For most river studies you will want to produce a cross-section of the river channel. The method is as follows:
• Use a tape measure to assess the channel width. This should be done at right-angles to the course of
the river. If you want to produce a cross-section of the river when discharge is at its highest you should look
for evidence of the highest point the water reaches on each bank. This will give the bankfull width.
 Figure 4.53 Taking river measurements

Figure 4.54 A river cross-section

• Channel depth should be measured at regular intervals across the river using a metre stick or ranging
pole. Every 20 cm or 30 cm should provide an adequate sampling interval.
• A cross-section can then be drawn using graph paper (Figure 4.54). As with all cross-sections, careful
choice of scale is important.
Although various types of float can be used to measure river velocity, it is best to use a flow meter. The
impeller (screw device) is pointed upstream at the same points across the river used to calculate the depth
intervals. You will be able to see how velocity varies with distance from the banks and how velocity varies with
depth. You could also calculate the mean flow rate for this stage of the river.
The discharge of the river can be calculated by multiplying the velocity by the cross-sectional area (Figure
4.54). The gradient of a river can be measured using ranging poles and a clinometer, in the same way that sand
dune measurements were carried out in the previous example.
Bedload measurements can also be taken to assess the impact of attrition with increasing distance
downstream. Ensure that the samples of bedload are selected randomly by a ranging pole or metre stick at
intervals across the river. Collect the stones that are touching the pole or stick. Measure the long axis, shape and
radius of curvature of each stone.
As in the sand dune case study, a series of hypotheses based on textbook theory can be set up to be tested.

Command words
The table gives examples of command words but it is not an exhaustive list of those that may appear in
examinations.

Command word What it means

Define or State the Give the meaning or definition of a word or phrase.
meaning of or What is
meant by
Describe Write what something is like or where it is. Describe may
be used for questions about resources in the question
paper (describe the trend of a graph, the location of a
settlement on a map etc.). It may also be used when you
need to describe something from memory (describe a
meander etc.).
It is often used with other command words, for
example Name and describe (name the feature and say
what it is like) or Describe and explain (say what it is like
and give reasons for this).
Devise or Plan Present a particular feature, such as a form or
questionnaire, to meet a specific requirement or
requirements.
Draw Make a sketch of. Often used with a labelled diagram
(draw a diagram/illustration with written notes to identify
its features).
Explain or Account for Write about why something occurs or happens.
or Give reasons for
Give your views or Say what you think about something.
Comment on
How far do you agree Use evidence to make judgements about a statement.
Identify Pick out something from information you have been
given.
Illustrate your answer Account for your answer by using specific examples or
diagrams. (Often used alongside/with a labelled
diagram.)
Insert or Label Add specific names or details to an illustrative technique
in response to a particular/requirement.
Justify Say why you chose something or why you think in a
certain way.
List Identify and name a number of features to meet a
particular purpose.
Locate Find where something is placed or state where
something is found or mark it on a map or diagram.
Measure Implies that the quantity concerned can be directly
obtained from a suitable measuring instrument.
Name State or specify or identify. To give the word or words by
which a specific feature is known.
Predict Use your own knowledge and understanding, probably
with information provided, to state what might happen
next.
Refer to or With Write an answer that uses some of the ideas provided in
reference to a map/ photograph/diagram etc. or other additional
material, such as a case study.
State Set down in brief detail. To refer to an aspect of a
particular feature by a short statement or by words or by
a single word.
Study Look carefully at (usually one of the figures in the
question paper).
Suggest Set down your ideas on or knowledge of. Often used
with why (requires a statement or an explanatory
statement referring to a particular feature or features).
To what extent Make judgements based on evidence.
Use or Using the Base your answer on the information.
information provided
With the help of Write an answer which uses some of the information
information in provided as well as additional material.
What differences are Use comparative statements to describe the changes
shown between A and involved as A changes to B. Separate factual
B descriptions of A and B are not required.

Glossary
Abrasion (or corrasion) A type of erosion in which rock fragments carried by waves or a river scrape
and grind away a surface such as a cliff face.
Accessibility The ease with which a place can be reached. An area with high accessibility will generally
have a well-developed transport network and be centrally located.
Active volcano A volcano currently showing signs of activity.
Afforestation Planting of trees in areas that have not previously held forests. Trees may be planted to
increase interception by vegetation, to bind soil together and to reduce overland runoff and thus soil erosion.
Age-specific mortality rate Mortality rate for a specific age or age range, for example the infant
mortality rate or child mortality rate.
Agricultural technology The application of techniques to control the growth and harvesting of animal
and vegetable products.
Air pressure The pressure at any point on the Earth’s surface that is due to the weight of the air above it;
it decreases as altitude increases. At sea level the average pressure is 1013 millibars (mb). Areas of relatively
high pressure are called anticyclones; areas of low pressure are called depressions.
Altitude Measurement of height, usually given in metres above sea level. Temperature declines, on
average, 1°C for every 100 m (and therefore rises 1°C with every decrease in altitude of 100 m).
Anti-natalist policies Policies that aim to reduce population growth.
Aquifer A rock that allows water to move through it, such as a layer of sandstone. The aquifer must occur
above a layer of rock that prevents the water seeping away, such as clay.
Arable farms The cultivation of crops; there is no involvement with livestock.
Arch A natural bridge-like feature formed by erosion. Arches are formed from the erosion of a headland
where two caves meet and break through the headland.
Arid Arid areas are usually defined as areas that receive less than 250 mm of rainfall each year.
Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material.
Aspect The direction in which something faces.
Attrition The process by which particles of rock being transported by a river or the sea are rounded and
become smaller in size by being struck against one another. Particles become smaller and more rounded as the
distance downstream in a river increases. Particles near the shoreline become smaller and more rounded due to
more frequent attrition.
Backwash The movement of water back down the beach due to the effect of gravity.
Bar A depositional feature — a long ridge of sand or pebbles running parallel to a coastline that is
submerged at high tide. Some bars develop as offshore bars when waves disturb sediments on the sea bed and
form them into a submarine ridge or bar, while others form from the development of a spit across the whole of
a small bay.
Bay A wide, open, curving indentation of the sea.
Beach A feature of coastal deposition, consisting of pebbles on exposed coasts or sand on sheltered coasts.
It is usually defined by the high and low water marks.
Bid rent A model that states that land value and rent decrease as distance from the central business district
increases.
Biodiversity Biological diversity — a measure of the variety of the Earth’s plant and animal species, of
genetic differences within species, and of the ecosystems that support those species.
Biofuel Any fuel produced from organic (once living) matter, either directly from plants or indirectly
from industrial, commercial, domestic or agricultural wastes. These fossil fuel substitutes can be made from a
range of crops, including oilseeds, wheat and sugar.
Birth rate The number of live births per thousand population in a year.
Braided channel The subdivision of a river into several channels caused by deposition of sediment as
small islands in the main channel. Braided channels are common in glacial meltwater streams.
Brand A distinguished name and/or symbol intended to identify a product or producer.
Brown Agenda The range of environmental problems associated with large cities.
Brownfield site A site that has previously been used but has become derelict. It must be made safe so
that housing can be built on it.
By-product Something left over from the main production process that has some value and can therefore
be sold.
Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a specified amount of greenhouse gases.
Carbon trading When a company that does not use up the level of emissions it is entitled to can sell the
remainder of its entitlement to another company.
Carrying capacity The largest population that the resources of a given environment can support.
Cave Coastal caves are large holes formed where relatively soft rock containing lines of weakness is
exposed to severe wave action.
Central business district (CBD) The part of a town or city where most of the commercial activity is
found.
Chamber The reservoir of magma located deep inside a volcano.
Cinders Small rocks and other coarse volcanic materials.
Cliff A rock-face along a coastline, where coastal erosion, weathering and mass movements are active and
the slope rises steeply (over 45°) and for some distance. The nature of the cliff depends on the nature of the
rocks, their hardness and their jointing pattern.
Climate The combination of weather conditions at a particular place over a period of time — usually a
minimum of 30 years. Climate thus includes the averages, extremes and frequencies of all meteorological
elements such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, wind, humidity and sunshine.
Cloud Water vapour condensed into minute water particles that float in the atmosphere. Clouds are
formed by the cooling of air containing water vapour, which generally condenses around tiny dust or ice
particles.
Coastal management strategies Measures taken to prevent coastal erosion and/or flooding. To
reduce erosion, several different forms of coastal protection are used. These can be divided into hard
engineering and soft engineering.
Coastline The area of contact between land and sea.
Collision boundary A plate boundary where two plates are converging. These include destructive
boundaries, where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, and collision boundaries, where the two plates
are both continental plates.
Commercial farming Farming for profit, where food is produced for sale in the market.
Communications systems The ways in which information is transmitted from place to place in the
form of ideas, instructions and images.
Community energy Energy produced close to the point of consumption.
Community tourism A form of tourism that aims to include and benefit local communities, particularly
in developing countries.
Commuter A person who travels into a large town or city for work but lives in a different settlement.
The term also applies to a person who travels to work from the suburbs to the centre of a large urban area.
Concentric model (Burgess) A model of urban land where different activities occur at different
distances from the urban centre. The result is a sequence of concentric circles or rings.
Cone volcano Steep volcano formed of sticky (viscous) acidic lava, ash and cinders.
Confluence The point at which two rivers meet.
Conservation Allowing for developments that do not damage the character of a location.
Conservation of resources The management of the human use of natural resources to provide the
maximum benefit to current generations while maintaining capacity to meet the needs of future generations.
Conservative plate boundary (or transform plate boundary) Where two plates slide past one
another without loss of material.
Constructive plate boundary A plate boundary where new material is being formed by the upwelling
of magma from within the Earth’s interior.
Constructive wave A wave with a long wavelength and a low height. Constructive waves help to build
up beaches by deposition.
Consumer culture The equating of personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material
possessions.
Convectional rainfall Rainfall associated with hot climates, resulting from the rising of convection
currents of warm air. Air that has been warmed by the extreme heating of the ground surface rises to great
heights and is cooled quickly. The water vapour carried by the air condenses and rain falls heavily.
Convectional rainfall is usually associated with thunderstorms.
Coral Living organisms that may form large reefs. Coral reefs provide a habitat for a wide diversity of
living organisms.
Counterurbanisation The process of population decentralisation as people move from large urban areas
to smaller urban settlements and rural areas.
Crater Depression at the top of a volcano following a volcanic eruption. It may contain a lake.
Cross-profile The cross-section of a river valley.
Cruciform settlement A settlement at an intersection of roads that usually consists of lines of buildings
radiating out from the intersection.
Cultural diffusion The process of the spreading of cultural traits from one place to another.
Cumulative causation The process whereby a significant increase in economic growth can lead to even
more growth as more money circulates in the economy.
Dam Structure built to hold back water in order to prevent flooding, to provide water for irrigation and
storage, and to provide hydroelectric power.
Death rate The number of deaths per thousand population in a year.
Decentralisation The movement of people or industry away from the centre of the city to the suburbs or
the edge of town.
Decimal A number between two whole numbers, e.g. 4.2.
Deforestation Destruction of forest for timber, fuel, charcoal burning and clearing for agriculture and
extractive industries, such as mining. It causes fertile soil to be blown away or washed into rivers, leading to
soil erosion, drought, flooding and loss of wildlife.
Delta A landform formed when a river, heavily laden with sediment, enters a body of standing water, such
as a lake or a sea, with negligible currents. The lack of velocity in the lake or sea causes the river to deposit its
load.
Demographers People who study human populations.
Demographic divide The difference between countries where population growth remains high and those
with very slow-growing, stagnant or declining populations.
Demographic momentum Although the global population growth rate has been declining for decades,
the number of people added each year remains very high because there are currently so many women in the
child-bearing age range.
Demographic transition model A model illustrating the historical shift of birth and death rates from
high to low levels in a population.
Densely populated Having a high population density.
Dependency ratio The ratio of the number of people under 15 and over 64 years to those in the 15–64
age group.
Depopulation A decline in the number of people in a population.
Deposition The laying down of material carried by rivers or the sea because of a reduction of velocity or
discharge (both causing a loss of energy), often caused by increased friction with vegetation or coarse particles.
Deprivation A condition in which a population group suffers from a poor quality of economic, social and
environmental conditions.
 Desalination The process of removing salt from seawater so that it can be used for human consumption
or for irrigation.
Desert A dry area with limited vegetation. Deserts can be either hot or cold. Characteristics common to
all deserts include irregular rainfall of less than 250 mm per year.
Desertification The gradual transformation of habitable land into desert.
Destination footprint The environmental impact caused by an individual tourist on holiday in a
particular destination.
Destructive plate boundary Plate boundary where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate. The
oceanic plate is more dense than the continental plate, so it sinks below the continental crust.
Destructive wave A wave with a high height and a short wavelength, which helps erode beach materials
and cliffs.
Development The use of resources to improve the quality of life in a country.
Development gap The differences in wealth, and other indicators, between the world’s richest and
poorest countries.
Diffusion The spread of a phenomenon over time and space.
Direct proportion In mathematical terms, a direct proportion exists between two values when one is a
multiple of the other, e.g. 1 cm = 10 mm.
Discharge The volume of water passing a certain point per unit of time. It is usually expressed in cubic
metres per second (cumecs).
Dispersed settlement A settlement pattern in which most of the houses are scattered in the countryside
rather than being concentrated in towns and villages.
Dormant volcano A volcano that has not erupted for a very long time but could erupt again.
Dormitory (commuter) settlement A settlement that has a high proportion of commuters in its
population.
Drainage basin The area of land drained by a river system (a river and its tributaries).
Drought An extended period of dry weather leading to conditions of extreme dryness. Absolute drought is
a period of at least 15 consecutive days with less than 0.2 mm of rainfall. Partial drought is a period of at least
29 consecutive days during which the average daily rainfall does not exceed 0.2 mm.
Dry point site An area free from flooding in an otherwise wet region, for example a hilltop site
surrounded by a marsh.
Dust storm A severe windstorm that sweeps clouds of dust across an extensive area, especially in an arid
region.
Earthquake A sudden movement of the Earth’s crust.
Economic leakage The part of the money a tourist pays for a foreign holiday that does not benefit the
destination country because it goes elsewhere.
Economic water scarcity When a population does not have the necessary monetary means to utilise an
adequate source of water.
Economies of scale The reduction in unit cost as the scale of an operation increases.
Ecosystem An integrated unit consisting of a community of living organisms (animals and plants) and
the physical environment (air, soil, water and climate) that they inhabit. Individual organisms interact with
each other and with their habitat.
Ecotourism A specialised form of tourism where people experience relatively untouched natural
environments such as coral reefs, tropical forests and remote mountain areas, and ensure that their presence
does no further damage to these environments.
Emigration rate The number of emigrants per thousand population leaving a country of origin in a year.
Energy ladder The transition from fuelwood and animal dung to ‘higher-level’ sources of energy, such
as electricity, as part of the process of economic development.
Energy mix The relative contribution of different energy sources to a country’s energy consumption.
Enhanced greenhouse effect Global warming caused by large-scale pollution of the atmosphere by
economic activities.
Environmental impact statement A document required by law detailing all the impacts on the
environment of a construction project above a certain size.
Epicentre The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. The strength of the
shockwaves generally decreases away from the epicentre.
Erosion Wearing away of the Earth’s surface by a moving agent, such as a river, glacier or the sea. In a
river, there are several processes of erosion, including hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution. In
coastal areas, hydraulic action is the most potent form of erosion.
Evaporation The process in which a liquid turns to a vapour.
Evapotranspiration The combined water losses of evaporation and transpiration.
 Extensive farming Where a relatively small amount of agricultural produce is obtained per hectare of
land, so such farms tend to cover large areas of land. Inputs per unit of land are low.
Externalities The side-effects — positive and negative — of an economic activity that are experienced
beyond its site.
Extinct volcano A volcano that has shown no signs of volcanic activity in historic times.
Fetch The distance of open water over which wind can blow to create waves. The greater the fetch the
more potential power waves have when they hit the coast.
Flood A discharge great enough to cause a body of water to overflow its channel and submerge (flood) the
surrounding area.
Floodplain An area of periodic flooding along the course of a river valley. When river discharge exceeds
the capacity of the channel, water rises over the channel banks and floods the adjacent low-lying lands.
Focus The position within the Earth where an earthquake occurs. Earthquakes can be divided into
shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes, depending on how far below the surface they occur.
Food energy efficiency Producing food with the least possible use of energy. For example, the
efficiency of food production can be improved by reducing the number of levels in the food production chain.
An obvious example is eating and producing less meat.
Footloose industry An industry that is not tied to a certain area because of energy requirements or other
factors.
Form The shape of a settlement, mainly influenced by its physical geography and topography.
Formal sector That part of an economy known to the government department responsible for taxation,
and to other government offices.
Fossil fuel A fuel comprising hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas), formed by the decomposition of
prehistoric organisms in past geological periods.
Fraction Part of a whole — for example, of Borneo’s rainforest has been deforested.
Function A classification of settlements based on their socio-economic functions, for example market
towns, commuter towns and ports.
Gabion A wire basket filled with rocks or stones used for stabilising slopes and protecting the base of
cliffs in areas of coastal erosion.
Gentrification The movement of higher social or economic groups into an area after it has been
renovated and restored. This may result in the out-migration of the people who previously occupied the area. It
most commonly occurs in the inner city.
Geothermal energy The natural heat found in the Earth’s crust in the form of steam, hot water and hot
rock.
Gini coefficient A technique used to show the extent of income inequality.
Global city A city that is judged to be a significant nodal point in the global economic system. Global
cities are major financial and decision-making centres.
Global civil society All organisations or individuals, independent from the state, who aim to improve
society through communal efforts at a national or international level.
Globalisation The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world economically,
culturally and politically.
Gorge A narrow, steep-sided valley that may or may not have a river at the bottom. A gorge may be
formed as a waterfall retreats upstream.
Greenfield site An area of agricultural land or some other undeveloped site that is a potential location for
commercial development or industrial projects but has not yet been developed. Such sites are normally on the
edge of towns and have good transport links.
Green Revolution The development of high-yielding varieties of seed and modern agricultural
techniques in developing countries.
Green village A village that consists of dwellings and other buildings, such as a church, clustered around
a small village green or common, or other open space.
Gross national product The total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year, plus
income earned by the country’s residents from foreign investments and minus income earned within the
domestic economy by overseas residents.
Gross national product per capita The total GNP of a country divided by the total population.
Groundwater Water stored underground in a permeable rock, e.g. chalk or sandstone.
Growth pole A particular location where economic development is focused, setting off wider growth in
the region as a whole.
Groyne Wooden or concrete barrier built at right angles to a beach in order to block the movement of
material along the beach by longshore drift.
Hamlet A small rural settlement that is more than just an isolated dwelling but not large enough to be a
village. Typically it has 11–100 people. In the UK, it may have a church and a pub, but very little else.
Hard engineering Any coastal (or river) protection scheme that involves altering the natural
environment with concrete, stone, steel, metal etc., for example the use of sea walls, gabions, groynes and
revetments. Artificial structures are built in order to protect the natural environment from erosion.
Headland A point of land projecting into the sea, also known as a cape or a promontory.
Hierarchy The organisation and structure of settlement based on size and the number of functions that a
settlement has. At the top of the hierarchy are cities and conurbations. At the base are individual farmsteads
and hamlets.
High-order goods/services/functions Expensive services and goods (comparison goods) such as
electrical goods and furniture, that the shopper will buy only after making a comparison between various
models and different shops.
Hotspot A relatively small area of the Earth where magma rises through a continental or oceanic plate. As
the plate moves across the hotspot a chain of volcanoes may form, e.g. the Canary Islands and the Hawaiian
Islands.
Human development index (HDI) The United Nations measure of the disparities between countries
using life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years, expected years of schooling
for children of school entering age, and GNI per capita (PPP$).
Humidity The quantity of water vapour in a given volume of air (absolute humidity), or the ratio of the
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere to the maximum amount the air can hold (relative humidity). At
dew point the relative humidity is 100 per cent and the air is said to be saturated. Condensation (the conversion
of vapour to liquid) may then occur.
Hurricane (tropical cyclone) A region of very low atmospheric pressure in tropical regions. Hurricanes
originate in latitudes between 5° and 20° north or south of the equator, when the surface temperature
of the ocean is above 27°C. A central calm area, called the eye, is surrounded by inwardly spiralling winds
(anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere) of up to 320 km/hr.
Hydraulic action The erosive force exerted by water alone. It is particularly effective on jointed rocks,
especially during storm conditions.
Hydrological cycle The water cycle, by which water is circulated between the Earth’s surface and its
atmosphere.
Hypermarket A very large self-service store selling a wide range of household and other goods, usually
on the outskirts of a town or city.
Immigration rate The number of immigrants per thousand population entering a receiving country in a
year.
Incidental pollution A one-off pollution incident.
Industrial agglomeration The clustering together of economic activities.
Industrial estate An area zoned and planned for the purpose of industrial development.
Infant mortality rate The number of deaths of children under 1 year of age per thousand live births per
year.
Infiltration The movement of water into the soil. The rate at which water enters the soil (the infiltration
rate) depends on the intensity of rainfall, the permeability of the soil, and the extent to which it is already
saturated with water.
Informal sector That part of the economy operating outside official recognition.
Inner city The area that surrounds the central business district of a town or city. In many cities this is one
of the older industrial areas and may suffer from decay and neglect, leading to social problems. Inner cities are
characterised by poor-quality terraced housing with old manufacturing industry nearby.
Inputs The elements that are required for processes to take place, such as raw materials, labour, energy
and capital. For example, a farm requires a range of inputs, such as labour and energy, before anything else can
happen.
Intensive farming Agriculture characterised by high inputs per unit of land to achieve high yields per
hectare.
Interception The precipitation that is collected and stored by vegetation.
Internally displaced people People forced to flee their homes due to human or environmental factors,
but who remain in the same country.
Internet A group of protocols by which computers communicate.

Inverse proportion In mathematical terms, an inverse proportion exists when one value increases at the
same rate as another decreases, i.e.
Involuntary (forced) migration When people are made to move against their will due to human or
environmental factors.
 Irrigation Supplying dry land with water by systems of ditches and also by more advanced means.
Knick-point An indent or abrupt change in the smooth, concave long profile of a river. A knick-point
usually marks the location of a waterfall.
Lagoon A coastal body of shallow, salt water, usually with limited access to the sea. The term is normally
used to describe the shallow sea area cut off by a coral reef or a bar.
Landfill A site at which refuse is buried under layers of earth.
Land tenure The ways in which land is or can be owned.
Lava Molten magma that has reached the Earth’s surface. It may be liquid or may have solidified.
Least developed countries (LDCs) The poorest of the developing countries. They have major
economic, institutional and human resource problems.
Levée A raised bank found along the side of a river channel.
Life expectancy at birth The average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live under
current mortality levels.
Linear settlement Housing that has grown up along a route such as a road. Many settlements show this
pattern, since roads offer improved access to employment centres.
Load Material transported by a river. It includes material carried on and in the water (suspended load),
material carried in solution (soluble load) and material bounced or rolled along the riverbed (bedload).
Long profile The cross-section of a river from its source to its mouth.
Longshore drift The movement of material along a beach by wave action. When a wave breaks
obliquely (at an angle to the beach), pebbles are carried up the beach in the direction of the wave (swash). The
wave returns to the sea (backwash) at right-angles to the beach (direction of steepest slope), carrying material
with it.
Loss of sovereignty This results from the ceding of national autonomy to other organisations.
Low-order goods/services/functions Items or services that are purchased/required frequently
(convenience goods), such as milk or bread. People are not prepared to travel far to buy such items.
Magma Molten rock within the Earth. When magma reaches the surface it is called lava.
Malnutrition Weakness and poor health caused by not eating enough food or from eating food without
the necessary nutrients.
Managed retreat When the coastline is allowed to retreat (erode) in certain areas where the population
density or the value of land is low, so that nature takes its course.
Mangroves Salt-tolerant forests of trees and shrubs that grow in the tidal estuaries and coastal zones of
tropical areas.
Mass media A section of the media specifically designed to reach a large audience. The term was coined
in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio networks, and mass-circulation newspapers and magazines.
Mass migration A large-scale migration between a particular origin and a particular destination.
Maximum-minimum thermometer A thermometer that shows both the maximum temperature in a
given time period and the minimum temperature in the same time period. Also known as Six’s thermometer.
Mean In mathematical terms, this is a type of average. It is found by totalling (Σ) the values for all
observations (Σx) and then dividing by the total number of observations
Meander A shaped curve in a river that is flowing sinuously across relatively flat country.
Median In mathematical terms, this is the middle value when all the data are placed in either ascending or
descending order.
Megacity A city with more than 10 million inhabitants.
Megalopolis The term used to describe an area where many conurbations exist in relatively close
proximity.
Mercalli scale A scale of earthquake intensity based on descriptive data.
Microgeneration Using generators that produce electricity with an output of less than 50 kW.
Migration The movement of people across a specified boundary — national or international — to
establish a new permanent place of residence.
Millionaire city A city with more than 1 million inhabitants.
Mixed farming Cultivating crops and keeping livestock together on a farm.
Mode In mathematical terms, this refers to the group/value that occurs most often in a set of figures. A
pattern that has two peaks (or two modes) is called bimodal, whereas a pattern with one peak is unimodal.
Monsoon rain The rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern of rainfall.
Mouth The point where a river enters the sea or a lake.
Multiplier effect The idea that an initial amount of spending or investment causes money to circulate in
the economy, bringing a series of economic benefits over time.
Natural hazard A natural event that puts people, property and livelihoods at risk.
Natural vegetation The vegetation type that would be found in an area if there was no human impact.
For example, the natural vegetation of the British Isles is oak woodland, as that is the species best able to
tolerate the temperate climate of that part of the world.
Negative index In mathematical terms, negative indices are powers that have a minus sign, e.g.

Newly industrialised country (NIC) A nation that has undergone rapid and successful industrialisation
since the 1960s.
Nucleated settlement A settlement in which houses and other buildings are tightly clustered around a
central feature such as a church, village green or crossroads.
Optimum population The best balance between a population and the resources available to it. This is
usually viewed as the population giving the highest average living standards in a country.
Organic farming Agriculture that does not use manufactured chemicals such as chemical fertilisers,
pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
Out-of-town location A location found on the edge of town (often a greenfield site) where land prices
are lower, land is available for development, and accessibility for private cars is high.
Outputs Finished products that are sold to customers or consumed, for example what a farm produces,
such as milk, eggs, meat and crops.
Overgrazing The grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity.
Overland flow Overland movement of water after rainfall.
Overpopulation When there are too many people in an area relative to the resources and the level of
technology available.
Oxbow lake A curved lake found on the floodplain of a river. Oxbows are caused by the loops of
meanders being cut off at times of flood and the river subsequently adopting a shorter course.
Package tour The most popular form of foreign holiday where travel, accommodation and meals may all
be included in the price and booked in advance.
Padi-fields Flooded parcels of land used for growing rice.
Pastoral farming The rearing of livestock, such as dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep and pigs.
Percentage A number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100 (%).
Physical water scarcity When physical access to water is limited.
Plantation A large farm or estate where one crop is produced commercially, such as palm oil in Malaysia
or tea in Sri Lanka. Plantations are usually owned by large companies, often multinational corporations. Many
plantations were established in countries under colonial rule, using slave labour.
Plunge pool A deep pool at the bottom of a waterfall. It is formed by the hydraulic action of the water
and abrasion by the more resistant rock.
Pollution Contamination of the environment. It can take many forms, for example air, water, soil, noise
and visual.
Population density The average number of people per square kilometre in a country or region.
Population distribution The way that the population is spread out over a given area, from a small
region to the Earth as a whole.
Population explosion The rapid population growth of the developing world in the post-1950 period.
Population policy Encompasses all of the measures taken by a government aimed at influencing
population size, growth, distribution or composition.
Population pyramid A bar chart, arranged vertically, that shows the distribution of a population by age
and gender.
Population structure The composition of a population, the most important elements of which are age
and sex (gender).
Positive index In mathematical terms, a positive index is a power value that is positive, e.g. 22 = 2 × 2
= 4, or 33 = 3 × 3 ×3 = 27.
Potable water Water that is free from impurities, pollution and bacteria, and is thus safe to drink.
Pothole A small hollow in the rock bed of a river. Potholes are formed by the erosive action of rocky
material carried by the river (abrasion), and are commonly found along the river’s upper course, where it tends
to flow directly over solid bedrock.
Precipitation Water that falls to the Earth from the atmosphere. It is part of the hydrological cycle.
Forms of precipitation include rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew and frost.
Preservation Maintaining a location exactly as it is and not allowing development.
Prevailing wind The direction from which the wind most commonly blows in a region. In the British
Isles, for example, the prevailing wind is southwesterly, blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, and bringing moist
and mild conditions.
Primary product dependent When a country relies on one or a small number of primary products for
most of its export earnings.
Primary sector Industries that exploit raw materials from land, water and air.
Pro-natalist policies Policies that promote larger families.
Pro-poor tourism Tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor people.
Processes The operations that take place on a farm, such as ploughing and harvesting, or the industrial
activities that take place in a factory to make the finished product.
Product chain The full sequence of activities needed to turn raw materials into a finished product.
Product stewardship An approach to environmental protection in which manufacturers, retailers and
consumers are encouraged or required to assume responsibility for reducing a product’s impact on the
environment.
Programme food aid Food that is provided directly to the government of a country for sale in local
markets. This usually comes with conditions from the donor country.
Project food aid Food that is targeted at specific groups of people as part of longer-term development
work.
Purchasing power parity Income data that have been adjusted to take account of differences in the cost
of living between countries.
Push and pull factors Push factors are negative conditions at the point of origin that encourage or force
people to move. In contrast, pull factors are positive conditions at the point of destination that
encourage people to migrate.
Pyroclastic flow Superhot (700°C) flows of ash, pumice (volcanic rocks) and steam moving at speeds of
over 500 km/hr.
Quaternary sector Industries using high technology to provide information and expertise.
Quota Agreement between countries to take only a predetermined amount of a resource.
Rainfall A form of precipitation in which drops of water fall to the Earth’s surface from clouds. The drops
are formed by the accumulation of fine droplets that condense from water vapour in the air. The condensation
is usually brought about by rising and subsequent cooling of air.
Rain gauge An instrument used to measure precipitation, usually rain. It consists of an open-topped
cylinder, inside which there is a close-fitting funnel that directs the rain to a collecting bottle inside a second,
inner cylinder.
Ranching A commercial form of pastoral farming which involves extensive use of large areas of land for
grazing cattle or sheep. Ranches may be very large, especially where the soil quality is poor. In the Amazon
basin some deforested areas are used for beef cattle ranching.
Range The distance that people are prepared to travel to obtain a good or service.
Range In mathematical terms, this is the difference between the highest and lowest values. For example,
in a set of data, if the highest value is 8 and the lowest value is 1, then the range is 8 − 1 = 7.
Rate of natural change The difference between the birth rate and the death rate. If it is positive it is
termed natural increase. If it is negative it is known as natural decrease.
Rate of net migration The difference between the rates of immigration and emigration.
Ratio In mathematical terms, a ratio is a method of comparing relative size or proportions.
Rationing A last-resort management strategy when demand is massively out of proportion to supply.
For example, individuals might only be allowed a very small amount of fuel and food per week.
Re-use Extending the life of a product beyond what was the norm in the past, or putting a product to a
new use and extending its life in this way.
Recycling The concentration of used or waste materials, their reprocessing, and their subsequent use in
place of new materials.
Refugees People forced to flee their homes due to human or environmental factors and who cross an
international border into another country.
Relief food aid Food that is delivered directly to people in times of crisis.
Remittances Money sent by migrants back to their families in their home communities.
Renewable energy Sources of energy, such as solar and wind power, that are not depleted as they are
used.
Representative fraction On a map, the representative fraction is expressed as, for example, 1/50,000
— no units are given as they could be cm, m, km etc.
Resource management The control of the exploitation and use of resources in relation to
environmental and economic costs.
Revetment A form of hard engineering in which the energy of the waves is absorbed by wooden planks
or reflected by concrete structures.
Ria A drowned V-shaped valley and its tributaries.
Richter scale An open-ended scale to record the magnitude of earthquakes: the higher the number on the
scale the greater the strength of the earthquake.
River cliff A steep slope forming the outer bank of a meander. It is formed by the undercutting of the
river current, which is at its fastest when it sweeps around the outside of the meander.
Robotics technology Technology associated with the design, construction and operation of robots in
automation.
Rural depopulation Population decline in a rural area. It is usually the most isolated rural areas that
are affected.
Rural-to-urban migration The movement of significant numbers of people from the countryside to
towns and cities.
Rural-urban fringe The boundary area of a town or city, where new building is changing land use from
rural to urban. It is often a zone of planning conflict.
Saltation The bouncing of rock particles along a riverbed. It is the means by which bedload (material that
is too heavy to be carried in suspension) is transported downstream.
Sand dune A mound or ridge of wind-drifted sand common on coasts and in deserts. In coastal areas,
sand is trapped by vegetation, notably sea couch grass and marram grass, to form stable dunes.
Sea level An average level of the sea, between high water mark and low water mark.
Secondary sector Industries that manufacture primary materials into finished products.
Sector model (Hoyt) A model of urban land use in which the various land use zones are shaped like
wedges radiating from the central business district.
Shanty town Unplanned, illegal shelters constructed from cheap or waste materials (such as cardboard,
wood and cloth). Shanty towns are commonly located on the outskirts of cities in developing countries, or
within large cities on derelict land or near rubbish tips.
Shield volcano A gentle, low-angled volcano formed of runny, basaltic lava, e.g. Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
The lava is capable of flowing long distances before cooling.
Shifting cultivation A farming system in which farmers move on from one place to another when the
land becomes exhausted. The most common form is slash-and-burn agriculture: land is cleared by burning, so
that crops can be grown. After a few years soil fertility is reduced and the land is abandoned. A new area is
cleared while the old land recovers its fertility.
Significant figures In mathematical terms, these are the numbers that give some meaning to the
measurement/size of a feature.
Site The immediate area in which a settlement is located.
Situation The relative location in which a settlement is found.
Slum An area of poor-quality housing. Slums are typically found in parts of the inner city in developed
countries and in older parts of cities in developing countries. Slum housing is usually densely populated, in a
poor state of repair, and has inadequate services.
Social norms The general attitudes of a population to important issues such as family size, contraception,
religion, politics etc.
Soft engineering Any form of coastal (or river) protection that involves the use of natural means, e.g.
sand dunes, saltmarshes, tree planting and/or beach replenishment.
Soil The outermost layer of the Earth’s solid surface, consisting of weathered rock, air, water and decaying
organic matter overlying the bedrock. Soil comprises minerals, organic matter (called humus) derived from
decomposed plants and organisms, living organisms, air and water.
Soil erosion The wearing away and redistribution of the Earth’s soil. It is caused by the action of water,
wind and ice, and also by unsustainable methods of agriculture.
Solution (or corrosion) The process by which the minerals in a rock, notably calcium ions, are
dissolved in acid water. Solution is one of the processes of erosion.
Sparsely populated Describing an area with a low population density.
Sphere of influence The specific area served by a settlement for a variety of functions such as
education, healthcare, shopping and recreation.
Spit A ridge of sand or shingle connected to the land at one end and the open sea at the other end. It is
formed by the interruption of longshore drift due to wave refraction, river currents, secondary winds and/or
changes in the shape of the coastline.
Spring line settlement A line of settlements in an area where water emerges in a series of springs.
Stack An isolated, upstanding pillar of rock that has become separated from a headland by coastal erosion.
It is usually formed by the collapse of an arch.
Standard notation In mathematical terms, this is the number that we would normally write, e.g. 567.
Stevenson screen A box designed to house weather-measuring instruments, such as thermometers. It is
kept off the ground by legs, has louvred sides to encourage the free passage of air, and is painted white to
reflect heat radiation.
 Stump An eroded stack that is exposed only at low tide.
Subduction zone The area where one tectonic plate slides beneath another, a process known as
subduction. One plate (usually a dense oceanic plate) plunges underneath a less dense continental plate. As it
sinks, it melts and is destroyed, forming magma, which in turn may reach the surface through volcanic activity.
Subsidy Financial aid supplied by the government to an industry for reasons of public welfare.
Subsistence farming The most basic form of agriculture, where the produce is consumed entirely or
mainly by the family that works the land or tends the livestock. If a small surplus is produced it may be sold or
traded.
Suburb Outer part of an urban area. Suburbs generally consist of residential housing and shops of a low
order (newsagent, small supermarket). Often, suburbs represent the most recent growth of an urban area. Their
growth may result in urban sprawl.
Supervolcano a volcano with a volcanic explosive index (VEI) of 8 or more.
Suspension The movement of fine-grained material, such as clay and silt, in a river by turbulent flow.
Sustainable development A carefully calculated system of resource management that ensures that the
current level of exploitation does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable tourism Tourism organised in such a way that its level can be sustained in the future
without creating irreparable environmental, social and economic damage to the receiving area.
Sustained pollution Long-term pollution.
Swash The movement of material up the beach in the direction of the prevailing wind.
System A situation in which there are recognisable inputs, processes and outputs.
Terrace A levelled section of a hilly cultivated area.
Tertiary sector The part of the economy that provides services to businesses and to people.
Thermal expansion An increase in water volume due to temperature increase.
Threshold The minimum number of people necessary before a particular good or service will be
provided in an area.
Tombolo A bar that links an island to the mainland.
Total fertility rate The average number of children a women has during her lifetime.
Tourist-generating countries Countries from which many people take holidays abroad.
Toxic Poisonous. Toxicity is a measure of the degree to which something is poisonous.
Traction The movement of large-sized materials in a riverbed by rolling.
Transnational corporation (TNC) A firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one
country through foreign direct investment (FDI).
Transpiration The loss of water from a plant by evaporation.
Transport systems The means by which materials, products and people are transferred from place to
place.
Tributary A stream or river that joins a larger river.
Tropical rainforest Dense forest usually found on or near the equator where the climate is hot and wet.
The vegetation in tropical rainforests typically includes a canopy formed by high branches of tall trees
providing shade for lower layers, an intermediate layer of shorter trees and tree roots, lianas, and a ground
cover of mosses and ferns.
Tsunami A large and unusual wave in the water generated by a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption
or landslide.
Underemployment A situation where people are working less than they would like to and need to in
order to earn a reasonable living.
Underpopulation When there are too few people in an area to use the resources available effectively.
Urbanisation The process by which the proportion of a population living in or around towns and cities
increases through migration and natural increase.
Urbanisation of poverty The gradual shift of global poverty from rural to urban areas with increasing
urbanisation.
Urban land use A simplified model of the land use (such as industry, housing and commercial activity)
that may be found in towns and cities.
Urban renewal An urban area where existing buildings are either renovated or demolished and rebuilt.
Urban sprawl Outward spread of built-up areas caused by their expansion. Unchecked urban sprawl may
join cities into conurbations.
V-shaped valley A river valley with a V-shaped cross-section. These valleys are usually found near the
source of a river, where the steeper gradient means that there is a great deal of abrasion along the stream bed,
and there is more vertical erosion than lateral (sideways) erosion.
Vent The channel through which volcanic material is ejected.
Village A small assemblage of houses; smaller than a town and larger than a hamlet.
 Volcano A cone-shaped mountain formed by material (magma, ash and cinders) erupted from below the
Earth’s surface.
Voluntary migration When the individual has a free choice about whether to migrate or not.
Waste product A product of a manufacturing industry that has no value and must be disposed of.
Costs are incurred in the disposal of waste products.
Waterfall A cascade of water in a river or stream. It occurs when the river flows over a bed of rock that
resists erosion. Weaker rocks downstream are worn away, creating a steep, vertical drop and a plunge pool into
which the water falls.
Water scarcity When water supply falls below 1000 m3 per person per year — the country faces water
scarcity for all or part of that year.
Watershed A ridge or other line of separation between two river basins or drainage systems.
Water stress When water supply in a country is below 1700 m3 per person per year.
Water supply The volume of clean (potable) water available for a community or region.
Wave Circular or elliptical movement of water near the surface of the sea.
Wave-cut platform A gently sloping rock surface found at the base of a coastal cliff. It is covered by
water at high tide but is exposed at low tide. It is formed by the erosion (by waves) of a former cliff face.
Wave refraction The way in which a wave changes shape and loses speed as it comes into contact with
the sea bed. If refraction is complete, waves break parallel to the coastline. If refraction is not complete,
longshore drift occurs.
Weather Day-to-day variation of atmospheric and climatic conditions at any one place over a short period
of time. Such conditions include humidity, precipitation, temperature, cloud cover, visibility and wind,
together with extreme phenomena such as storms and blizzards. Weather differs from climate in that the latter
is a composite of the average weather conditions of a locality or region over a long period of time (at least 30
years).
Wet point site A settlement with a reliable supply of water in an otherwise dry area.
Xerophyte A plant adapted to live in dry conditions. Common adaptations include a reduction in leaf size,
leaf hairs to trap a layer of moist air, water storage cells, sunken stomata and permanently rolled leaves or
leaves that roll up in dry weather (as in marram grass).

Photo credits
Andrew Davis: p.163
Chris Guinness: p.10, p.241, p.252 all, p.258.
Paul Guinness: p.7, p.9, p.12, p.15, p.17, p.20, p.22, p.23, p.25, p.29, p.35 all; p.37, p.38, p.39 top and
centre, p.40, p.172, p.176, p.178, p.180, p.181 all, p.183 c, p.186, p.188 all, p.194, p.195 all, p.196, p.197 all,
p.201, p.203, p.205, p.206, p.209, p.212, p.213, p.214, p.215, p.216 all, p.217 all, p.221 all, p.224, p.227 all,
p.228, p.231, p.235, p.236, p.244, p.247, p.249 all, p.250, p.257 all, p.259, p.292, p.302.
Garrett Nagle: p.39 bl, p.41, p.42, p.43 all, p.44 all, p.48, p.51, p.53 all, p.56 all, p.57, p.58, p.59, p.64, p.65
bottom, p.66, p.67 left, p.69 left, p.70, p.73 all, p.76 all, p.78 all, p.80, p.82, p.90, p.95 all, p.96, p.98 all, p.99,
p.101, p.103 all, p.104, p.107, p.116, p.117, p.118, p.119, p.123 all, p.126 all, p.129, p.132, p.133 all,
p.135 tl, cl, bl, p.137, p.138 all, p.139 all, p.142 bc &br, p.144 all, p.147 all, p.149, p.150, p. 151, p.152, p.153
l, p.156, p.160 all, p.161 all, p.165 tl, p.184 tl, p.265, p.266, p.268, p.274 all, p.277, p.280, p.281.
Other photos reproduced by permission of: p.iv NASA/NOAA/GOES Project; p.1 filipefrazao/Fotolia;
p.2 Newscom/Alamy Stock Photo; p.11 169169/Fotolia; p.15 Mamunur Rashid/Alamy Stock Photo; p.27 Aurora
Photos/Alamy Stock Photo; p.33 Antony Souter/Alamy Stock Photo; p.34 kalafoto/Fotolia; p.36 Michael
DeFreitas North America/Alamy Stock Photo; p.54 cr Laura Wenz; p.55 Africa Media Online/Alamy Stock
Photo; p.65 c Newscom/Alamy Stock Photo; p.67 r jryanc10/Fotolia; p.69 cr & br Cheong Gy Cheon Museum;
p.75 Novarc Images/Alamy Stock Photo; p.89 ANAMARA/Fotolia; p.91 alswart/Fotolia; p.135 tr & cr Achill
Tourist Board, p.136 Luis Marden/National Geographic/Getty Images; p.142 l PJF Military Collection/Alamy
Stock Photo; p.148 Andrey Popov/Fotolia; p.153 r jasonbatterham/Fotolia; p.165 bl Wayne Lynch/All Canada
Photos/Corbis; p.165 br Hagit Berkovich/Fotolia; p.171 Condor 36/Fotolia; p.183 br chagpg/Fotolia; p.184 bl
Hoda Bogdan/Fotolia; p.193 Jaguar Land Rover Ltd; p.199 Sergi Reboredo/Alamy Stock Photo; p.202 US Air
Force Photo/Alamy Stock Photo; p.209 S. Forster/Alamy Stock Photo; p.211 weerasak/Fotolia; p.220 Konstantin
Kulikov/Fotolia; p.226 Greg Randles/Fotolia; p.230 jerdad/Fotolia; p.238 Armin Hering/Fotolia; p.239 Phillip
Augustavo/Alamy Stock Photo; p.253 James p. Blair/National Geographic/Getty Images; p.254 adrian
arbib/Alamy Stock Photo; p.299 Chinch Gryniewicz/Ecoscene.
t = top, b = bottom, l = left, r = right, c = centre

Acknowledgements
 Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the
Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
p.v world map: © 2014 mapsofworld.com p.3 Figure 1.3: World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision,
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publisher; p.7 Table 4: World Population Data Sheet, 2016 (United Nations/Population Reference Bureau),
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2016 (United Nations/Population Reference Bureau); Figure 1.26: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 3101.0 -
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K. Spencer, Advanced Geography: Revision Handbook (Oxford University Press, 1996), reprinted by
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International Migration Report 2015, UN; p.26 Figure 1.40: International Migration Report 2015, UN, Figure
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University Press, 2000), copyright © Garrett Nagle 2000, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press;
p.41 Figure 1.62: G. Nagle, Geography Homework Pack for Key Stage 3 (Heinemann, 2000), reproduced by
permission of Pearson Education; p.42 Figure 1.65: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography (Through Diagrams)
(Oxford University Press, 1998), copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University
Press; p.44 Figure 1.68: P. Guinness and G. Nagle, AS Geography: Concepts and Cases (Hodder Murray, 2000);
p.46 Figure 1.70: Government of Jamaica/National Land Agency/ Survey Department; p.49 Figure 1.73: G.
Nagle, Thinking Geography (Hodder Murray, 2000); p.52 Figure 1.76: S. Warn, Managing Change in Human
Environments (Philip Allan Updates, 2001); p.54 Figure 1.78: CC-BY- SA-3.0,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2009Blikkiesdorp.JPG. Released under the GNU Free Documentation License,
Figure 1.79: Juta’s General School Atlas (Juta Gariep); pp.60, 61, 62 Figure 1.86:
www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/landusefacts.landusefactmaps.html (New York City/Department of City Planning);
p.63 Figure 1.87: Young-Han Park et.al., Atlas of Seoul (Sung Ji Mun Hwa Co. Ltd, 2000); p.68 Figure 1.95: The
Economist, 27 July, 2013, Figure 1.96: Federal Reserve economic database,
http://acchartfacts.blogspot.co.uk/2010/03/local-charts.html, © 2009 Chartfacts, www.chartfacts.com; p.74
Figure 1.103: GeoFactsheets, 121, reprinted by permission of Curriculum Press, www.curriculum-press.co.uk;
p.84 Figure 1.114: Carl Haub and Toshiko Kaneda, 2013 Population Data Sheet (United Nations/Population
Reference Bureau), Figure 1.115: http://esa.un.org/unmigration/wallchart2013.htm, Figure 1.16: 2012 World
Population Data Sheet (United States Census Bureau/Population Estimates Program); p.85 Figure 1.17:
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/downloads/maps/grump-v1/grump (NASA), Figure 1.118:
http://www.indexmundi.com/facts/bangladesh/populationdensity; p.86 Figure 1.120: Map HM50CL - Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region (Map Publications Centre, Hong Kong/Survey & Mapping Office/Lands
Department), © 2011; p.91 Figure 2.2: GeoFactsheets, 121, reprinted by permission of Curriculum Press,
www.curriculum-press.co.uk; p.96 Figure 2.4: Philip’s Certificate Atlas for the Caribbean, 5th Edition (George
Philip Maps, 2004); p.100 Figure 2.14: G. Nagle, Focus Geography: Hazards (Nelson Thornes, 1998), copyright
© Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.102 Figure 2.17: Directorate of
Overseas Surveys/Department for International Development, © Crown copyright; p.106 Figure 2.23:
http://reliefweb.int/map/nepal/nepal-april-2015-earthquake-estimated-affected-areas-25th-april- 2015; p.107
Figure 2.25: G. Nagle, AS & A2 Geography for Edexcel B (Oxford University Press, 2003), copyright © Garrett
Nagle 2003, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.111 Figure 2.30: Van Dijk, M. and SJ van
Vuuren, ‘Destratification induced by bubble plumes as a means to reduce evaporation from open impoundments’
(Scielo, Vo. 35, No. 2, January 2009); p.112 Figure 2.33: P. Guinness and G. Nagle, AS Geography: Concepts
and Cases (Hodder Murray, 2000); p.113 Figure 2.34: P Guinness and G. Nagle, Advanced Geography:
Concepts and Cases (Hodder & Stoughton, 2002); p.115 Figure 2.37: G. Nagle, Rivers and Water Management
(Hodder Arnold, 2003); p.116 Figure 2.40: (Government of Canada/Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth
Observation/Natural Resources Canada), © Crown copyright; p.118 Figure 2.44b: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE
Geography (Through Diagrams) (Oxford University Press, 1998), copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by
permission of Oxford University Press; p.120 Figure 2.47: IGN map Provence-Alpes- Cote d’Azure 2013, © IGN
France 2012, reproduced by permission of Institut National de L’information Geographique et Forestiere; p.131
Figure 2.60: G. Nagle, AS & A2 Geography for Edexcel B (Oxford University Press, 2003) copyright © Garrett
Nagle 2003, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.132 Figure 2.61 G. Nagle, ORG GCSE
Geography (Through Diagrams) (Oxford University Press, 1998) copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by
permission of Oxford University Press, Figure 2.62: Republic of South Africa/Department of Land
Affairs/Surveys and Mapping, Figure 2.63: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography (Through Diagrams) (Oxford
University Press, 1998), copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press;
p.136 Figure 2.71: P. Guinness and G. Nagle, AS Geography: Concepts and Cases (Hodder Murray, 2000);
p.138 Figure 2.73: adapted from S. Warn and C. Roberts, Coral Reefs: Ecosystem in Crisis? (Field Studies
Council, 2001); p.143 Figure 2.79: www.channelnewsasia.com; p.150 Figure 2.87: G. Nagle, Weatherfile GCSE
(Nelson Thornes, 2000), copyright © Garrett Nagle 2000, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press;
p.154 Figure 2.94: G. Nagle, Weatherfile GCSE (Nelson Thornes, 2000), copyright © Garrett Nagle 2000,
reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press; p.161 Figure 2.101: G. Nagle, ORG GCSE Geography
(Through Diagrams) (Oxford University Press, 1998), copyright © Garrett Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission
of Oxford University Press;
p.169 Figure 2.109: www.newtopo.co.nz, April, 2013, © NewTopo, reprinted by permission of Geoff Aitken;
p.173 Figure 3.3: CIA World Factbook, Table 3.1: 2016, CIA World Factbook; p.174 Table 3.2: World
Population Data Sheet, 2016 (United Nations/Population Reference Bureau); p.175 Figure 3.4:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/; p.176 Figure 3.7: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns
and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission;
p.178 Figure 3.8: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University
Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; p.179 Figure 3.10:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009-1.png, Figure 3.11:
https://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/china/income; p.180 Figure 3.12: P. Guinness, Geography
for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press
2010, reprinted with permission, Figure 3.13: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change
(Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission;
p.182 Figure 3.17: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University
Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission, Figure 3.18: P. Guinness,
Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge
University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; p.185 Table 3.5: CIA World Factbook; p.187 Table 3.8: P.
Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 2011), ©
Cambridge University Press 2011, reprinted with permission; p.188 Figure 3.27: G. Nagle and P. Guinness,
Cambridge International A and AS Level Geography (Philip Allan Updates, 2011); p.189 Figure 3.29:
www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/worlds-biggest-economies, Figure 3.30: Oxford Economics, Deloitte
Services LP economic analysis; p.190 Figure 3.31: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global
Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 2011), © Cambridge University Press 2011, reprinted with
permission; p.191 Figure 3.32: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global Interactions (Cambridge
University Press, 2011), © Cambridge University Press 2011, reprinted with permission; p.192 Table 3.10: P.
Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Global Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 2011), ©
Cambridge University Press 2011, reprinted with permission; p.195 Figure 3.37: D. Waugh, Geography: An
Integrated Approach, 1st Edition (Nelson Thornes, 1990); p.197 Figure 3.11: ‘The Water Crisis: A Matter of
Life and Death’, Understanding Global Issues; p.199 Figure 3.42: D. Waugh, The New Wider World, 3rd Edition
(Nelson Thornes, 2003), Figure 3.43: D. Waugh, The New Wider World, 3rd Edition (Nelson Thornes, 2003);
p.202 Figure 3.47: GeoFactsheet, 185, reprinted by permission of Curriculum Press, www.curriculum-
press.co.uk; p.205 Figure 3.51: D. Waugh, The New Wider World, 3rd Edition (Nelson Thornes, 2003); p.209
Figure 3.53: (CE Info Systems), © 2008; p.211 Figure 3.56:
http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Tourism/ Tourism%20growth/Tourism%20Growth.htm; p.213
Figure 3.58: http://mkt.unwto.org/webform/contact-tourism-trends-and-marketingstrategies-unwto (UN/World
Tourism Organization; Tourism Highlights, 2013 Edition), Figure 3.59: (UN/World Tourism Organization,
UNWTO); p.214 Figure 3.61: (Global Insight: Tourism Satellite Accounting); p.218 Figure 3.70:
GeoFactsheet, 201, reprinted by permission of Curriculum Press, www.curriculum-press.co.uk; p.219 Figure
3.71: Jane Dove et.al., OCR AS Geography (Heinemann Educational, 2008), reproduced by permission of
Pearson Education; p.222 Figure 3.75: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017, Figure 3.76: BP Statistical
Review of World Energy, 2017; p.223 Figure 3.77: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2013, Figure
3.79: Emily Badger, ‘Where a billion people live without electricity’, www.theatlanticcities.com;
p.226 Figure 3.81: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017; p.232 Figure 3.88: Alternative Water Supply
and Management Methods (Government of Alberta/Environment and Sustainable Resource Development);
p.234 Figure 3.90: Alternative Water Supply and Management Methods (Government of Alberta/Environment
and Sustainable Resource Development), Figure 3.91: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and
Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission;
p.235 Figure 3.93: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University
Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission; P. Guinness, Geography for the IB
Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010,
reprinted with permission; p.241 Figure 3.99: P. Byrne et.al., Edexcel A2 Geography (Philip Allan Updates);
p.242 Figure 3.20: (Environmental Protection Agency); p.245 Figure 3.102: (DEFRA), © Crown Copyright;
p.248 Figure 3.106: M. Raw, OCR A2 Geography (Philip Allan Updates, 2009); p.251: Figure 3.110: P.
Guinness, Geography for the IB Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ©
Cambridge University Press 2010, reprinted with permission, Figure 3.111: P. Guinness, Geography for the IB
Diploma: Patterns and Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), © Cambridge University Press 2010,
reprinted with permission; p.254 Figure 3.115: www.great- barrierreef.biz/Images/100050.gif; p.256 Figure
3.118: J. Hill, W. Woodland, R. Hill, Geography Review, May, 2007; p.260 Figure 3.123: Financial Times, 4
February, 2003; p.261 Figure 3.124: Emily Badger, http://www.theatlanticcities.com/jobs-
andeconomy/2013/06/where-billion-people-still live-without- electricity/5807/; p.262 Figure 3.24: P. Guinness
and B. Walpole, Environmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma (Cambridge University Press, 2012), ©
Cambridge University Press 2012, reprinted with permission; p.263 Figure 3.127: (UN/World Tourism
Organization; Tourism Highlights, 2013 Edition), Figure 3.128: http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/Current-and-
Future-Generation/Nuclear-Power-in-the-World- Today/; p.264 Figure 3.129: http://water.org/water-crisis/one-
billion-affected/, Figure 3.130: P. Guinness and
B. Walpole, Environmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma (Cambridge University Press, 2012), ©
Cambridge University Press 2012, reprinted with permission, Figure 3.131: P. Guinness and B. Walpole,
Environmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma (Cambridge University Press, 2012), © Cambridge
University Press 2012, reprinted with permission; p.267 Figure 4.2: (Directorate of Overseas Surveys/
Department for International Development), © Crown copyright; p.268 Figure 4.4: Tabacco sheet 06,
www.tabaccoeditrice.com; p.269 Figure 4.6: © Crown Copyright; p.270 Figure 4.7: www.ign.fr, reproduced by
permission of Institut National de L’information Geographique et Forestiere; p.271 Figure 4.9: G. Nagle and K.
Spencer, Geographical Enquiries (Stanley Thornes, 1997); p.272 Figure 4.10: www.itmb.com, reproduced by
permission of ITMB Publishing; p.273 Figure 4.11: www.itmb.com, reproduced by permission of ITMB
Publishing; p. 276 Figure 4.14: www.theAA.com/travel, © KOMPASS-Karten Gmbh; p.278 Figure 4.16:
(Government of Canada/Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth Observation/Natural Resources Canada),
© Crown copyright; p.279 Figure 4.17: (Map Publications Centre, Hong Kong/Survey & Mapping Office/Lands
Department), © 2011; p.282 Figure 4.22: © Crown copyright 2017 OS; p.285 Figure 4.26:
Korea Statistical Yearbook 2000; p.286 Figure 4.28: B. Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques and Projects
in Geography (Collins Educational, 2001); p.288 Figure 4.32: B. Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques
and Projects in Geography (Collins Educational; p.289 Figure 4.35: Wideworld, November 2002 (Philip Allan
Updates, 2002); p.297 Figure 4.45: B. Lenon and P. Cleves, Fieldwork Techniques and Projects in Geography
(Collins Educational, 2001); p.303 Figure 4.52: Wideworld, September 2002 (Philip Allan Updates, 2002);
p.304 Figure 4.54: David Holmes and Sue Warn, Fieldwork Investigations: a self-study guide (Hodder Education,
2003), Figure 4.54: David Holmes and Sue Warn, Fieldwork Investigations: a self-study guide (Hodder
Education, 2003).
Permission for re-use of all Crown copyright information is granted under the terms of the Open
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Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Index
A
abrasion 113, 117, 131
accessibility 41
Achill beach 135
acid deposition 246–248
acid rain 246, 247, 260
active volcanoes 91
adult literacy 173–174
afforestation 122
Afghanistan 21
age-specific mortality rate 6
agricultural systems 194–196, 253
agricultural technology 198
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) 8, 10
air pollution 64, 66, 69, 77, 82, 242–245, 260
air pressure 149, 152, 159
air traffic 245
Akosombo Dam, Ghana 131
Alaska 99
albedo values 110
alternative energy sources 225–229
altitude 158
Amin, Idi 21
Amnesty International 24
anemometers 149, 150, 152, 153
aneroid barometers 152
animals 160, 165
annotated photographs 280–281, 298, 299
Antarctica 34, 36, 249
Antigua 96, 134, 135, 138
anti-natalist policies 16, 17–18
aquifers 112, 233, 236
Arabat spit 135
arable farms 195, 253
arches 132
area sampling 294
Argentina 253
arid areas 110
artesian wells 233
ash 90, 91, 97
aspect of settlement 40
assembly industries 206
assessment vi, 302
Aswan Dam 127
Atbara river 127, 128
atoll reefs 137, 138
attrition 113, 131
Australia 13, 15–16, 254
Axe, River 115

B
backshore 133
backwash 129, 130
Bangalore 209–210
Bangladesh
floods 122, 125, 126
food production 199–200
population 14–15, 16, 30, 31, 32
 settlements 41
Barbados 73
Barber, Benjamin 191
bar charts 286
barographs 152
barometers 149, 152
Barra da Tijuca, Brazil 59, 75
barrier reefs 137, 138, 249, 254
bars 133, 134
bays 130, 132–133
beaches 133, 134, 145
Bellandur Lake, India 65
benzene 243, 244, 246
Bhopal accident 77, 245, 246
bid rent 48, 49
bimodal patterns 282
biodiversity 159
biofuels 161, 227, 229, 236
birth rate
definition 4
population dynamics 4–6, 9, 11–13
population policy 16–17
population structure 30, 31
urbanisation 70
world population increase 3
Blikkiesdorp, Cape Town 55
Boeing 207
boreholes 233
Brahmaputra river 122
braided channels 119
brain-drain effect 25, 70
brands 187, 191
Brazil
deforestation 162
development gap 177
inequalities 182–183
population 23, 36
settlements 42, 59, 76
urbanisation 74–75, 79
breakwaters 144, 145
Brown Agenda 77
brownfield sites 66
Brunei 53, 59
building design 100–102
Bulgaria 13
Burgess’s concentric model 49
by-products 205

C
Cairo 41, 157
California 238, 239
Canada 13, 36–37, 41, 197
Cape Peninsula, South Africa 132, 135
Cape Town 54–55, 73
capital-intensive industries 206
carbon credits 258
carbon dioxide 243, 244, 248, 249
carbon trading 258
Caribbean 70, 96, 97, 102–104, 147
carrying capacity 109, 122, 125, 251
Castries 78
caves 132
Central Arizona Project (CAP) 239
central business district (CBD) 49, 50–51, 52
chamber (of volcano) 90
channelisation 124
charcoal 223
Cheong Gye Cheon River 69
Chernobyl accident 21, 225, 245, 246
China
case studies 80–83, 229, 259–260
floods 122
globalisation 189
Harbin accident 246
inequalities 179
pollution 64, 244, 259–260
population 4, 14, 17–18, 22–23
Three Gorges Dam 123, 230
urbanisation 70, 71
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 243, 248
choropleth maps 290
Christchurch earthquakes 104–105
cinders 97
circular (radial) graphs 289
cities
central business district 50–51
industrial areas 55–56
residential zones 51
settlement hierarchy 43, 44
transport routes 56
urbanisation 71, 76, 78
urban land use 48–50
clean coal technology 229
cliffs 132, 145
climate 156–167
definition 156
end-of-theme questions 170
equatorial and hot desert climates 156–157
factors affecting 157–159
hot deserts 164–167
tropical rainforests 159–163
climate change 26, 236, 250
Cloke’s model of rural change 42
clouds 154, 158
cloud seeding 233–234
coal 221, 222, 229, 247
coastal management strategies 144, 145–146
coastline 139
coasts 129–148
bars and spits 134–136
beaches 133–134
case studies 140, 143–144, 146, 148
coastal development 147
coastal flooding 83
coastal hazards and opportunities 139–144
coastal management 144–146
deposition 133–139
describing coastal scenery 273–274
end-of-theme questions 169
landscapes of erosion 131–133
marine processes 129–131
tourism 147
collision boundaries 94, 95, 96
Colorado River 239
command words 305
commercial farming 195
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 198, 255
Common Fisheries Policy 255
communications systems 187
community energy 259
community tourism 220
commuter (dormitory) settlements 44
compass points 266, 267
composite (cone) volcanoes 90, 91
compound bar charts 286
compound line graphs 285
concentrating solar power (CSP) systems 228, 229
concentric model (Burgess) 49
cone volcanoes 90, 91
confluence 109
conservation 218
conservation of resources 256, 257–259
conservative plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
constructive plate boundaries 94–95, 96
constructive waves 129, 130
consumer culture 187
contour lines 267, 268, 270, 271
convectional rainfall 110, 156
convergent (collision) boundaries 94, 95, 96
convergent (destructive) plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
Cook, Thomas 212
coral 137, 138, 254
coral reefs 137–138, 139, 148
core-frame concept 51, 52
corrasion 113
corrosion 113
counterurbanisation 23
coursework 292–304
analysis and interpretation 301
assessment vi, 302
collection, selection and collation of data 293–300
defining the objectives of study 293
evaluation and suggestions for further work 301–302
identification of issue, question or problem 292–293
making effective conclusions 301
presentation and recording of results 301
crater (of volcano) 90, 91
cross-profiles 114
cross-sections 270, 271, 303–304
cruciform settlements 40
Cuba 73
cultural diffusion 190, 191
cumulative causation 35, 179, 180
Curituba, Brazil 79, 80
Cuyahoga River 65
cyclones 14, 143–144
cyclonic rainfall 110
D
daily (diurnal) temperature range 150, 151
dams 113, 232
hydroelectric power 225
longshore drift 131
managing floods 122, 123, 125–128
water supply 232–233
Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) 163
data collection 293–300
death rate
definition 4
population dynamics 3–6, 7–9, 11–13
population policy 17
population structure 30, 31
urbanisation 70
Death Valley 166–167
decentralisation 23, 75, 82
decimals 283
deep-focus earthquakes 91
deforestation
definition 122, 251
Pearl River delta 260
soil erosion 251, 252
tropical rainforests 161–163
deltas 119, 120–121
demographers 2
demographic divide 9, 10
demographic momentum 3
demographic transition model 5, 6, 30
densely populated areas 13, 34, 36–37
dependency ratio 10, 25, 32, 33
depopulation 12, 23
deposition
acid deposition 246–248
beaches 133–134
coasts 133–139
coral reefs 137–138
definition 107
mangroves 139
rivers 107, 114, 118, 119
sand dunes 136–137
deprivation 14
desalination 77, 233
desertification 252
deserts see hot deserts
desire-line diagrams 288
destination footprint 217
destructive plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
destructive waves 129, 130
Detroit 67–68
development 172–193
definition 172
employment structure 184–186
end-of-theme questions 261
global impacts of globalisation 189–191
globalisation 186–189
indicators 172–176
inequalities between countries 176–178
inequalities within countries 179–183
 measures of national income 172–173
production by economic sectors 183–184
Tata Group case study 193
development gap 173, 177–178, 181
Dhaka, Bangladesh 14, 15, 71
Dharavi slum, Mumbai 66, 73
diffusion 187
direct hazards 98
direction (compass points) 266
direct proportion 283
disaster aid 125
discharge (of river) 107, 108, 113
dispersed settlements 38, 39, 42
dispersion diagrams 288
divergent (constructive) plate boundaries 94–95, 96
dormant volcanoes 91
dormitory (commuter) settlements 44
drainage basins 109, 110–113
drought 164
dry deposition 246, 247
dry point sites 40 Dubai
148
dust storms 252

E
earthquakes
building design 100–102
case studies 104–105, 106
causes of 96–97
dealing with 100
definition 91
distribution of 92–93
end-of-theme questions 168
hazards and impacts 98–99
intensity scales 91–92
migration 21
plate tectonics 93–95
Earth, structure of 93, 94
economic core region 180, 181, 182
economic development development
172–193
end-of-theme questions 261–264
energy 221–230
environmental risks 241–260
food production 194–204
industry 205–210
overview 171
tourism 211–220
water 231–240
economic leakages 215
economic sectors 183–184
economic water scarcity 235
economies of scale 198, 208
ecosystems 160
ecotourism 217, 220, 256
Ecuador 218
edge towns/cities 59
education 7, 10, 12, 173–174, 182
Egypt 21, 126–128
 Eldfell volcano, Iceland 92
electricity access 223
El Niño/La Niña events 128, 249
emigration 4, 5, 25
emigration rate 5
employment 181, 184–186
energy 221–230
China case study 229–230
end-of-theme questions 263
non-renewable and renewable energy 221–224 nuclear
power benefits and disadvantages 224–225 renewable
energy benefits and disadvantages 225–229 energy
efficiency 258–259
energy ladder 223
energy mix 221
enhanced global warming 248–250
enhanced greenhouse effect 248
environmental impact statements 148, 255
environmental risks 241–260
acid deposition 246–248
China’s Pearl River delta 259–260
end-of-theme questions 264
enhanced global warming 248–250
example environments under threat 253–254
globalisation 190
Great Barrier Reef 254
Niger delta and oil 253
Pampas of Argentina 253
pollution 241–246
resource conservation 256–259
soil erosion and desertification 250–253 sustainable
development and management 254–256 threat to
natural environment 241–248
urbanisation 77, 78
epicentre 91, 99
equatorial climate 156
erosion
coasts 130, 131–133, 140
definition 107
rivers 107, 113, 114–115
Ethiopia 128
Etna, Mt 100
European Union 191, 255
evaporation 110
evapotranspiration (EVT) 109, 110, 111, 113, 235
extensive farming 196
externalities 243, 244
extinct volcanoes 91

F
famine 17, 201–202
farming
agricultural systems 194–196
natural and human inputs 196–200
favelas 74–75
Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) 28
female literacy 7, 174
fertility 3, 6–8, 16, 18–19, 30–31
fetch 129
 field capacity 112
field sketches 297–298
fieldwork 293
fish stocks 255
flexible industries 206
floodplains 114, 118
flood relief channels 125
floods
Bangladesh 14
causes 121
definition 114
managing impact 122–128
migration 21
river hazards and opportunities 121–122
Shanghai 83
flow-line diagrams 287
focus (of earthquake) 91
food aid 202–203
food energy efficiency 204
food production 194–204
agricultural systems 194–196
case studies 199–200, 201–202
development 183, 184
end-of-theme questions 262
food shortages 200–204
natural and human inputs 196–200
soil degradation 253
soil erosion 253
footloose industries 206
forced migration 21, 22, 252
foreshore 133
forests 234, 247 see also rainforests
formal sector 181
form of settlement 39
fossil fuels 221, 225
fractions 283
France 18–19, 45
Friends of the Earth 203
fringing reefs 137, 138
fuelwood 223–224
Fuji, Mt 98
function of settlement 275

G
gabions 144, 145
Gambia 33
Ganges river 122, 199–200
gender ratio 18
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 215
gentrification 54, 55
geographical investigations 292–304
analysis and interpretation 301
collection, selection and collation of data 293–300
defining the objectives of study 293
evaluation and suggestions for further work 301–302
identification of issue, question or problem 292–293
making effective conclusions 301
presentation and recording of results 301
geographical skills 266–291
coastal landforms 273–274
cross-sections 270
describing river landscapes 270–273
direction 266
grid/square references 266
overview 265
relief and gradient 267–268
rural settlements 274–277
scale 266
sketch maps and annotated photographs 280–281
urban settlements 277–279
volcanic landscapes 274
geothermal energy 227, 228
Geysir, Iceland 98
Gini coefficient 179, 180
glaciers 249
global cities 190
global civil society 191
global economy 186, 189
globalisation
definition 186
development 186–189
global impacts 189–191
local impacts 191, 192–193
national impacts 191
global population 2–3, 22
global tourism 211, 212, 213, 217
global urban uniformity 190
global warming 248–250
global water crisis 231–234
GNP see gross national product
Gongju-Yongi, South Korea 76
gorges 114, 115, 117
gradient 113, 267–268, 270
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) 128
graphical techniques 284–291
bar charts 286
choropleth maps 290
dispersion diagrams 288
flow-line diagrams 287
histograms 286
isoline diagrams 289
kite diagrams 287
line graphs 284–285
pictograms 284
pie charts 285–286
proportional circles 290
radial (circular) graphs 289
ray diagrams 288
scatter graphs 289–290
semantic differential profiles 288
triangular graphs 290–291
Great Barrier Reef 137, 138, 249, 254
greenfield sites 55, 66, 208
greenhouse gases 225, 243, 248, 249, 253, 258
Green Revolution 203, 204
green villages 40
grey water 234, 237
grid references 266
 Gross National Income (GNI) 31 gross
national product (GNP) 172, 173 gross
national product per capita 173
groundwater 109, 112, 113, 233, 236
group bar charts 286
growth pole 214
groynes 130, 144, 145
Gulf Stream 249

H
Haiti 21, 101, 102, 104
hamlets 39, 42, 43, 44
Harbin accident 246
hard engineering 122, 123, 144, 145
Hawaii 90
hazards see natural hazards
headlands 130
Heathrow airport 245
heavy industry 205, 206 HEP
see hydroelectric power
hierarchy of settlements 42, 43–44
High Aswan Dam 126, 127
high-order goods/services/functions 43
high-technology industry 206, 209–210
Himalayas 122, 126
histograms 286
Hong Kong 48, 86
hot deserts
climate and vegetation 157, 161, 164–167
definition 164
desertification 252
water 233, 238
hotspots 90, 93
housing issues 65, 69, 73–74, 101–102, 126
Hoyt’s sector model 49–50
Human Development Index (HDI) 15, 16, 174, 175–176
Human Development Report 175
humidity 110, 149, 152
hurricanes 141, 142–144, 146
hydraulic action 113, 117, 131
hydraulic radius 108
hydroelectric power (HEP) 221, 222, 225, 229, 230, 232
hydrological cycle 109
hygrometer 150
hypermarkets 57
hypotheses 292, 293

I
ice caps 249
Iceland 98, 227
immigration 4–5, 13, 16, 25, 28
immigration rate 5
incidental pollution 245
India
air pollution 64
Bangalore high technology 209–210
Bhopal accident 77, 245, 246
earthquakes 102
floods 121
 food production 199–200, 203
globalisation 189, 193
population dynamics 4, 14
population policy 16–17
urbanisation 71
indirect hazards 98
Indonesia 101, 102, 189
industrial agglomeration 208
industrial areas 55–56
industrial estates 208
industry 205–210
air pollution 242
Bangalore high-tech case study 209–210
end-of-theme questions 262
environmental impact statements 255
factors affecting location 207–208
industrial agglomeration 208
industrial systems and types 205–207
inequality
between countries 176–178
within countries 179–183
urban growth 65
infant mortality rate 7, 10, 11, 30, 31, 174
infiltration 111, 112, 113
informal sector 181
in-migration 32
inner city 49, 51, 53, 65, 67
inputs 194, 196–200, 205
insurance 125–126
intensive farming 196
interception 110
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 15
internally displaced people 21
internet 187, 191
interviews 297
inverse proportion 283
involuntary (forced) migration 21, 22
Iraq 21
irrigation 126, 197, 234, 235, 237
isobars 152
isoline diagrams 289

J
Jamaica 46–47, 136, 146, 219–220
Japan 30, 31, 32, 98

K
Kalahari desert 252
Kariba Dam, Zimbabwe 232
Kathmandu 106
Kazakhstan 36
Kenmare, Ireland 86
Kenya 11–12
Kick ’em Jenny (volcano) 96
Kilauea volcano 92
Kilimanjaro 91
Kimmeridge Bay 115
Kissimmee River Restoration Project 124–125
kite diagrams 287
 knick-points 114
Korea 41, 76, 87
Kowloon 86
Krakatoa volcano 90, 92, 99

L
labour-intensive industries 206
lagoons 134
landfill 258
land tenure (ownership) 182, 198
land use 48–50, 66
land use zoning 126
land value 48–49
Latin America 49, 50, 70
latitude 157
lava 90, 91, 100
leachate pollution 258
lead 243
least developed countries (LDCs) 8, 176, 177
levées 114, 119, 122, 125
Leyte, Philippines 143
life expectancy
demographic transition 6, 30, 31
development 174
population dynamics 8, 11, 12
life expectancy at birth 8, 175
light industry 205, 206
light pollution 65, 244, 245
linear settlements 39, 43
line graphs 284–285
line sampling 294
literacy 7, 173–174
Livingstone Falls 115
load 113
localisation economies 208
London 190
long profiles 114
longshore drift 130, 131, 136
Lorenz curve 65
loss of sovereignty 191
loss sharing 125
low-order goods/services/functions 42, 44
Lozère, France 45

M
magma 90, 91, 93
Malaysia 14, 39, 40
malnutrition 13, 200
managed retreat 144, 145
Manaus, Brazil 156
mangroves 139
mantle 94
manufacturing industry 37, 185, 205, 208
maps
population 34, 36
scale 266, 281
world v
Marine Parks 219, 220, 254
marine processes 129–131
 mass media 187
mass migration 27
mass tourism 191
mathematical skills 281–291
decimals, fractions, percentages and ratios 283
graphical techniques 284–291
map scale 281
means, averages and range 282–283 positive
and negative relationships 283–284
significant figures 283
standard notation 283
Mauna Loa volcano 90, 92
maximum-minimum thermometer 150
mean 282
mean daily temperature 150, 151
meanders 114, 118
median 282–283
median-line bar graphs 286
megacities 71, 72
megalopolis 37, 43
Meghna River 121, 122
Mehta, Mukesh 66
Mercalli scale 91, 92
methane 248, 249, 258
Mexico 27–28, 50, 71, 73
Miami Beach 146
microgeneration 259
migration 20–28
counterurbanisation 23
definition 20
depopulation 23
end-of-theme questions 84
globalisation impacts 190, 192, 193
impacts of 24–28
internal population movements 22–23
nature of 20
population density and distribution 36
population dynamics 4, 9, 16
push and pull factors 20
reasons for 20
trends 22
urbanisation 70
voluntary and involuntary 20–22
Millennium Development Goals 71
millionaire cities 73, 80
Mississippi river 125
mixed farming 195
mode 282
monsoon rains 199
Montego Bay, Jamaica 46–47
Montserrat 91, 92, 98, 102–104
mortality 5, 6, 8–9, 10 see also death rate;infant mortality rate
mouth (of river) 119
multiple bar charts 286
multiple line graphs 285
multiplier effect 215

N
Nairobi 73
 National Health Service (NHS) 25
national income 172–173
National Parks 217, 219, 220
natural change, rate of 4, 5, 12
natural environment
coasts 129–148
earthquakes and volcanoes 90–106
end-of-theme questions 168–170
overview 89
rivers 107–128
weather 149–155
natural gas 221, 222, 229, 253
natural greenhouse effect 248
natural hazards 97, 98–102
natural vegetation 145, 159, 160, 164–167, 170
negative index 283
negative relationship 283
Nepal 106, 196
Netherlands 13
net migration, rate of 4, 5, 16
new international division of labour (NIDL) 188
newly industrialised countries (NICs) 177, 185, 189
New York
globalisation 190
land use 60–63
population density 37
settlements 40, 41
urbanisation 67, 71
New Zealand 104–105
Niagara Falls 115, 116–117
NICs see newly industrialised countries
Niger 30, 31, 32
Niger delta 253, 254
Nile delta 126–128
noise pollution 64, 244–245
non-renewable energy supplies 221, 222
nuclear energy 221, 222, 224–225, 229
nucleated settlements 39

O
observations 297–300
oil 221, 222, 229, 253
‘one-child’ policy 14, 17, 18
optimum population 13, 17
Ordnance Survey maps 266, 268–270
organic farming 196
orographic rainfall 110
out-migration 16, 32
out-of-town location 57, 58
outputs 194, 205
overfishing 254
overgrazing 251, 252
overland flow 111
overpopulation 13, 14–15
oxbow lakes 114, 118
ozone 242, 248, 256

P
package tours 212
Padi-fields 199
Pakistan 21, 101, 102
Palisadoes, Jamaica 130, 136, 146
Pampas, Argentina 253
Paris 41, 42
particulate matter 243
pastoral farming 195, 253
peak land value intersection (PLVI) 52
Pearl River delta, China 259–260
peat bogs 249
Pelée, Mt 96
percentage 283
percentage compound bar charts 286
periphery 50, 180, 181, 182
permafrost 249
Peru 101, 102
Philippines 98
photographs, annotated 280–281, 298, 299
photovoltaic (PV) systems 228, 229
physical water scarcity 235
pictograms 284
pie charts 285–286
pilot surveys 295
Pinatubo, Mt 91, 92, 97, 100
plantations 161
plastic 256, 257, 258
plate tectonics 92, 93–95, 96
plunge flow 115
plunge pool 117
point sampling 294
pollution
air pollution 64, 66, 69, 77, 82, 242–245, 260
definition 241
environmental impact statements 255
environmental risks 241–246, 253, 254
globalisation 192
incidental and sustained pollution risks 245–246
light pollution 65, 244, 245
noise pollution 64, 244–245
Pearl River delta, China 259, 260
urbanisation 69, 77, 82
water pollution 65, 69, 77, 82, 236, 244, 250
Popacatapetl 92
population density
definition 34
and distribution 34–37
earthquakes 98
end-of-theme questions 85
population dynamics 12, 15
residential zones 51
urban change 82
population distribution 34, 35–37, 85
population dynamics 2–19
case studies 11–12
causes of change in population size 4–5
demographic transition model 5–6
end-of-theme questions 84
natural hazards 97
overpopulation and underpopulation 13–16
 population policy 16–19
reasons for contrasting rates of change 6–10
recent demographic change 3–4
world population increase 2–3
population explosion 3
population policy 16, 17–19
population pyramids 29, 30, 31, 32
Population Reference Bureau 3, 4
population structure 29, 30–33, 84
positive index 283
positive relationship 283
potable water 234
potential evapotranspiration (P.EVT) 110, 111
potholes 114, 115
poverty
development 178, 180, 181
natural hazards 98
population dynamics 10, 11, 15, 33
water shortages 236
precipitation 109, 110, 197
preservation 218
prevailing winds 158, 242
primary data 293
primary hazards 99
primary product dependent 185
primary sector 183, 184, 185
processes 194, 205
product chain 184
production by economic sectors 183–184
product stewardship 255, 258 programme
food aid 202
project food aid 202
pro-natalist policies 16, 18–19
pro-poor tourism 220
proportional circles 290
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) 31, 173
push and pull factors 20
Putrajaya, Malaysia 76
pyroclastic flows 97

Q
quadrat sampling 294
quality of life 172
quaternary sector 183, 184, 185
questionnaires 296–297
Quichua Indians 218
quotas 218, 257

R
radial (circular) graphs 289
radioactive waste 224
rainfall 110, 149, 151, 156, 157, 250
rainforests 159–163, 256
rain gauges 149, 150, 151
Rainier, Mt 91
ranching 195
random sampling 294, 295
range (goods) 43
range (mathematics) 283
 rate of natural change 4, 5
rate of net migration 4, 5
ratio 283
rationing 257
ray diagrams 288
recording tables 299
recycling 237, 255, 256, 257
red-lining 145
reefs 137–139, 145, 148, 249, 254
refugees 21, 22
relief and gradient 267–268
relief food aid 202
remittances 25, 26, 28
renewable energy 221, 222, 225–229
representative fraction 281
reservoirs 125, 232–233
residential zones 51, 53
resource conservation 256–259
resource management 254–255
re-use of resources 256, 257
revetments 145, 146
Rhine gorge 115
Rhône delta 120–121
rias 134
Richter scale 91, 98, 99
rift valleys 93, 94, 95
Rio de Janeiro 65, 74–75
risk assessment 98
river cliffs 118
rivers 107–128
case studies 116–117, 120–121, 123, 124–125, 126–128, 303–304
changing-channel characteristics 107–109
describing river landscapes 270–273
drainage basins 109–113
end-of-theme questions 168–169
managing impact of floods 122–128
river hazards and opportunities 121–122
river processes 113–121
water pollution 244
robotics technology 187
rural depopulation 23
rural settlements 42, 43, 274–277
rural-to-urban migration 6, 14, 22, 32, 70
rural-urban fringe 56, 57, 59

S
Saffir-Simpson scale 142
Sahara desert 164, 165, 252
St Helens, Mt 92, 100
St Lucia 95, 147
saltation 113
sampling 294–295
sand dunes 136, 137, 302–303
sandification 162
Sandy, Hurricane 146
San Vicente Dam Raise Project 233
scale 266
scatter graphs 283–284, 289–290
science parks 206
scoring systems 299–300
sea level 15, 114, 248–249
seas iv, 158
sea walls 140, 144, 145
secondary data 293
secondary hazards 99
secondary sector 183, 184, 185
sector model (Hoyt) 49–50
Seine river 41, 42
seismographs 91
seismometers 100
semantic differential profiles (SDPs) 288
Seoul 48, 63–64, 69, 76, 78
Serbia 13
service provision 23, 42, 44, 45, 50, 85
settlements 38–47
case studies 45, 46–47
definition 38
end-of-theme questions 85
growth and function 40–42
hierarchy 42–44
pattern 38–39
rural settlements 38
Seveso accident 246
shallow-focus earthquakes 91
Shanghai 80–83
shanty towns 74
shape of settlement 275
shield volcanoes 90, 91
shifting cultivation 161, 195, 251
significant figures 283
Silicon Valley 41, 206
simple bar charts 286
simple line graphs 285
Singapore 51, 53, 65
site of settlement 40, 274, 275
situation of settlement 40, 274, 275
Six’s thermometer 150
sketch maps 280–281
slums 66, 71, 73–75, 181
social norms 6
soft engineering 122, 124–125, 145
soil erosion 162, 250–253
soil moisture 111–112
soils 160, 165, 166, 197
solar power 228, 229
solar radiation (insolation) 157, 158
solution 113, 131
Sonoran Desert 166
Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat 90, 92, 95, 96, 102–104
Soufrière mud springs, St Lucia 95
South Africa 39, 41, 54–55, 70
South Asian tsunami 99
South Korea 41, 87
South Sudan 201–202
Spain 23
sparsely populated areas 34
specific heat capacity 158
sphere of influence 44
 spits 134, 135, 136 spring
line settlements 40 square
references 266
squatter settlements (slums) 66, 71, 73–75, 181
Sri Lanka 99
stacked line graphs 285
stacks 132
standard notation 283
Stevenson screen 149, 150
stratified sampling 295
stratospheric ozone depleters 243
stumps 132
subduction zones 91, 96
subsidies 204, 257
subsistence farming 195
substitution of resources 258
suburbs 50
Sudan 36, 127, 128, 201–202
sulfur dioxide 82, 243, 246, 247
Sumatra 99
sunshine recorders 149, 153
supervolcanoes 97
suspension 113
sustainable development 73, 220, 254, 255, 256
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 73
sustainable tourism 217
sustained pollution 245
swash 129, 130
Syria 21
systematic sampling 295
systems 194

T
Tacloban, Philippines 143
tally charts 300
Tambora volcano 90
Tata Group 193
technology 187, 206, 209–210
tectonic plates 93–95, 96
Teidi volcano 92
temperature 150–151, 156, 157, 158
terraces 196, 199
tertiary sector 183, 184, 185
Thailand 189
Thames, River 123
theories 293
thermal expansion 249
thermometers 149, 150
Thingvellir, Iceland 95
Three Gorges Dam 123, 230
Three Mile Island 225
threshold population 44
throughfall 110
throughflow 111
tidal power 228–229
Toba, Mt 97
Todaro model 23
Tokyo 71, 190
tombolos 135, 136
 total fertility rate 6, 7, 11
tourism 211–220
benefits and disadvantages 214–216
case study 219–220
coastal hazards and opportunities 140, 147
end-of-theme questions 262–263
globalisation 191, 192
growth of 211–214
management and sustainability 217–218
tourist-generating countries 213
toxic pollutants 242, 243
traction 113
traffic congestion 66, 69, 77–78
transform plate boundaries 94, 95, 96
transnational corporations (TNCs) 186, 187, 192
transpiration 110
transport 56, 77–78, 80, 82–83, 140
transport (river) 113
transport systems 187
transport zone (river) 107
triangular graphs 185, 290–291
tributaries 109, 114
tropical belt 249–250
tropical cyclones 143–144
tropical rainforests 159, 160–163
tropical storms 141–144
Trump, Donald 28
tsunamis 96, 99, 138
Typhoon Haiyan 143–144

U
Uganda 21
UK see United Kingdom
UN see United Nations
UNAIDS 10
underemployment 14
underpopulation 13, 15–16
unimodal patterns 282
United Arab Emirates 148
United Kingdom (UK)
floods 121
globalisation 192
population dynamics 13
population structure 30, 31, 32
residential zones 53
settlements 39, 44
United Nations (UN)
food production 200, 201, 202, 204
Human Development Index 174, 175
squatter settlements (slums) 71
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 204
United Nations Fund for Population Activities 17
United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) 22
United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 15
United States of America (USA)
case studies 140, 238–240
inequalities 179
migration 27–28
population density and distribution 36, 37
 settlements 40, 41
water supply 238–240
urbanisation 70–83
case studies 74–75, 80–83
coasts 140
definition 70–71
end-of-theme questions 87
floods 122
megacities 72
natural hazards 97
new cities 76
population dynamics 6, 23
squatter settlements (slums) 71, 73–75
strategies to reduce negative impact 77–83
urbanisation economies 208
urbanisation of poverty 181
urban land use 48, 49–50, 277
urban renewal 54
urban settlements 48–69
case studies 54–55, 59, 60–63, 67–68, 69
end-of-theme questions 86–87
geographical skills 277–279
internal structure of towns and cities 50–59
problems of urban growth 64–66
urban land use 48–50
urban sprawl 56
urban uniformity 190
USA see United States of America

V
vegetation 145, 159, 160, 164–167, 170
velocity
rivers 107, 108, 113, 118, 119, 304
waves 129
wind 149, 153
vent (of volcano) 90, 91
Vesuvius, Mt 217
Victoria Falls 117
villages 39, 40, 42, 43, 44 volcanic
explosive index (VEI) 97
volcanoes
case study 102–104
causes of 96–97
definition 90
describing volcanic landscapes 274
distribution of 92–93
end-of-theme questions 168
managing 100
plate tectonics 93–95
predicting 100
types 90–91
volcanic eruptions 98
volcanic strength 97
Volta river 131
voluntary migration 21
V-shaped valley 114

W
Walvis Bay, Namibia 134
waste products 205
waste reduction 257–258
wastewater 244
water 231–240
end-of-theme questions 264
global water crisis 231
variation in water use 234–235
water management 237–240
water shortages 235–236
water supply methods 231–234
waterfalls 114, 115, 116–117
water pollution 65, 69, 77, 82, 236, 244, 260
Water Project 236
water scarcity 13, 235, 236, 237
watersheds 109
water stress 236
water supply
definition 231
floods 125
globalisation impacts 192
hot deserts 166
methods 231–234
population dynamics 6, 35
settlements 40
urbanisation 75, 77, 79
USA case study 238–240
variation in water use 234–235
water management 237–240
water shortages 235–236
water table 112, 233
wave-cut platform 132
wave power 228–229
wave refraction 130, 131, 134
waves 129–131, 132, 134, 228–229
wealth 172, 173
weather 149–155
air pressure, wind speed and direction 152–153
end-of-theme questions 170
measuring 149–154
rainfall 151
recording 154–155
relative humidity 152
sunshine hours 153
temperature 150–151
weather stations 149–150
wells 233
wet-and dry-bulb thermometers 150, 152
wet deposition 246, 247
wet point sites 40
wilting point 112
wind direction 152, 153
wind power 226, 229
wind rose diagrams 153, 288
winds, and climate 158
wind speed 152–153
wind vanes 149, 150, 152, 153
Woodstock, Cape Town 54–55
Wookey Hole 115
World Bank 15, 24, 174, 203, 260
 World Food Programme (WFP) 143, 201, 202
World Health Organization 9, 33, 66
world map v
world population 2–3, 22
World Trade Organization 188
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 253

X
xerophytes 164

Y
Yangtze river 123, 230
Yellowstone magma chamber 97
Yugoslavia 21

Z
Zambezi river 117
zone in transition 49