Bahiru Lemma

LAND DEGRADATION AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN
HARARGHE HIGHLANDS : A CASE STUDY OF KERSA WOREDA,

EAST HARARGHE ZONE , OROMIA REGIONAL STATE,
ETHIOPIA
MA.THESIS
BAHIRU LEMMA
MAY 2018
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA

Land Degradation and Management Practices in Hararghe Highlands : A Case
Study of Kersa Woreda ,East Hararghe Zone, Oromia
Regional State, Ethiopia
A Thesis submitted to School of Geography and Environmental Studies,

Postgraduate Program Directorate
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Bahiru Lemma
May 2018
Haramaya University, Haramaya
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE
We hear by certify that we have read and evaluated this Thesis entitled: “Land Degradation and
Management Practices in Hararghe Highlands : A Case Study of Kersa Woreda, East
Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia” prepared under my guidance by Bahiru
Lemma. We recommend that it be submitted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.
R.U. Reddy (PhD) –––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––
Major Advisor Signature Date
Solomon Tekalign (PhD) –––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––
Co-Advisor Signature Date
As a member of the Board of Examiners of MA Thesis Open Defenses Examination, we certify that
we read and evaluated the Thesis prepared by Bahiru Lemma and examined the candidate. We
recommend that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the Thesis requirement for the degree of Master
of Arts in Geography and Environmental Studies.
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Final approval and acceptance of the Thesis is contingent upon the submission of its final copy of
the Council Graduate Studies (CGS) through the candidate’s School Graduate Committee (SGC).
ii
DEDICATION
This paper is dedicated to my family, and other people who helped me in my educational journey.
iii
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I have followed all
ethical and technical principles of scholarship on the preparation, data collection, data analysis and
compilation of this Thesis. Any scholarly matter that is included in the Thesis has been given
recognition through citation.
This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for MA in Geography and
Environmental studies degree at the Haramaya University. The Thesis is deposited in the
Haramaya University Library and is made available to borrowers under the rules of the Library. I
solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any other institution anywhere for
award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.
Brief quotations from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate
and complete acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended
quotations from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in part may be granted by the Head of the
School when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship.
In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author of the Thesis.
Name: Bahiru Lemma Signature: ___________________

Date: _______________________
School: Geography and Environmental Studies
iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author was born on December 21, 1977 G.C in Tullu Bollo town, Becho Woreda, South West
Shoa Zone, Oromia Regional State. He pursued his Elementary Education at Fitawrary Habte
Giyorgis Aba Mechal and at Hibret Fire Secondary School respectively. Then, he joined Kotebe
College of Teachers Education in 1994 G.C. and graduated with Bachelor of Education in
Geography in 1997 G.C. Subsequently, he worked as a high school geography teacher at Bedeno
Secondary School and at Kersa Secondary and Preparatory School. In 2013 G.C he joined School
of Geography and Environmental Studies at Haramaya University to pursue his M.A. in Geography
and Environmental Studies.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, thanks to my Almighty God for HIS help in passing me through the complicated
situations that I faced for pursuing my study and for HIS help and courage during my whole life
time.
I would like to express my sincere and greatest thanks to my major advisor, Dr. R.U. Reddy and
my co-advisor Dr. Solomon Tekalign for their critical and constructive suggestion, encouragement
and guidance. During all this time their swift and valuable guidance, interesting discussions to bring
solution to problems, advices and constructive comments. Without their continuous follow-up,
correcting the manuscripts and constructive comments the Thesis would not have taken the current
form.
My deepest gratitude also goes to all organizations that provide me with valuable data and
information . I would like to extend my special gratitude to the Kersa Woreda Agricultural
Development Office. Sample kebele administration and Ethiopian National Mapping Agency for
their data provision and over all support.
In addition, I owe my special thanks to my friends and classmates who assisted me in different
aspects. Consequently, I would like to express my deepest and great thanks to my families for their
assistance in all direction to accomplish this thesis. The Ministry of Education is sincerely
acknowledge for sponsoring the over all master study program and the research work too. Last but
by no means the least; I would like to thank Haramaya University in general and School of
Geography and Environmental Studies in particular for their coordinated work to provide me
valuable education.
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CSA Central Statistical Agency

DA Development Agent
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FGD Focus Group Discussion
HHs House Holds
KWARD Kersa Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development
MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SLM Sustainable land management
SSA Sub Saharan Africa
SWC Soil and Water Conservation
TM Thematic Map
UNDP United Nation Development Program
WFP World Food Program
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION iii
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDICS xv
ABSTRACT xvi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background of the study 1
1.2. Statement of the problem 2
1.3. Objectives of the study 3
1.4. Research questions 4
1.5. Scope of the study 4
1.6. Significance of the study 4
1.7. Limitation of the study 4
1.8. Definition of Key Terms 5
1.9. Organization of the Thesis 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1. Concept of Land degradation and Land Management Practices 7
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS(Continued)
2.1.1. Land Degradation 8
2.1.2. Land Management Practices 8
2.2. The Major Features of Land Degradation 9
2.2.1. Global Land Degradation 9
2.2.2. Land Degradation in Africa 10
2.2.3. Land Degradation in Ethiopia 11
2.3. The Major Causes of Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 12
2.3.1. Proximate or Direct causes 13
2.3.2. Underlying or indirect causes 13
2.4. Effects of Land Degradation 16
2.5. Land Use or Land Cover Changes and the Causes 17
2.6. Overview of Land Management Practices 18
2.6.1. Land Management Practices in the world 18
2.6.2. Land Management Practices in Ethiopia 20
2.6.2.1. Afforestation and Reforestation 21
2.6.2.2. Agro-forestry 21
2.6.2.3. Crop rotation 21
2.6.2.4. Intercropping 22
2.6.2.5. Terracing 22
2.8. Conceptual Framework 23
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25
3.1. Description of the study area 25
3.1.1. Location and Size 25
ix
3.1.2. Physiography and Soil 26
3.1.3. Climate and Drainage 26
3.1.4. Vegetation 27
3.1.5. Land Use 27
3.1.6. Population 27
3.1.7. Economy Activity 28
3.2. Research Design 28
3.3. Data Sources 29
3.4. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size 29
3.4.1. Sampling procedure 31
3.5. Methods of Data Collection 31
3.5.1. Data Collection Procedure 31
3.5.2. Data Collection instruments 31
3.5.2.1. Questionnaire 31
3.5.2.2. Key informant 32
3.5.2.3. Field observation 32
3.5.2.4. Focus group discussion 32
3.5.2.5. Remote sensing 32
3.5.2.6. Acquisition of Geospatial Data 33
3.6. Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis 34
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35

4.1 The Socio-Economic Characteristics of respondents 35
x
4.1.1 Age and Sex Structure 35
4.1.2. Martial status 35
4.1.3. Educational status of the respondents 36
4.1.4. Farm Land holding size 36
4.2.. Land Use/Land Cover Changes from 1985-2017 37
4.2.1. Shrub lands 37
4.2.2. Grass land 37
4.2.3. Farm and settlement lands 38
4.2.4. Area coverage, gain and losses of the different types of land use/cover 40
4.2.5. Population Size and Growth 40
4.3. Land Degradation and Management Practices 41
4.3.1. The Different Land Management Practices in the study area 41
4.3.1.1. Perception of households to land degradation 42
4.3.1.2. Indicators of land degradation 43
4.4. Major land management practices 44
4.4.1. Traditional land management practices 44
4.4.1.1. Crop rotation 44
4.4.1.2. Strip cropping 45
4.4.1.3. Terracing 46
4.4.1.4. Contour ploughing 46
4.4.1.5. Drainage ditch 46
4.4.1.6. Agro-forestry 46
4.4.1.7. Compost 47
xi
4.4.2. Adopted Land management practices 47
4.5.2.2. Check dams 47
4.5.2.4. Use of artificial fertilizers 47
4.5. Major factors affecting land management practices 48
4.5.1. Educational status and land management practices 48
4.5.2. Sex of households and land management practices 49
4.5.3. Age of households and land management practices 50
4.5.4. Farm land size and land management practices 51
4.5.5. Martial status and land management practices 52
4.5.6. Family size and land management practices 52
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 54

5.1. Summary 54
5.2. Conclusion 56
5.3. Recommendation 57
6. REFERENCES 58
7. APPENDICES 65
Appendix I 66
Appendix II 69
Appendix III 70
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table page
1. Monthly Rainfall and Mean Annual Temperature of Kersa Woreda 26
2. Land Use in Kersa Woreda 27
3. Selection of Samples from Each Kebele 30
4. Distribution of Households by Age and Sex Structures 35
5. Educational Status of the Respondents 36
6. Farm Land Holding Size of the Households over the past ten years 37
7.. Land Use/ Land Cover Changes in the Study area between 1985 and 2017 40
8. Population Changes between 1984 and 2007 in the study area 41
9. Major Land Management Practices Used by Sample households 42
10. Distribution of Households Response to land degradation 43
11. Distribution of Households Response to indicators of land degradation 44
12. Distribution of Households by Major Methods of land Management Practices 48
13. Association of Socio-demographic Variables with land Management Practices 53
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Conceptual Frame Work 24
2. The Location Map of the Study area 25
3. Land Use/Land Cover Thematic Map of Kersa Woreda 1985,2000 and 2017 39
xiv
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDIX
1. Field Observation Check List
2.Households perception on Land use/cover changes within 30years
xv
Land Degradation and Management Practices in Hararge Highlands : A Case
Study of Kersa Woresa, East Harage Zone, Oromia Regional State,
Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The Ethiopian economy has its foundation in the agricultural sector. However, the sector continues
to be undermined by land degradation. The objective of this study was to examine the major
features of land degradation and management practices. A total of 329 sample households for
questionnaire and 6 key informants and 9 participants for FGD were used. Satellite images of
1985, 2000 and 2017 were also used to generate data on land/use cover changes. The case was
investigated through mixed method particularly triangulation approach while utilizing both
qualitative and quantitative data types generated from both primary and secondary sources. The
overall collected data was analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics: cross tabs,
figures and chi-square. The change in land use/cover shows that from the total land use/cover
conversions 20,069 ha of land was converted of these; settlement and farm lands gain 6,643 ha
and13,424 ha respectively. Grass land, wood , shrub lands and forest land were losses of 3,073 ha
,13,496 ha and 3,473 ha within the study time planned. The study further identifies major land
management practices in the study area: terracing. crop rotation, manure use(compost) ; cover
cropping, strip cropping, agro-forestry and rehabilitation of gullies through traditional terraces,
traditional contour ploughing and check dams. Results of Correlation and regression Coefficient
shows that land management practices have a significant association with parts of socio-
demographic variables of population such as: age, sex, marital status and educational level of the
household heads. The study also reveals that as population number increases the land management
practices farmer’s uses also increases in quantity. Therefore any environmental rehabilitation and
land management options should take considerations of population socio-economic factors.
Keywords/Phrases: Kersa Woreda, land degradation, land management practices, Land

use/cover change .,
xvi
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study
Land degradation is a serious global environmental problem and is a matter of great concern. Vast
areas of highlands all over the world have been converted into unproductive and degraded lands
(Dogo,2014). Millions of hectares of highlands per year are being degraded in all climatic regions
of the world ( Million,2014). Land degradation process have been accelerated rapidly in the last
century with an estimated 24 billion tons of fertile soil lost to erosion in the world crop lands
(FAO, 2011a). Land degradation has been hitting more than 2.6 billion people in more than 100
countries ( Nkonya et al.,2013). It is increasing in severity and extent in many parts of the world ,
with more than 20% of all cultivated highland areas, 30% of the forests and 10% of grasslands
undergoing degradation (GEF,2013). The case is worse in developing countries , where the majority
of the population depend on this resource for their livelihoods (Dessalew, 2016).
Ethiopia is a highland country with about 54% of its total area having an elevation of more than
1400m asl and a substantial area lying over 3000m above sea level (Hurni et al.,2010) . About 50%
of Ethiopia can be defined as mountainous, because of its high altitude above 1500m. The country’s
highland areas account for about 90% of its arable lands and are occupied by 90% of human
population and 65% of its live stocks (Adugnaw,2014) . These highlands which are once endowed
with rich natural resources and were agriculturally used since millennia are now heavily degraded
(Hurni ,et al., 2010).
Ethiopia is one of the most highly populated countries in Africa with about 105 million people. The
Population has expanded all over the highland parts of Ethiopia as they are very suitable places for
living and agricultural activities. Despite a consistent, relatively high growth of its population over
the past decade (CSA, 2013), the agricultural sector was still characterized by subsistence in nature
and low productivity. The reasons for this low productivity are many and complex. Environmental
degradation, as exhibited in land and water resources’ degradation together with biodiversity loss
are the main causes (Kassie at el., 2011).
The Ethiopian agricultural economic sector is subsistent and traditional in nature and almost
entirely rain-fed and yields are generally low. Rain-fed agriculture employs 80% of the population,
2
forming the basis of Ethiopia’s economy. And the land holdings are small and often
fragmented into many parcels (Samuel et al., 2016). These land-based economic activities are
facing one of the major environmental problems which is land degradation. This is mainly because
of population pressure and unsustainable agricultural activities (MoA, 2015). This prevailing land
degradation has put great impact on the socio-economic and survival of many rural farmers of
Ethiopia. The rate of country’s land degradation in the highlands was very high. Large portion of
agricultural lands, which are mainly located in the highland part of the country are affected by
sever land degradation ( Assemu and Shigdaf , 2014 ).
Like most part of Ethiopia mixed farming dominates the livelihood of the Oromia region. Land is
an important asset of households for production of crops and rearing of livestock. The ever
increasing number of farming communities and livestock population in Oromia Regional State put
pressure on nearby natural resources and it is evident and inevitable event (Kidane ,2008). As a
result , land degradation (deforestation, soil erosion and biodiversity loss ) in the highlands of
Oromia is becoming a matter of serious concern for its negative implications on the life and
livelihood of large rural population and the environment (Ahmed et al.,2013).The present extent of
land degradation which is over a large area of Hararghe highlands is the evidence of the unabated
spread of land degradation in Oromia region (Bizuayehu et al.,2002).
1.2. Statement of the Problem
A significant increase in agricultural productivity cannot be attained if the land resource base
continues to be degraded. Hence, ensuring sustainable land management is a matter of critical
importance for agricultural growth in Ethiopia ( Berhanu et al.,2010).The failure of Ethiopian
agriculture to feed its population is partly resulted from cumulative effect of land degradation
mainly in the highland part of the country (Teferaa and Sterk,2010). Therefore, improving
productivity of land is so crucial in improving the welfare of the agrarian population in particular
and the overall economy of the country in general. As a result, there should be appropriate land
management systems to improve the productivity of land particularly in highland areas where the
problem of land degradation is severe (Desta, 2009).
Different researches have been under gone on land degradation in different parts of Ethiopia and
at a national level. . But most of them are focused on the cause and extent of land degradation, type
3
of land degradation and traditional farmers land management practices like: nature of land
degradation; traditional farmers’ land management practices, ongoing soil and water conservation
by government and other actors. The Effects of Land Degradation on Farm Size Dynamics and
Crop-Livestock Farming system in Ethiopia ( Assemu Tefera and Shigdaf Makuriya,2014), Land
Degradation causes , Impacts and Rehabilitation Techniques ( Temesgen Gashaw et al.,2014),
Land Degradation in Amhara region: Review on Extent ,Impacts and Rehabilitation Techniques
(Dessalew Meseret, 2016), Farmers Awareness About Land Degradation and The Practices of Soil
and Water Conservation Measures in Hadiya Zone (Geography and Environmental Studies, MA
Thesis, AAU, by ZenebeAdmasu,2015), Land Degradation and Challenges of Its Management
Practices in Hadiya Zone (Geography and Environmental Studies ,MA Thesis, AAU, by Melese
Erwaro,2014), Farmers’ perception on decline of soil fertility and causes of land degradation
(Yeraswork et al., 2000, Aklilu, 2006,Genene, 2006 ) and Nature and Causes of Land Degradation
in Oromiya Region : A Review of Socio-Economic policy Research ( by Bizayehu Teferi et al.,
2002),the Journal of Biology , Agriculture and Health Science which focus on Farmers’ Perception
of the Impact of Land Degradation and Soil and Water Conservation in West Hararghe Zone of
Oromia National Regional State ( Yenealem et al ., 2013 from HU Department of Rural
Development an Agricultural Extension ). According to these researches there is a common
problem that is land degradation in Ethiopia in general and in the highlands in particular.
Due to this, this study was attempted to bridge the gap on the issue of socio-demographic variables
of population dynamics that determine the traditional and adopted land management practices in
Kersa woreda.
1.3 Objective of the study
The general objective of this study is to examine the major features of land degradation and land
management practices in the Hararghe highlands with particular emphasis in Kersa Woreda .
The specific objectives of the study are to :
1. investigate the land use/land cover changes since the 1985,2000 and 2017 in the study area.
2. identify major causes of land degradation in the study area.
3. identify the major land management practices.

4
1.4. Research Questions
Based on the above specific objectives the researcher tries to answer the following questions:
1. What major land cover /land use changes have occurred in the study area over the
past three decades ?
2. What were the major causes of land degradation in the study area?
3. What major land management practices did the farmers in the study area using ?
1.5. Scope of the Study
Since it is difficult to study every woreda of East Hararghe zone that are affected by land
degradation, the investigator delimited his research merely on Kersa woreda. From this woreda
only three representative kebeles namely, Gola Wachu,Meta Qoma and Gale Mirga were selected.
1.6. Significance of the Study
The research may assist others investigators as starting point to conduct further research on this
topic of the land resources. Furthermore, the results of the study will generate relevant information
that will contribute to the development plans of the region in terms of sustainable land management
and land use planning .
1.7. Limitation of the study
During the course of the research the challenges that the researcher encountered are; unavailability
of recorded data with regards to climatic data , lack of proper transportation and communication
facilities, problems of the households particularly households to understand the purposes of the
research, they were reluctant to give information by the households.
5
1.8 Definition of Key Terms
Land Degradation : is the deterioration in the quality of land and water resources caused usually
by excessive or inappropriate exploitation ( UNEP, 2008 ).
Land Management Practices : refers to activities on the ground that uses appropriate technologies
for the improvement or maintenance of productive capacity of land (UNCCD,2014).
Land Productivity : is the amount of measured necessity of land to meet food needs, and thus
the potential level of pressure on land currently providing other environmental services
( World Bank., 2012 ).
Land Cover : Land cover is defined by the attributes of the earth’s land surface captured in the
distribution of vegetation, water and the immediate subsurface, including biota, soil, topography,
surface and groundwater and it also includes those structures created solely by human activities
such as mine exposures and settlement ( FAO 2012 a).
Land Use : land use is the intended employment of and management strategy placed on the land
cover by human agents or land managers to exploit the land cover and reflects human activities
such as industrial zones, residential zones, agricultural fields, grazing, logging and mining among
many others ( Hurni et al.,2010).
Land Use Change : Land use change is defined to be any physical, biological or chemical change
attributable to management, which may include conversion of grazing to cropping, change in
fertilizer use, drainage improvements, installation and use of irrigation, plantations, building farm
dams, pollution and land degradation, vegetation removal, fire regime, spread of weeds and exotic
species, and conversion to non-agricultural use ( Tesfahun and Temesgen, 2014).
Sustainable Land Management : is defined as the use of resources such as soil, water, animals
and plants for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously
ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their
environmental functions ( MoA .,2015).
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1.9. Organization of the Thesis
This research work is organized in to five chapters. The first chapter consists of background of the
study, statement of the problem, objective of the study, significance of the study, scope and
delimitation of the study, operational definitions and organization of the thesis. The second chapter
deals with literature review. The third chapter focuses on research design and methodology
including sampling techniques, data collection instruments and data analysis. Chapter four
comprises analysis of data and discussions. The last chapter deals with summary, conclusions and
recommendations of the study. References and appendices are attached towards the end of the
paper.
7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Concept of Land Degradation and Land Management Practices
Our most significant non-renewable geo-sphere resource is productive land and fertile soil. Land
will continue to play a central role in a national development plans in the 21st century and will
retain its role as fundamental basis for global prosperity. People in urban ,rural and remote areas
across the planet have multiple and growing demand on land .The ability to meet earth’s land, water
and nutrient constrained system to meet all human demands is being threatened by population
growth, land degradation and climatic change.
The degradation of the land is a global problem and a major threat to life on earth ,including human
beings. Land degradation that is largely related to agricultural use appears to generate productive
losses. Land degradation’s effect on productivity are likely to be severe in some regions and local
areas due to the combination of resource factors ( terrain, soils and precipitation) and economic
factors (poverty, tenure, insecurity and lack of infrastructure).
Ethiopia is one of the SSA countries that is the most severely affected by land degradation problem.
Among the SSA countries, Ethiopia has high level of soil erosion .Soil erosion is one of the most
common form of land degradation . Agriculture is the main economic stay for the majority of
Ethiopia and will continue to remain so in the near future. This environmental problem of land
degradation is a major cause of the country’s low and declining agricultural productivity ,persistent
food insecurity and that leads to rural poverty. If urgent measures are not taken to arrest Ethiopia’s
serious land degradation ,the country is headed for “ a catastrophic situation”.
The purpose of reviewing the problem of land degradation and management practices in this study
is because of over 83% of the Ethiopian population is dependent on agriculture . This land based
economic activity is facing one of the environmental problem which is land degradation .The
highland of Ethiopia are areas that have 90% of the arable land and occupied by 90% of human
population and 60% of livestock .And these highlands which were once endowed with rich natural
resources are agriculturally used for longer period are now heavily degraded .
8
Because of the above problem and consequences the researcher gave due attention and conducted
a research on land degradation and management practices in the study area .
2.1.1 Land Degradation

Land degradation is the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity
of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land
use or from a process or combination of processes , including processes arising from human
activities and habitation patterns ; such as soil erosion caused by water and wind , deterioration of
the physical ,chemical and biological or economic properties of soil and long term loss of natural
vegetation ( UNCCD, 2012 ).
Land degradation can be defined as a change in one or more of land’s properties that result in
decline in land quality . It is the loss of utility or potential utility or the reduction , loss or change
of features or organisms which cannot be replaced .Land degradation is defined as a reduction of
resource potential , the loss of utility or potential utility resulting in temporary or permanent
lowering of current or future productive capacity of land (World Bank , 2010 ).
2.1.2 Land Management Practices
Sustainable land management practices (SLM) is defined as a knowledge-based combination of

technologies ,policies and practices that integrate land, water, bio-diversity and environmental
concerns to meet rising food and fiber demands while sustaining ecosystem services and livelihoods
( Peter et al.,2013) .Sustainable land management addresses land in its broader sense, i.e. including
soil, water, vegetation and wildlife resources and their spatial contexts. Sustainable land
management means that land is managed in such a way that future generations will be able to fulfill
their needs just as the present generation can . With reference to cropland SLM practices include
residue and mulching , growing cover crops, using manure and compost ,and adapting crop
rotations to enhance the soil organic carbon pool and improve soil quality(UNCCD, 2012 ).
Sustainable land management in the Ethiopian context is defined as the use of renewable land
resources for agricultural and other purposes to meet individual and community needs while
simultaneously ensuring the long term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance
of their environmental functions through systematic use of indigenous and scientific knowledge and
9
technologies. In this regard, sustainable land management involves more than the use of physical
soil conservation measures, it also includes the use of appropriate soil fertility management
practices, agricultural water management, and forestry and agro forestry practices, forage and land
management, and the application of these measures in a more integrated way to satisfy community
needs while solving ecological problems. (MoARD, 2010).
The overall goal is to adopt SLM practices that protect topsoil, conserve and enhance plant
available water in the root zone and strengthen nutrient cycling while improving soil fertility.
Decreasing water losses through run-off and evaporation is critical to enhancing and sustaining
productivity ( Kiriui and Mirzabeav,2014).
2.2. Major Features of Land Degradation
2.2.1. Global land degradation
Land is the earth’s infrastructure for life . The rate and quality of production generated from land
depend on its major components : soil and its fertility ,soil organic matter, derived from the
vegetation growing on soil ,is the major component that controls soil fertility. Our most non-
renewable geo-resource is productive land and fertile soil (UNCCD, 2012 ).
Land degradation is the most fundamental problem among all environmental problems particularly
in the highlands. This is because it affects people directly and has far reaching impacts on the life
and livelihood options of people especially the poor. Land degradation ranges from moderate to
severe , causes loss in eco-system service including depletion of nutrients, moisture loss and bio-
diversity loss . All of these adversely affect agricultural productivity and erode the base for
sustainable farming (Kassie et al., 2011). As estimate made by UNCCD (2012) that almost a
quarter (24%) of Earth’s land surface had become degraded , affecting some 1,500 million people .
Out of this area nearly 20% was cropland and 20-25% was rangeland. Every year, about 12 million
hectare of land about the size of Bulgaria or Benin is lost , and also with it the potential to produce
20 million tons of grain (UNCCD, 2012).
The main processes that lead to land degradation are soil erosion by water and wind , chemical
changes ,and nutrients loss and physical degradation .Erosion is the loss of top soil through the
destructive action of water and wind, especially when the vegetation cover has been removed from
the highlands. Water erosion is the most wide spread process leading to top-soil loss and
10
degradation of highlands ;it occurred all over the world , varying in intensity and scope according
to climatic and physical conditions as well as human activities (Samuel et al., 2016).
The direct problem of land degradation on human development are not environmental and tend to
be local or national in extent . However, numerous direct problem on the global environment occur
through the impacts on human society . Any problem on a community that affect wealth,
livelihoods, food supply , health , education and resistance to disease or migration will affect a
community’s ability to manage the environment sustainability . It will put extra demands on global
public goods such as bio-diversity and eco-systems will potentially worsening further the status of
land degradation in the highlands ( GEF,2013).
The UNEP highlights in the 2009 in The Environmental Food Crisis Report that projections of a
required 50% increase in food production by 2050 have not taken into account environmental
degradation and a changing climate . This could reduce agricultural yields by 13 % to 45 %.
Another study suggests that climate change, water scarcity, invasive pests and land degradation
could cause up to 25 % of world food production to be lost this century ( Nellemann et al., 2009).
Land degradation on the highlands over the next 25 years may reduce global food production by up
to 12 % resulting in an increase of world food price (IFPRI, 2012).
2.2.2. Land degradation in Africa
Many African countries have plateau lands and their people are heavily depend on natural resources
for subsistence and there is also a wide spread poverty ( Ephraim et al.,2016). Because of the
pressure to increase production in the fragile lands, people are increasingly cultivating or grazing
on marginal lands and reducing fallow period and this in turn can exhaust the productive capacity of
land and results in the declining of yields.(UNCCD, 2009).
Since most African economies are based on agriculture and poverty levels are high, poverty related
agricultural practices and other land use systems contribute to a large portion of the continent’s
high land degradation problem in rural areas. Pressure on high lands from increased human
population numbers and densities is a potential contributor to land degradation when intensified
crop and livestock production in some region is not accompanied by increased conservation
measures to prevent exceeding the lands carrying capacity (ECA , 2007).
11
Poverty can act as a driver of high land degradation when farmers, herders others who depend
directly on land resources cannot wait for soil and vegetation’s to recover and resort to appropriate
land management .Example include eliminating fallow periods , farming on already poor soils in
marginal areas and keeping livestock in the same place too long. These circumstances can lead to
vicious cycle in which rising high land degradation derive people to put increasing pressure on
fragile resources (Sevensson , 2008) .
The socio-economic problem of land degradation vary with the geographical, political and
economic context . In many parts of Africa people already suffer from poverty , food insecurity, and
high mortality rates among other hard ship and these are exacerbated by land degradation , which
often leading to impoverishment , migration and conflict (UNCCD, 2012).
2.2.3 Land degradation in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is one of the best-endowed countries in SSA with respect to natural resources and diversity
of agricultural production environments. Ethiopia's location in the tropics, combined with an
impressive variation in elevation throughout the country, allows it to enjoy both temperate and
tropical climates. This climatic diversity is complemented by the country's wealth of biophysical
resources, including! exceptional biodiversity, relatively fertile soils, and extensive freshwater
resources. For millennia, these rich natural resources have been the foundation for agricultural
development and for meeting the basic needs of millions of rural people ( Ephraim et al.,2016).
Despite this enormous biophysical potential, Ethiopia suffers from the linked and mutually
reinforcing problems of land degradation and extreme poverty. These problems are further
aggravated by high population pressure-(the national population is currently about 72 million and
growing by 2.5 percent annually)and climatic variability, as well as top-down planning systems
inappropriate and/or poorly implemented polices and strategies, limited use of sustainable land
management practices frequent organizational restructuring, and limited capacity of planners,
researchers, and people who use the land (Assemu and Shigdaf , 2014).
There is a wide spread belief that the Ethiopian highlands used to have an adequate fauna and flora,
dependable soils and climatic conditions. In the course of time , however , the highlands have
become the most degraded area in Africa if not in the world (Belay and Bewket, 2013).The areas of
rain-fed agriculture are under most pressure from ecological degradation in the Horn of Africa.
12
The degradation of highlands in Ethiopia which has been started with the history of the country’s
agriculture is highly affecting the livelihood of the rural population as well as the economy of the
nation ( Ahimed et al. , 2014).
At the present time the situation is becoming severe because increasingly marginal lands are being
cultivated ,even on very steep slopes, grazing lands is becoming scarce and vast scale of
deforestation and what remains is there by exposed to extreme soil erosion ( Assemu and Shigdaf,
2014). Ethiopia is particularly threatened by land degradation due to its high dependence on
agriculture , population growth , frequent famine and poverty . It is the wide spread phenomena
in the highlands of Ethiopia and the threat is more credible in Oromiya region where about 75% its
population lives on the highlands and 85% of its cropped land is found here ( Tilahun et al. ,
2010).
Ethiopian highlands have been facing repeated environmental crisis associated with land
degradation. The significant amount of arable land in the highlands of the country is lost due to land
degradation which has different causes behind it (Gete , 2010) .The most serious problem of
Ethiopia’s high land resources degradation is soil erosion. Every year the country is losing billions
of birr in the form of soil, nutrient, water and agro-biodiversity losses (Menale et al., 2010).
Soil erosion is the most widely recognized and common form of high land degradation and
therefore, a major cause for falling productivity .Loss of arable land due to soil erosion is a
widespread phenomenon in the highlands of Ethiopia. As erosion reduces crop productivity, the
degree of crop yield decline due to the erosion of top fertile soil and loss of soil nutrients.
Therefore, once crop productivity begin to decline in the highlands because of soil degradation,
land degradation is self-perpetuating . Then crop yields on eroded soil are much lower than those
on protected soil because erosion reduces soil fertility and water availability. As a result, poverty
and food insecurity are concentrated in rural areas ( Yihenew and Tilahun, 2014).
2.3. Major Causes of Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands
The major causes of land degradation are very complex and attributed to both biophysical and
socio-economic factors . Many empirical studies have indicated that land degradation such as
deforestation, overgrazing, cultivation of marginal lands and soil fertility depletion can be attributed
13
to population pressure. Multiple interacting forces have been causing land degradation in Ethiopia.
These are the proximate causes and underlying causes (Melese , 2014).
2.3.1 Proximate or Direct causes

The proximate causes are those that have a direct effect on the terrestrial ecosystem. These include
natural conditions/factors that related to climatic conditions and topography ( Tilahun et al., 2010).
These natural factors that have aggravated the problem of land degradation in the highlands of
Ethiopia include the nature and characteristics of the terrain, rain fall and type of soil. Within the
high lands of the country the terrain is characterized by high relief, high slope angle exceeding 30
% in more than 70% of the highlands have long slope length. These have made many parts of the
highlands susceptible to soil erosion once the natural vegetation is removed (Desta, 2009 ). In
addition, the basic physical conditions in Ethiopia which caused land degradation include rainfall
variability from year to year and place to place, particularly in the drier parts of the highlands. The
sequence of drier years with reduced vegetation cover followed by wetter years with heavy rain fall
is conducive to high level of soil loss ( Tilahun et al. , 2010 ) .
2.3.2. Underlying /indirect causes

On the other hand, the underlying causes of land degradation are those factors that indirectly affect
proximate causes. These underlying causes/ factors are population pressure; poverty; high costs or
limited access of farmers to fertilizers, fuel and animal feed; limited farmer knowledge on
integrated soil and water management measures; limited or lack of farmer access to credit;
underdeveloped markets; low profitability of agricultural production and conservation technologies;
non-responsive extension services; high market and production risk; insecure land tenure; short
planning horizon of farmers; information asymmetry; and lack of or inadequate short-term benefits
to land users ,inappropriate land use management practices, and deforestation ( Lal & Stewart,
2013).
2.3.2.1. Deforestation
According to Melese (2014), massive destruction of forests and woodlands in Ethiopia occurred
on three significant occasions in the decades following the 1960s.This was when the imperial
regime proclaimed in the mid-sixties that all large-scale forests belonged to the state; the second
occasion was in 1975, following the land reform and expropriation of all forests; and the third was
at the time of the fall of the Derg in 1991. However, in recent decades, particularly after the 1950’s,
14
an increasing trend of degradation of local natural resources, such as farmland, soil, water , forest
and pasture has been witnessed in Ethiopia. Deforestation presents major problem in Ethiopia, since
it is one of the main causes of the prevailing land degradation (via facilitating soil erosion)
(Dessalew ,2016).
Deforestation has resulted in accelerated run-off, reduction on the recharge of groundwater

reserves, increased sediment load of rivers, siltation of reservoirs and increased incidence in the
degree of flooding .Growing population pressure have led to expansion of agricultural land and
high demand for fuel and construction wood. The heavy reliance of some 85% on an exploitative
kind of subsistence agriculture ,high intensity of rainstorm and extensive steep slope made Ethiopia
highly susceptible to soil erosion especially in the highlands. Most farmers are in need of expanding
their croplands through converting of forests and wood land to overcome shortage of land .So, the
fast growing of rural population of Ethiopia causing the shifting of cropping and grazing land to
hill sides and ecological fragile areas (Teshome et al.,,2016).
2.3.2.2. Overgrazing
Overgrazing is one of the major causes of land degradation. Overgrazing is when a livestock
density becomes excessive and too many animals are grazed at the same area of rangeland. This
lead to degradation of vegetation, the compaction and erosion of soil. The degradation of sparse
rangeland vegetation by overgrazing exposes the soil to erosion by wind and water. In Africa as a
whole, overgrazing is the major factor accountable for half (49%) of the soil degradation (Melese,
2014).
Livestock pressure and poor stock management (mainly based on the free grazing system) are other
major sources of land degradation. Only 25 percent of Ethiopia’s high livestock population which
includes 35.3 million cattle-graze in the rangelands (the lowland areas of Afar, Somali, and Borena)
while the remaining 75 percent graze in the highlands leading to serious overgrazing of areas
already under high agrarian pressure ( Zenebe , 2015). In the highlands, the expansion of grazing
beyond the land’s carrying capacity occurs at the expense of the remaining natural vegetation and
further land degradation. The scarcity of grazing land and livestock feed has forced the widespread
use of crop residue to feed livestock. When crop residues are removed for feed and cow dung is
used for fuel, the soil loses organic matter and nutrients. This brings in the soil nutrient cycle
seriously depletes soil quality, increases erosion , and eventually reduces soil productivity
(MOARD, 2010).
15
2.3.2.3. Poor arable land management
Ethiopian farmers still continuing implementing unscientific way of cultivation. Wind and water
erodes the top soil. As a result of erosion much water could not percolate into the soil instead it is
wasted as run-off. Therefore, the soil cannot maintain the required amount of soil moisture. As a
result of depletion of soil moisture and soil nutrients, the soil cannot sustain plant growth (Tilahun,
2010).
In Ethiopia, a continuous cultivation of the land without any improvement in land management
and farming practice has led to severe soil erosion. It is widely believed that land degradation is
mainly caused by over cultivation. According to (Hurni, 2010) study, soil loss on cultivated land is
estimated to be 4-10 times higher than grazing land, and 80% of the eroded annual soil loss occurs
in month of plowing in the first month after planting. The Ethiopian highland reclamation study
stressed the condition of land prior to sowing during the short rainy season (belg) or during the first
month of the growth is important in averting soil erosion ( FAO, 1986).
2.3.2.4. Population pressure

Though there are many arguments about the population growth being the cause of land degradation
in Ethiopia it has undoubtedly direct consequences for the environment; growing demand for more
land for crop production, for fuel wood ,shortening of fallow cycles and contribution to over
cultivation. Moreover, because of high population growth, the size of individually owned plots is
shrinking in the relatively fertile highland and medium altitudes. This diminution will lead to
intensive cultivation, which will inevitably result in a loss of soil fertility. In the absence of modern
techniques of enriching the soil and with dung being increasingly converted into a source of fuel,
the reduction in soil fertility is imminent. This diminishing land degradation lead to reduced soil
fertility and subsequently a decline both in the capacity soil to produced food and to its incapacity
to resist drought (Melese ,2014).
2.3.2.5 Poverty
Research on poverty and its linkages to land degradation has grown immensely in the past few
decades. Yet, there are still major gaps in studying the impact of poverty on crop productivity and
land degradation or vice versa. Extensive analyses of the complex linkages of these three key
variables – poverty, declining agricultural productivity and land degradation– is important ,
16
especially in developing countries where the objective of meeting food security is still not fully
achieved. Some of the identified “poverty – land degradation linkages” are as follows: land
degradation is seen to contribute to declining agricultural productivity, and this in turn increases
poverty. On the other hand, poverty also leads to land degradation through declining land
productivity. Land degradation can contribute directly to poverty, not necessarily through its impact
on agricultural productivity (Oliver and Alisher, 2015).
Poverty may lead to poor land management, which causes land degradation and a decline in
agricultural productivity, which in turn can cause further impoverishment , i.e. a vicious cycle . The
declines in agricultural productivity and poverty are shown to be a bi-directional relationship;
poverty may reduce agricultural productivity through farmers’ inability to use productivity
enhancing inputs . This is further exacerbated by poverty and a host of other factors such as poor
policies, missing institutions, and unaffordable technologies ( UNCCD, 2012).
As a whole frequent drought , deforestation , overgrazing ,expansion of croplands and unsustainable

use of natural resources have been contributing to land degradation in Ethiopian highlands for long
centuries and still going on ( Descheemaeker et al. , 2011).
2.4. Effects of Land Degradation

Like many other developing countries ,Ethiopia is characterized by agrarian economy and about its
85% of total population derives their means of survival from agricultural activities. This agricultural
sector determines the growth of all other sectors and consequently the whole national economy .
One of the factor for the success of agricultural activities is the sustainable utilization of land
resource . However, at the present time, Ethiopia is facing environmental problem , which is the
degradation of its highlands that has a devastating impacts . Land degradation in the highlands of
Ethiopia has had serious problems , such as the occurrences of persistent food insecurity, economic
losses and various environmental hazards such as recurrent drought ( Ahmed et al.,2011).
It has been becoming an alarming ecosystem problem deteriorating biodiversity and land
productivity , which in turn causes reduction in agricultural production , loss of bio-diversity,
water quality depletion ,disturbed hydrological conditions ,poverty and food insecurity (Tilahun et
al., 2010) . Land degradation due to soil erosion and nutrient depletion poses a serious threat on the
rural producers of Ethiopia that has been reducing the productivity of agricultural lands and affects
17
the livelihood of millions of people ( Assemu and Shigdaf, 2014).
Land degradation contributes to persistent poverty, and results in decreasing ecosystem resilience
and provision of environmental services. Land degradation leads to rapid loss of habitat and
biodiversity, modification of water flows ( Project Development Facility, 2007). Land degradation
interrupts the regulating and provisioning services of ecosystems in particular nutrient cycling ,
the global carbon cycle and hydrological cycle ( Dessalew, 2016).
On the accounts of several years of unstable climate and rainfall variability , the intrinsic fragile
bio-physical conditions and large areas in the highlands region have become severely eroded.
Consequently, areas formerly consider to receive sufficient rainfall ( highlands of Arsi, Bale ,
East and West Hararghe and Central Shewa Zones in major part of Oromiya for instance) now
began to get inadequate rainfall, resulting in decreasing water resources both in quantity and
spatial distribution ( ie, reduced in volume of lakes and rivers water resources, drying up of
wetlands in some areas)( Daniel , 2008).
And the degradation of highlands in Oromiya regional state like the destruction of natural forests,
depletion of soil and its productivity ,bio-diversity loss , lowering in agricultural productivity and
production and all these result in the declining of the overall socio-economic development of the
region ( Wondwossen , 2008 ).
2.5. Land Use/cover Changes and the Causes
Land use and land cover change is a major issue of global environment change . The terms “land
use” and “land cover” are often confused. Land use change is defined as the alteration of land use
due to human intervention for various purposes, such as for agriculture, settlement, transportation,
infrastructure and manufacturing, park recreation uses, mining and fishery. In contrast, land cover
change refers to the conversion of land cover from one category of land cover to another and/ or the
modifications of conditions within a category (Tesfahun and Temesgen, 2014). Since 1930, the
world population grew more than tripled. As a result, energy and food demands have increased,
which has resulted in more land cover changes for food production and settlements(Mölders,
2012).
18
Land use/cover changes are often the results of interplay among many factors. The simple
assumption that land use/cover changes are caused by few factors may not correct. Rather, many
interrelated complex factors best explain the processes of land use/cover changes .One author
further contend that “Identifying the causes of land-use change requires an understanding of how
people make land-use decisions and how various factors interact in specific contexts to influence
decision making on land use” (Lambin et al., 2003:216). Decision making processes how and for
what purposes the land in question to be used, in turn, are affected by different factors prevailing at
local, regional and global level. Different researchers have put the reasons for land use/cover
changes in two broad categories as proximate or direct and underlying or indirect /root causes
(Liverman and Cuesta, 2008) further contend that proximate factors occur at local or house
hold/farm level whereas underlying factors emanate from regional, country or even global level.
As a consequence, proximate variables are context and region specific while the root causes on the
other hand are the result of complex political, economic and social conditions occurring at a
distance. Farm level analysis allows to address proximate causes and to interpret them in reference
to underlying causes identified industrialization, urbanization, population growth as major factors
of land use changes These changes have resulted due to manmade and natural drivers related
to high rate of population increase, economic development and globalization on one hand and
natural hazards such as floods, landslides, drought and climate change on the other end of the
spectrum (Samuel et al., 2016).
2.6. Overview of Land Management Practices
2.6.1. Land Management Practices in the World
Appropriate land management practices will be imperative for the world to face the multiple
challenges it will need to address currently and in the future. Among these major challenges is the
need to increase food production to meet the nutritional needs of the growing world population
without serious degradation to the environment .The need for meeting food demand is made more
urgent in the near future. In the past ,increases in world food demand have been met by increasing
the agricultural land area ,improving plant genetics and intensifying input use(fertilizers and
pesticides) ,but in the future, the needed increased agricultural intensification may result in further
global environmental degradation if more sustainable agricultural practices are not widely adopted
(Peter et al.,2013).
19
Sustainable land use and protection of soils play a key role in food, climate and human security.
SLM is critical in minimizing and rehabilitating the effects of land degradation and ensuring
optimal use of resource for sustainable development and poverty alleviation. Land degradation has
become a global problem occurring in most terrestrial biomes and agro-ecologies, in both low
income and highly industrialized countries .On the other hand, fertile soils are a non-renewable
resource by human time spans as their formation and renewal could take hundreds, if not thousands,
of years . For this reason, the human management of soil resources will have wide-ranging
consequences on human security for generations to come (Lal et al.,2014) .
Already, sharp acceleration in environmental pollution and natural resource degradation over the
past century has led to a higher recognition of the importance of sustainable development, including
the first global landmark event—the Human Environment Conference in Stockholm in 1972 (World
Bank,2010). Continuing on this path towards sustainability, the United Nations have set 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to guide the future global development agenda. One of the
targets aims to “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity
loss”. Thus, SDGs envision providing a global commitment to address land degradation and achieve
a land and soil degradation-neutral world (Lal et al. 2012).
Crucially in this context, the livelihoods of the majority of the rural poor depend on land.
Additionally, food, fiber and other terrestrial ecosystem goods for the global population are drawn
from land, the degradation of which has both direct and indirect impacts on overall human welfare.
Addressing land degradation can, therefore, provide with cross-cutting contributions to achieving
many of the other SDGs as well. Despite the crucial role that land plays in human welfare and
development, investments in sustainable land management (SLM) are low, especially in developing
countries. For example, public investments per worker in the agricultural sector in SSA declined to
one third from 152 USD in 1980–1989 to only 42 USD in 2005–2007.
In particular, investments and incentives for sustainable land use and for prevention of land and soil
degradation are presently inadequate and would need to be substantially increased in order to
eradicate poverty and enhance food security in the world (FAO ,2012).
20
2.6.2. Land Management Practices in Ethiopia
The people of Ethiopia have long been aware of the problems of land degradation, even before the
government recognized the problem. Farmers have been living on the land for centuries and their
daily way of life is dependent upon the land resources at their disposal. Thus, their awareness of
land degradation is the result of cumulative experiences over a long period of time. The decision of
farmers to use and manage the land resources is dependent on their perception of the landscape
( Engidawork ,2012).
Land degradation has been identified as severe environmental problem in Ethiopia, especially since
the early 1970s . Because there is significant degradation on cultivated lands in Ethiopia, there is
potentially high payoff to addressing degradation in the country. Due to this, Ethiopia has been in
continuous struggle to achieve the three objectives of increasing agricultural production, reducing
poverty and ensuring sustainable use of the natural resources, especially since the early 1990s.
Increasing population pressure on an already degrading land resource has rendered the struggle
even tougher. The increases in agricultural production need to come primarily from improvements
in land productivity since the land frontier are shrinking. However, a significant increase in
agricultural productivity cannot be attained if the land resource base continues to be degraded.
Hence, ensuring sustainable land management is a matter of critical importance for agricultural
growth in Ethiopia ( Berhanu et al.,. 2009)
To reverse the problem of land degradation in the highlands of Ethiopia from 1970’s onwards
considerable efforts have been made. Sustainable land management in the Ethiopian context defined
as the use of renewable land resources for agricultural and other purposes to meet individual and
community needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these
resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions through systematic use of
indigenous and scientific knowledge/technologies (MoARD, 2010).
In this regard, sustainable land management involves more than the use of physical soil
conservation measures, it also includes the use of appropriate soil fertility management practices,
agricultural water management, forestry and agro forestry practices ,forage and land management
and the application of these measures in a more integrated way to satisfy community needs while
solving ecological problems. The SLM program emphasizes on scaling up of successful practices,
21
approaches and technologies to prevent or control land degradation by pursuing integrated and
cross-sectoral approaches to sustainable land management( Million,2014).
2.6.2.1 Afforestation and Reforestation

The most important measure to restore the disturbed rural ecology is the implementation of
afforestation and reforestation on a scale large enough to cope with the problems of soil erosion and
wastage .Many countries now have afforestation programs aimed at arresting erosion and regulating
floods. A successful implementation of afforestation and reforestation schemes requires an ability
to form pressure groups in the community or involve existing local groups. Activities like starting
nurseries in villages, planting and protecting multipurpose trees along roads, on farms and around
houses etc., for instance call for an ability to share the knowledge, support and energy of rural
people (Zelalem,2015).
2.6.2.2.Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry is dynamic and ecologically based on natural resource management system that
through the integration of trees in the farmland and range land, diversifies and sustains production
for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels. Trees can be
incorporated within a farming system by planting them on land which is not suitable for crop
production (Zelalem,2015). Where trees are deliberately integrated with crops or animals or both to
exploit expected positive interactions between the trees and other land uses, the practices is defined
as agro-forestry. Trees help to preserve the fertility of the soil through the return of organic matter
and the fixation of nitrogen. They improve the soil’s structure and help to maintain high infiltration
rates and greater water holding capacity. As a result less runoff is generated and erosion is better
controlled. Trees are also attractive to the farmer where they provide additional needs; especially
fuel, fodder and fruits multipurpose trees and shrubs are thus fundamental to agro forestry
(Asrat,2014).
2.6.2.3 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is a practice of growing different crops one after another on the same piece of land,
season after season or year after year. It is a valuable traditional practice, which plays an
important role in maintaining ecological stability and improving agricultural productivity. If the
same crop is grown on a piece of land year after year, the soil nutrient depletes sharply and as a
22
result yield decreases. Nevertheless, if different crops are rotated, the depletion of soil nutrient and
the decline in crop yields is minimized. Some crops restore or build fertility of the soil, while others
deplete its fertility. For instance, legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen and hence enrich soil fertility.
Forage legumes and grasses provide good ground cover that protects soil erosion and enriches the
soil with organic matter, which in turn improves the structure and biological activities (MoA,
2012).
2.6.2.4. Intercropping
Intercropping is a practice of growing two or more crops at the same time on the same piece of
land. While the principles and objectives of intercropping and mixed cropping are the same, the
patterns are different. Intercropping follows specific arrangements. It is not difficult to distinguish
the rows of the main crops from that of companion crops in intercropping. However, in mixed
cropping, two or more crops are mixed up and broadcast over the field so that one cannot
distinguish the rows of one crop from another. The aim of intercropping is to increase productivity
of the land and to protect the soil against erosion. The intercrop stand makes better use of the
available environmental resources. Intercropping reduces the problem of soil erosion. If properly
applied intercropping could be a solution to low crop yield and soil erosion in row crops (Dawit,
2017).
2.6.2.5. Terracing
It is a practice of making a level area of ground with a vertical or sloping front on side , a series of
these separated by sloping banks rising one above the others. The topography of the study area is a
natural barrier for agriculture and thus another possible factor that forced the people to practice
terracing. Very steep slopes characterize the topography and in order to carry out agricultural
activities in a sustainable way people had to implement terracing. Agriculture had first been
practiced in the area without using terraces. Thus the soil vanished probably in a short period of
time. To avoid the abandonment of agricultural activities, terraces were built gradually through
time.
The construction of terraces requires hard work and special skills. Farmers’ attitudes and
commitments stand out as the most important factors in the construction of terraces, given the high
labor and energy requirements. They have long been aware of the negative effects of soil erosion
23
and associated impacts on agricultural activities. Moreover, as a response to the existing problems,
such as soil erosion and run-off, and in order to increase the productivity of the land, the people had
to devise and adopt various indigenous soil and water conservation measures such as terracing.
Thereby, the communities in general and the individuals in particular developed and accumulated
experiences, knowledge and skills. This knowledge and these skills were modified and shaped by
the dynamics of social, political and economic conditions of the areas. These skills and knowledge
also passed from one generation to the next, with each generation contributing some added value
(Engidawork, 2012)..
2.7. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the practice of land management practice in Kersa woreda was
shown on Figure 1. As illustrated in the figure, proximate and underlying factors are assumed to
trigger to land management; so as to support more population. This basically means the
intensification of agricultural production.
24
Proximate causes (Natural  Characteristics of

factors) terrain( high slope, high relief)
 Rainfall Variability
 -Climate  Type of soil
 -Topography
Underlying Causes
 Population pressure
 Poverty
LAND
 Limited access of DEGRADATION
farmers to fertilizers, inputs,
etc.
 Limited Knowledge
of farmers
 Inappropriate land
use management
 Deforestation, etc.
Land Management
Practices :
 Terracing
 Contour Ploughing
 Agro-forestry
 Use of Compost/Manure
 Crop Rotation
 Strip Cultivation
 Cover Cropping
 Check dams
Figure 1. Conceptual Frame work
Source : Based on Literature review ( Tilahun et al.,2010 and Lal and Stewart, 2013).
25
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Description of the Study Area
3.1.1 Location and Size
The study area i.e Kersa woreda located in East Hararghe Zone of Oromia Regional State. The
administrative center of Kersa woreda is Kersa town which is located 42 kilometers west of the
city of Harar and 463 km south east of Addis Ababa . Astronomically Kersa woreda is located
between 90 13″ 0’’ N to 90 20′ 0″ N latitude and 410 36′ 0′′ E to 410 46′ 0″ E longitude ( Figure 1)
.The total area of the woreda is 453 square kilometers .The woreda is bounded by Meta woreda in
the West and Haramaya woreda in the East ,Dire Dawa Administrative Council in the North,
Kurfa Chale woreda in the South, (KWBoARD, 2017)
Figure 2. The location Map of the Study Figure Area

26
3.1.2. Physiography and Soil
The physiographic features of the study area have various land forms such as dissected plateaus,
hills, plains and valleys. Gola Balina ,kamona and Gola Walensu are important mountains of the
woreda with altitudinal range of 1600-2540 m asl. The local geology and its interaction with
climate largely determine the nature and type of soil of the study area(KWoARD, 2017). The
geological characteristics of the soil has principal importance in this respect, that is the
mineralogical composition of the bed rock (the volcanic rock) which determines its chemical
stability under different climatic regimes. According to KWoARD 2017, two major soil types
dominate the study area. These are dark grey and black basaltic soils.
3.1.3. Climate and Drainage
The woreda is located in East Hararghe Zone. Based on its agro-ecology, the woreda is divided into
three zones; Woina dega the land which lies between 1500m and 2,500 meter above sea level and
Dega which is above 2,500 meter above sea level and the Qolla zone below 1500 meters. The
majority 50% of the woreda area is covered by mid-high land agro-ecology while 30% is under
high land and the remaining 20% is tropical. The mean annual temperature ranges from 19o c to
29oc.The area has a bi-modal rain fall, where the short rainy season is the period from March to the
end of April and the main rainy season is the period from July to October. The annual precipitation
ranges from 800 to 1220 mm per year. River Kosum is the main river in the woreda (KWoARD,
2016).
Table 1. Monthly Rainfall and Mean annual Temperature of Kersa Woreda ( 2016)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
RF 17 15 16 170 110 35 327 325 252 138 55 20 1450mm

(mm)
Temp 19.5 18 25 26 29 29.5 25.5 20 22 19 20 17 22.50 C
(oC)
Source : KWoARD , 2017

27
3.1.4. Vegetation
In Ethiopia, temperature and rainfall highly determines the type and density of vegetation
(Liverman et al., 2008). In Kersa woreda many of the natural vegetation has been destroyed or
altered by prolonged cultivation and human settlements. As a result, much of the natural vegetation
areas have been changed to farm and settlement lands. According to elders of the woreda most of
indigenous trees such as Juniperus(Gaattiraa), Olea Abyssinia (Ejersa), Shola (Harbuu), Hagenia
forest (Heexoo) and Podocarpus (Birbisa) had been there in the past three decades. However, now
a day, these species of trees are not observed in the woreda . Thus, vegetation coverage in the
woreda includes grasses, scattered trees, shrubs and wood lands, and eucalyptus tree (KWoARD
2017).
3.1.5. Land Use
Kersa woreda has the total area of 45,341 hectares. Out of these 23,772 hectares are cultivated land,
2,209 hectares are grazing land, 11,213 hectares shrubs land where as only 8,147 hectares are
human settlement areas (KWoARD, 2017).
Table 2. Land Use in Kersa Woreda
No. Land Use Type In ha %

1 Cultivated Lands 23,772 54
2 Grazing Land 2,209 4
3 Shrub lands 11,213 25
4 Human Settlements 8,147 17
Total 45,341 100
Source : KWoARD, 2017
3.1.6. Population
The woreda’s population increase from time to time. According to the 2007 Census the total
population of the area was 172,626 .Out of this the male population were 86,458 and 86,168 were
females. The population in the woreda has reached to 199,601 in 2016 population sample survey.
28
The sex ratio is 101 males for every 100 females. Majority of the population (nearly 86.7 %) were
rural residents and the remaining 13.3% were urban dwellers.(CSA, 2016).
3.1.7. Economic Activity
The main economic activity of the woreda is agriculture. Mixed agricultural practices are the major
economic-stay of the study area. Cash Crop production is the dominant agricultural activities that
most of the population of the study area engaged in and are the bases of their existence. The
livestock sub-sector plays an important role in the livelihood of the rural people. This is interms of
providing alternative income sources, as a strategy in building resilience to shocks, stress and also
in contributing to their food security (WFP, 2013).
Since 50 % of its agro-ecology is sub-tropical middle high land (woina dega), mixed farming
(Cash crops, livestock, and food crops productions) is highly practiced in the study area. The area is
moderately productive and secure in food crops. Crop production is mainly based on rain fed. The
most important crops for consumption and sale are sorghum and maize. The main types of livestock
are cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys. These cattle are used as source of income. The livestock sub-
sector plays an important role in the livelihood of the rural people in terms of providing alternative
income sources, as a strategy in building resilience to shocks, stress and also in contributing to their
food security .
Cash crops like Chat and different kind of vegetables are produced in greater amount. Due to the
high price of fertilizer ,most of the households used crop rotation, ditch, terraces and strip cropping
etc to maximize their production. Inappropriate farming practices manifested by cultivation and
over grazing of hill sides and steep slopes changed forest in to crop land and clearing indigenous
trees have resulted in sever soil degradation in the study area (KWoARD, 2017).
3.2. Research Design
In this research the investigator used Mixed research design, particularly concurrent embedded
triangulation approach was used. The triangulation mixed approaches enable to gather quantitative
and qualitative data and are gathered at the same time. This approach was preferred over others due
to its merits to combining the results of the qualitative and quantitative analysis.
29
In addition, it demands the employment of diverse data collection instruments to capture the most
important factors as possible that influence land management practices in detail. Furthermore, this
strategy enables the investigator to collect data in a short period of time (Creswell, 2009).
3.3. Data Sources
Data for this study come from two sources: primary and secondary sources. In this research,
households are the major sources of primary data. In order to ensure the reliability and validity of
the data collected, triangulation of different methods are employed during collection of primary
data. As part of the primary data, information is also collected from kebeles households, kebele
model farmers, woreda agricultural experts, land resource management experts and DAs. The
primary data obtained from the fieldwork was also supplemented with data obtained from
secondary sources in order to bridge information gap from primary sources. Secondary data was
generated from census records, woreda agricultural extension records and a literature was reviewed
under the theme of the title issued as a problem.
3.4. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
Both stratified and simple random sampling methods used to collect primary data. Intensive field
works within the Kersa woreda was concentrated in three kebeles. The three kebeles namely Mata
Qoma, Gola Wachu and Gale Mirga that are representing the remaining kebeles of the woreda were
purposively selected through expert opinion including local development agents and agricultural
officers, those with extensive experience and knowledge of the area. Selection is made through land
degradation severity and implementation of land management practices as criteria that roughly
estimated by local development agents, woreda agricultural office and investigator observation.
Gola Wachu kebele has the total population of 3301 and total household size of 634. Mata Qoma
has the total population of 4243 and total household size of 692 and Gale Mirga kebele has the total
population of 4275 and total household size of 645. The total number of households in these kebeles
are 1971. Of this 17 % of the households was selected for this study and the size in each kebele was
proportionally organized as shown in Table 3 below.
30
The simplified formula to calculate the sample size was provided by( Israel , 2012 ) to determine
the required sample size at 95% confidence level and level of precision (e) =0.05%.
n= _N_______
1+ N ( e) 2
Where:
n = the required sample size,
N = the population size (total household size) = 1971
e = the level of precision or error = 0.05
n= 1971_____
1+ 1971(0.5)2
= 329
Table 3. Selection of Samples from Each Kebele
Name of Kebele Total HHS Sample Size (Proportional) Method of Selection
Gola Wachu 634 105 Systematic
Mata Qoma 692 116 Systematic
Gale Mirga 645 109 Systematic
Total 1971 330
Source: CSA, 2016 and Computed by the investigator
The sample households for Gola Wachu, Mata Qoma and Gale Mirga kebeles are 105, 115, and
109 respectively. Out of 1971 total HHs, 329 sample households plus 6 key informants and 9
members for FGD were selected from various age groups and from both sexes.
31
3.4.1. Sampling procedure
Different sampling mechanisms were available to select sample of the community from the area
which was affected by land degradation. Firstly, the households from the three kebeles were taken
purposely grouped in to agro-ecological zones, land degradation severity and existence of soil
management practices. Secondly, list of households were prepared based on the data that was
obtained from each kebele offices. Systematic sampling technique was employed to select sampling
units or households from each kebele.
A total of 329 households ; 220 from woina dega agro-ecology, majority of the woreda area (Mata
Qoma and Gale Mirga) and the remaining 109 households from dega (Gola Wachu) agro-ecology
were selected purposively. In the process of selecting 329 households from the three kebeles the
principle of proportional stratified sampling was applied based on their total population of
households. Lists of HH heads from kebele office are used as the sampling frame in order to
systematically(every sixth of the HHs heads) select the 329 sample households.
3.5. Methods of Data Collection
3.5.1. Data collection procedure
The data was collected by six enumerators who have an educational background of grade 12. One
day training was given for those data collectors on the objective of the study, interviewing skills
and techniques, and other procedural steps to gather the data.
3.5.2. Data Collection instruments
The selection of instruments of data collection depends on the kinds of data to be collected to
achieve the stated objectives. Accordingly, the investigator employed instruments of data
collection. These instruments were questionnaire, key informants, focused group discussions and
field observation .
3.5.2.1. Questionnaire
Household questionnaire survey was used to collect quantitative data concerning demographic
characteristics of households, land holding characteristics, perception on land use/cover changes,
32
major land management practices undertaken at household level . This instrument was employed to
collect data on family’s demography, land holding size ,the major cause of land degradation and
management practices and their perception about land use /cover changes over time.
3.5.2.2. Key informant Interview
Key informants were selected for Interview .Structured Interview was used. The experts of land
resource management, land use and land management and agricultural extension agents at woreda
and kebeles were selected as respondents. The purpose of conducting informal interviews with six
purposively selected individuals was in order to have a good insight on the problem of land
degradation ,contributing factors and land management practices with the lenses of farmer’s
experience.
3.5.2.3. Field observation
Personal observations are also employed in order to fully understand the realities on the ground,
particularly the features of land degradation, land management practices and land use/cover
changes. It helps to generate ideas helpful to modify survey questionnaire, focus group discussion
and key informant and also to acquire information about the physical setting of the area, conditions
of land degradation and status of land management practices.
3.5.2.4. Focus group discussion
Focus group discussion (FGD) is also an important method of collecting qualitative data. Focus
groups with nine model and experienced farmers from different backgrounds were established
under the supervision of the researcher. By this way the total numbers of households selected
purposefully for FGD were nine. This instrument is used to collect data on the declining of the
productivity of farmlands ,the causes and their perception on land use/cover changes over time and
their land management practices and the factors that affect their land management activities.
3.5.2.5. Remote sensing
The satellite imagery was used to evaluate the land use/cover change or the trends of loss of
resources and settlement patterns on the selected area from 1985-2017. Satellite imagery provides
an excellent source of data for performing structural studies of a landscape. Present and past
33
information on land use/cover change for the study area was generated from remotely sensed data.
Satellite image from Land sat TM for 1985, ETM+ for 2000 and OLI for 2017, were obtained from
Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA). The time gap of about thirty two years between the first
satellite imagery and the third is wide enough to show changes and trends in Land Use/Cover in the
study area. These sources of information were used to analyze land use/cover changes over the
years for the study area.
3.5.2.6. Acquisition of Geospatial Data
The procedures used to analyze satellite images of 1985,2000 and 2017 were:
Pre-classification: land use classification is the extraction of differentiated classes of land use/cover
and land use categories from remotely sensed data from satellite images. Pre-field image processing
was done using false colour composite of bands 3, 2, and 1 in RGB transformation and other visual
interpretation. This is because vegetation cover reflects more at infrared region than visible band.
At true colour composite only green band will be reflected and the other bands will be absorbed for
photosynthesis by chlorophyll. Detailed digital image processing and visual interpretation of
satellite images were made by using ERDAS Imagine 8.6 soft ware. Since the acquired satellite
image was already geo-referenced, there is no need of geo-referencing of the acquired satellite
image.
Classification: classification of a satellite image can be achieved by supervised or unsupervised

procedures. A supervised approach relies on the prior specification of training areas, in which major
land cover types are delimited manually as a key for electronically classifying the image. In
contrast, no such visual interpretation is involved in an unsupervised method. It uses automated
methods to cluster reflectance values in order to derive a required number of land classes and their
associated spectral signatures (Tudor G.J. et al. 1998). For this study a supervised classification
scheme with maximum likelihood classifier decision rule was used by following three stages,
assigning training sites, classification and outputs.
Post Classification: After classification, majority analysis was used in order to avoid minor
fragmented classification arrangements on the output map. The majority analysis was repeated four
times until fine classification had removed. The simple approach consists of comparing the properly
coded results of two separate classifications. Finally, ground verification after classification was
34
made in order to check the precision of the classified land use/cover map. Based on the ground
verification necessary correction and adjustments were made. Normally, the map from time-1
is compared with the map produced at time-2 and the map produced at time -2 is compared with the
map produced at time-3. Based on three satellite images classified maps, 1985, 2000 and 2017 were
made. The first comparison was between 1985 and 2000; and the second comparison was between
2000 and 2017 maps.
From visual and digital interpretations of the satellite imagery, different land use/cover categories
were distinguished. As a result six major land use/cover types including farmland, shrub land,
Forest land, Water land, grassland and settlement land have been identified. The data taken from
Satellite image of 1985, 2000 and 2017 were analyzed and interpreted by using ERDAS imagine
software.
3.6. Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis
The data that have been generated from primary and secondary sources through questionnaires, key
informant interview, field observation, document analysis , FGD and satellite images which have
been analyzed and interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively. The methods of data presentation
and analysis typically involved the transformation of all information. Qualitative data analysis is
most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using properly constructed and
worded questionnaire. Quantitative data was analyzed with the help of descriptive statistics such as
frequency distribution, percentage, maps, tables were used extensively. All information that are
collected from primary sources was analyzed by using SPSS package version 22. Correlation and
regression coefficient was used to identify the associations between dependent (land management)
and independent variables (sex, age, marital status, educational status, farm land size and family
size).
35
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 The Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents

Examining the socio economic and institutional characteristics of sample house hold has paramount
importance. To this effect, in the following sections of the chapter the socioeconomic characteristics
of sample households and its effect on land management practices were given due attention and
analysis.
4.1.1 Age and sex structure
The household survey conducted at the three kebeles revealed that of the total sample households,
65 (19.76%) were in between the age of 15-49 , 125 (37.99%) was between the age of 49-65 and
the remaining 139 (42.25%) were above 65. A large proportion of the households were found above
49 years age group. Sex composition of the sampled households reveals that of the total 329
households 40 (12.16 %) were females, whereas, 289 (87.84%) of households were males.
Table 4. Distribution of Households by Age and Sex Structures
Age (Years) Male Female Total
No. % No. % No. %
15-49 61 18.54 4 1.22 65 19.76
49-65 109 33.13 16 4.86 125 37.99
>65 119 36.17 20 6.08 139 42.25
Total 289 87.84 40 12.16 329 100
Source ;Field survey,2017
4.1.2. Marital status
The survey at the three household kebeles has revealed that 296 (90%) of the sampled were married,
18 (6%) widowed, 15 (4%) divorced. From this we can conclude that the majority of the sample
households were married.
36
4.1.3. Educational status of the respondents

When we see from Table 5, the educational background, about 20% of the sampled household
could not write and read, 28% could write and read and 1-4 grades were 37.4 % .The percentage of
respondents from 5-8 grades and secondary 9-10 grades and between 11 and 12 grades were 11 %,
2.4 % and 1.5 % respectively.
Table 5. Educational Status of the Respondents

Level of Education Male Female Total
No. % No. % No. %
Can not read and write 52 15.80 14 4.26 66 20.06
Read and Write 88 26.75 4 1.21 92 27.96
1-4 grades 118 35.87 5 1.52 123 37.39
5-8 grades 20 6.08 15 4.56 35 10.64
9-10 grades 6 1.82 2 0.61 8 2.43
11-12 grades 5 1.52 - - 5 1.52
Total 289 87.84 40 12.16 329 100
Source : Field Survey 2017
4.1.4. Farm land holding size
According to the view of focus group discussion, there was no fair distribution of farmland in the
study area. In Table 6 the farm land holding size of 10 years ago shows that 142 (43.9 %) of the
households had a farm land size of less than 0.5ha , 109 (33.6 %) the households farm land size
was between 0.5-1ha, 41(12.6%) households farm land size was between 1-2 ha. Furthermore, 32
(9.9 %) of the households had a farm land size between 2-3 ha.
Currently, farm land holding size of the sampled households in the study area decreasing in size and
varied from individual to individuals. Accordingly, households with less than 0.5ha farm land
holding size was 164 (50.6 %). Households with farm land holding size was between 0.5-1 ha
accounts for 110 (34%), and sampled households with farm land holding size between 1-2 ha
accounts for 27 (8.3%).
37
Table 6. Farm Land Holding Size of the Households over the Past 10 Years
Farm Land 10 years ago Current
Holding Size Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
(ha.)
< 0.5 142 43.16 164 49.85
0.5 –1 114 34.65 115 34.95
1-2 41 12.46 27 8.21
2-3 32 9.73 23 6.99
Total 329 100 329 100
Source: Field survey, 2017
According to FAO the average farm land holding size of rural small holders in Ethiopia was 0.9ha.
But the average farmland holding size of rural smallholders in Oromia national regional state was
1.84 ha it was more than the national average. In the study area majority 164(50.6%) of the sampled
households were below the national and Oromia regional state (FAO, 2015). The current farm land
holding size of the sampled households was less as compared to their family size.
4.2. Land-Use/Land-Cover Change from 1985-2017
The following different land cover types were identified.

4.2.1. Shrub lands
In terms of area, the shrub land was one of the largest land use/cover types in the study area. The
proportion of shrub land coverage at different periods also shows change. In 1985 it constitutes
50.1% and further decreased to 44.38% in 2000. The change was dramatic in 2017 where the
proportion dropped to 20.32%.The shrub land loss in the study area a total of 2,580 ha between
1985 and 2000 and 10,908 ha between 2000 and 2017. In other words, a total of 13,496 ha of Shrub
land have been converted to different land use/cover type(s) in the span of 30 years (Table 7).
4.2.2. Grass land
Like land use/cover categories mentioned above, grassland follow similar pattern of decrease. This
land use/cover type gradually decreased from 11.6% in 1985 to 4.95% in 2000 to 4.87 % in 2017.
38
Overall, 3037 ha of grassland have been converted into different land use/cover types between 1985
and 2017 (Table 7).
4.2.3. Farm and settlement lands
As it can be seen from Table 7, farmland expansion was huge and it is the largest land use type that
gained largest proportion of land from other land use/cover types next to settlement land. In 1985,
farmlands constituted 22.8% of the total land area but the proportion increased dramatically to
33.85% in 2000 and to 52.43% in 2017. Between 1985 and 2017, a total of 13424 ha of land have
been converted to farmland. Of the total 20067 ha of land that underwent conversion, farmland
constituted 13424 ha of 66.9% converted land cover changes (Table 7) .
In 1985, settlement land use/cover constituted 3.3% of the total land area but the proportion
increased dramatically to 4.81% in 2000 and to 17.95% in 2017. Between 1985 and 2017, a total of
6643ha of land have been converted to settlement land in the study area (Table 7). Key informants
also stated that settlement pattern of the study area in the past 30 years was consistent with the
result detected by satellite images. They further indicated that land previously covered with others
natural vegetations gradually converted to settlement land. Settlement land in the study area
increased in size and density within the span of 30 years. The main reason for such a huge
conversion of land cover changes was the growth of population in the study area. As population
grows, there is high rate of deforestation was followed. Deforestation was always followed by a
change in land use and land cover type from forest to grassland and cropland. A particular increase
in cropland was observed in the study area was largely at the expense of grassland and forestland a
fact that is widely acknowledged by the sample HHs. Because of this, an extra farm and settlement
lands increased and different land cover types were converted into farmlands and settlement lands.
This changes of growth in population in the study kebeles was shown in table 8.
39
Figure 3 . LULC Thematic map of Kersa Woreda 1985,2000 and 2017.
Source Satellite images of 1985, 2000 and 2017.

40
4.2.4. Area coverage, gains and losses of the different types of land use/cover
Table 7 below depicts the area coverage, gains and losses of the different land use/cover types in
Kersa woreda.
Table 7. Land Use/Cover Changes in the study area between 1985 and 2017
Land Area changes of Land

use/cover use/cover between the
Land use/cover Changes in Kersa Woreda
classes study years; gain(+) or
in the year :
loss (-)
1985 2000 2017 1985- 2000- 1985-

2000 2017 2017
ha % ha % ha % ha ha ha
Forest land 5417 12 5374 11.85 1944 4.29 -43 -3430 -3473
Farmland 10348 22.8 15346 33.85 23772 52.43 +4998 +8426 +13424
Grassland 5282 11.7 2243 4.95 2209 4.87 -3037 -34 -3073
Settlement 1495 3.3 2183 4.81 8138 17.95 +688 +5955 +6643
Water body 92 0.2 74 0.16 65 0.14 -18 -9 -27
Shrub land 22709 50 20121 44.38 9213 20.32 -2580 -10908 -13496
Total 45341 100 45341 100 45341 100
Source: Satellite images of 1985, 2000 and 2017
4.2.5. Population size and growth
Ethiopia has made three national population and housing surveys in 1984, 1994 and 2007. The
population size of the study area was 3559 in 1984, 4762 in 1994, and 8574 in 2007. Taking the
base population of 3559 for 1984, on average 120 persons were added each year to reach 4762 in
1994. Taking the base population of 4762 for 1994, on average 293 persons were added each year
to reach 8574 in 2007(Table 8).
41
Table 8.Population Change between 1984 and 2007 in the study area
Kebeles 1984 1994 2007
Gola Wachu 1105 1505 2662
Mata Qoma 1328 1729 3199
Gale Mirga 1126 1528 2713
Total 3559 4762 8574
Source: own computation from CSA 1984, 1994 and 2007
The three census results reveals that population growth in the study area was high. Between 1984
and 1994, in a period of 10 years the population grew at 3.8 % per year. But this rate of growth rose
considerably to 4.2 % between 1994 and 2007 in a period of 13 years.
Attempt has been made to project the population of the study area by taking the 2007 population
and housing census result as a baseline. Assuming that 4.2 % annual exponential growth rate to
continue in the years to come, the population size of the study area at ten year interval is shown in
(Table 8). The population of the study area within the study time (1984 -2016) was increased more
than threefold from 3559 in 1984 to 12048 in 2016.
From the Table 8 we conclude that the population in the study area was increasing at an alarming
rate. This increment created pressure on marginal lands, over exploitation of land resource,
fragmentation of the family plots of land and causes land use/cover changes in the study area.
4.3. Land Degradation and Management Practices
4.3.1. The Different Land Management Practices in the Study area

As shown in the Table 10 all the respondents’ were agreed on the importance of land management
practices. As the result the data in the Table 10, clearly indicated that most of the respondents’ 296
(90.1%) did know the importance of application of compost(manure), 312 (94.8%) were aware of
the effect of closure of grazing land, 312 (94.8%) knew about the importance of terracing, 284
(86.2%) were known about importance of crop rotation, 284 (86.2%) were on making water ways,
273 (83.0%) were aware of mulching and 268 (81.5%) were planting trees.
42
Crop rotations and mixed cropping are traditional systems that are widely practiced in eastern
Africa. Good crop rotations such as maize followed by legumes facilitate the conservation and
addition of humus, restoration of soil structure and fertility and reduction of pests and diseases. In
strip cropping, two or more crops are grown in the same field in the same season. In most cases
grains and leguminous crops are mixed. The technique is used both for erosion control and fertility
improvement. Other traditional soil conservation practices are contour ploughing .
The traditional way of graded contours is used by nearly all farmers. Due to the population increase,
traditional fallow periods have become very short and rare and inexistent at all. Manure is used by
many farmers .Terracing is also the most widely used land management practices in the study area.
The objectives of traditional land management practices give us an understanding of farmers' way
of thinking. The aim of farmers does not necessarily correspond with the aim of the scientist. Some
practices are simply good farming practices that happen to reduce soil erosion.
Table 9. Major Land Management Practices used by sample household in Kersa Woreda
Land management Accept as a percent Do not percent Major land Mgt
practices Solution for land accept practices Used by
degradation the HHs Q.20
Strip cropping 329 100 - - 
Application of compost 296 90.1 33 9.9 
Terracing 312 94.8 17 5.2 
Crop rotation 284 86.2 45 13.8 
Making water ways 284 86.2 45 13.8 
Mulching 273 83 56 17 
Tree planting 268 81.5 61 18.5 
/Afforestation
Rotational grazing 296 90 33 10 
Contour ploughing 125 38 204 62 
Fallowing 188 36 141 64 
Source: Field Survey , 2017
4.3.1.1. Perception of households to land degradation

As indicated in Table 10, land degradation was reported as the common problem by the highest
proportion of households in the study area 272(82.6%). Field observation and discussion with local
development agents also indicated the severity level of land degradation in all sampled kebeles.
43
Most farmers in Kersa woreda faced the problem of land degradation on their farm land (Table
11).
Table 10.Distribution of Household Response to land Degradation
Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 272 82.6
No 57 17.4
Total 329 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2017
This again suggests that farmers recognize the land degrading process. Perception, however, has
not resulted in action to address the problem since field observation showed that most farmers were
not actually practicing good and effective land management practices. Rills and gullies were
commonly observed on farm and grazing lands. Focus group discussions further highlighted that
they aware of the problems of land degradation in their respective kebelles.
4.3.1.2. Indicators of land degradation
Land degradation is indicated by different characteristics. About,143 (43%) of sampled households

pointed out that a decrease in crop yield is a significant indicator of land degradation. Further more
the greater part 155 (47%) and 87 (26%) of households responded that the indicators of land
degradation were erosion of the top fertile soil and deforestation are the major indicators of land
degradation respectively. Finally, 67 (20%) of the respondents stated that the development of rills
and gullies was also a good indicator of land degradation in the area (Table 11).
A decline in crops yield was often used as an essential indicator for land degradation among focus
group discussion and key informants. Other indicators mentioned by focus group discussion and
key informants includes high weeds, crops becoming stunted and development of gullies and rills.
Focus group discussion and key informants respondents of the study area further cited that the
prevalence of exotic weeds as indicators of land degradation and this was confirmed through
discussion with local extension agent.
44
Table 11.Distribution of Household Response to indicators of Land Degradation
Response Frequency
Percentage
Decrease in crop yield 143 43
Erosion of Top fertile soil 155 47
Deforestation 87 26
Development of rills and gullies 67 20
Total 452 136*
Source: Field Survey (2017)
*percentage over 100 is due to multiple responses
The agricultural extension agent informed that the wide spread weed known as partinium or
harama sarko are truly indicators of land degradation. The most commonly cited indicator of land
quality decline is a decrease in crop yields.
4.4. Major land management practices
4.4.1 Traditional land management practices
Farmers are not only constructing and maintaining terraces to manage the land; they are also using
various traditional techniques of land management practices. The main practices include strip
cropping, compost/manuring, terracing, fallowing, crop rotation and cultivation of grass and
afforestaion and reforestation .
4.4.1.1 Crop rotation
Crop rotation was one practice of soil management in the study area to restore soil fertility. In the
study sites the number of households practicing this method was found to be 194 (59.9%).
According to the woreda Agricultural Development Bureau, crop rotation was conducted in the
study area during meher (spring) season of the year. In this system, crops are interchanged on the
same plot of land once a year or every year. The crops that are used in crop rotation are sorghum,
maize, potatoes and others. Local farmers are well aware of how to improve soil productivity by
rotating crops. The focused group and also key informants said that as fallowing is no longer
possible, they now rotate crops on the fields that are away from their homesteads, which receive
very little manure. Households choose the crops types to grow in rotation according to adaptation of
45
the soil and the rainfall pattern. Personal preference and economic consideration such as the price of
the crop also influence the households’ choices.
According to the response from the sample HHS, the most frequently used rotational sequence is
Chat, Potato, Sorghum (Mishingaa) and Maize(Boqqoolloo). Discussions held with focused group
indicates that they do not usually cultivate maize on the sorghum harvested fields unless it is
manured. Households know from experience that if they sow maize consecutively with sorghum the
amount of maize yield they obtain will considerably decrease. Even though the land would be
exhaustively ploughed, the uprooting of the roots of the sorghum residue was the main cause of
yield decline.
As discussed with the key-informants and focus group, the crop rotation in the case study area is the
main system which should be transferred from one place to the other or crops are interchanged
within the same land in the year during Belg season. In the mean time, the crop rotation increases
soil fertility and lessens soil depletion that results through the use of similar nutrients from soil.
Crop rotation is a primary means to build soil fertility, preserve the environment, boost economic
returns, and add crop production and market diversity, achieving weeds pests and disease control in
indigenous farming system. (Teklu & Gezahegn, 2003).
4.4.1.2. Strip cropping
In the study area 59 (18%) of the households used strip cropping as an important soil management
practices to restore soil fertility. Strip cropping is a kind of agronomical practice in which ordinary
crops are planted or grown in the form of relatively narrow strips across the land slope. These strips
are so arranged that the strip crops should always be separated by strips of close growing and
erosion resistance crops. In other words, strip cropping is the practice of growing alternative strips
of different crops in the same field. The practice which also called contour strip cropping when
contours employed can be used to control water and wind erosion For controlling water erosion, the
strips are always on the contour but in areas prone to wind erosion; they may be placed
perpendicular to the direction of prevailing wind.
According to key informants and focus group discussion strip cropping is common cropping system
in the study area. The crops used in the strip cropping are maize, chat and potatoes. These strip
46
crops are used for erosion control, to check the surface runoff and force them to infiltrate in to the
soil there by facilitates to the conservation of rain water (KWoARD, 2017).
4.4.1.3 Terracing
In the study area 329(100%) of the households were used terracing as an important land
management practices. The success of sustainable long-term use of indigenous terraces is attributed
to different factors. Among others, one factor is the farmers’ psychological makeup, which
developed as a result of not only possessing the terraces, but also being capable of designing and
constructing them. Farmers’ terrace design is based on their perception of the pertinent problems,
such as soil erosion, runoff, size of farmland, slope gradient, availability of material and labor.
These enable the farmers to decide on the various features of the terraces and also their means of
execution. They modify or alter the terraces to cope with various environmental and socio-
economic dynamics. More than four decades ago, farmers did not face top-down interventions or
impositions on design, implementation and evaluation of terraces (Engidawork, 2012).
4.4.1.4. Contour ploughing
Among the total households 265(81%) were applied this structure and carried out using ox-drawn
plough. Contour ploughing is a practice of tilling the land along the contours of the slope in order to
reduce runoff on steep sloping land. Cultivation along the contour is the practice of tilling, planting
and performing all agricultural operations following the contour lines of the field slope.
4.4.1.5. Drainage ditch
Out of the total households 181(55 %) were applied traditional drain ditches that was low cost
measures that construction is the part of normal ploughing activity. Drain is one of the widely used
as land management practices which was micro channel constructed on cultivated farms to drain
off excess water and to control soil erosion (KWoARD, 2017).
4.4.1.6. Agro-forestry
In the study area the households used agro-forestry as an important land management practices
were 45(14%). According to Blanco and Lal (2008), agro-forestry is a collective name for land-use
systems in which trees or shrubs are grown in association with agricultural crops, pastures or
47
livestock and in which there are both ecological and economic interactions between the trees and
other components. The major agro-forestry practiced in the study area was: Trees, as one of the
major components of agro-forestry have to be considered to play a great role in keeping the ecology
of the study area. The most common type of tree mainly practiced in the study area was eucalyptus.
Based on observations of the investigator, in the study area households gradually replace
indigenous trees by Eucalyptus trees which is used for different purposes within a short period of
time.
4.4.1.7. Compost
Out of the sampled households 267(81%) of them use compost as an important land management
practice. Compost is also one of the modern soil fertility improvement measure practiced in the
area. The preparation of compost involves the use of leaves, grasses, cow dung etc with two or three
holes. In the woreda, this method has introduced long ago by the force of rural development agent
and extensions. So, farmers due to the relatively lower cost of the inputs quickly and widely adopt it
and used it. (KWoARD, 2017).
4.4.2 Adopted Land management practices
4.4.2.1. Check dams
Of the total sampled households 77(23%) were applied check dams as an important land
management practices. Check dams are built in the gully systems to harvest water and sediment
which can be either temporary or permanently built across a small channel or irrigation canal.
Similar to drop structures in purpose, they reduce erosion and gulling in the channel and allow
sediments and pollutants to settle. They are used to slow the velocity of concentrated water flows
that helps to reduce the energy of storm water to prevent erosion Blanco and Lal (2008).
4.4.2.2 .Use of artificial fertilizers
In the study area out of total sampled households 195(59%) were used chemical fertilizers to boost
their crop production and to restore soil degradation temporarily. Key informants revealed that
farmers dig ditches along contours for practical purposes serve as check dam to trap sediments and
run off. There was also wide spread practice of crop rotation. Agro-forestry practice was commonly
observed in Mata Qoma kebele out of the three study kebelles.
48
Table 12.Distribution of Households by Major Methods of land Management Practices
Major Land Management Frequency Percentage
Practices
Crop rotation 194 59

Contour ploughing 265 81
Compost/Manure 267 81
Agro-forestry 45 14
Strip cropping 59 18
Ditches 181 55
Terracing 329 100
Check dams 77 23
Use of artificial fertilizers 195 59
Fallowing - -
Total 1612 480*
Source: Field Survey,2017
*percentage over 100 is due to multiple responses
4.5. Major factors affecting land management practices
To see the associations of socio-demographic variables of population i.e. age, sex, family size,
marital status, educational status, and settlement status with land management practice, correlation
and regression coefficients were used (Table 13).
4.5.1. Educational status and land management practice
Education would have a great influence for the farmers regarding land degradation problems. The
literacy status of farmers is useful to know their perception about the current situation of land
degradation problems. Level of education is one of the demographic features of households which
has crucial role to have more information about environmental problems in general and causes and
consequences of land degradation and management practices in particular (Belay et al,.2013).
Practically the performance of farmers who attend primary education (1-8) is better than that of
farmers who did not attend formal education. Similarly; farmers who attended high school (9-12)
were found to be superior compared to those who had primary education in general.
49
According to key informants result farmers’ perception/ understanding of land degradation
problems and land management practice has shown differences among educated and uneducated
farmers. The effect of farmers’ educational attainment on practicing of land management was
significant. In fact, higher literacy level of farmers could have brought differences among farmers
in practicing land management on their land and has effect on land management practices in
general. Farmers who attend formal education have better understanding than those who did not in
the causes of land degradation in the study area. It means that farmers who attend formal schools
have had better perception in the cause of land degradation. The literacy status of farmers is useful
to know their knowledge about the current situation of environmental problems. Educational level
of farmers has a great impact on the general understanding of the adverse effects of environmental
degradation. This finding is supported by the view of Eyasu (2007) education increases a person’s
understanding of his environment and one’s ability to acquire and process information about his
environment and to detect changes in it.
Therefore, literacy has fundamental impacts on environment in general and land degradation and
land management in particular and practices to be implemented. The finding of positive
participation between farmers’ educational status and land conservation practices is consistent with
initial assumption and it is also similar to findings by Tesfa and Mekuriaw (2014) who identified
educational status of farmers to have positive influence on their decision to retain introduced soil
and water conservation structures. Since adequate education enhances farmers’ level of land and its
conservation practices, it is therefore, expected that the farmers would be inclined to sustainable
land management.
Educational status and land management practices have been analyzed to see the results in Table
13. The result indicated that there was a significant association between educational status of the
household heads and land management practices (Table 13). Therefore ,educational status of
households have positive influence on farmer’s decisions to retain introduced land management
structures.
4.5.2.. Sex of household heads and land management practices
Women were sometimes not participate in decision making about land management practices. In
addition, women are commonly busy in house hold activities and their prime responsibility is child
50
rearing. Correlation and regression coefficient revealed that there was a significant association
between sex of house hold heads and land management practices (Table 13). Thus, the finding had
confirmed the idea that men are more likely to practice land management than women (Benin,
2002).
4.5.3. Age of household heads and land management practices
Farmers’ practice of land conservation measures can be influenced by different factors. The most
important and considered factors include gender and age of farmers. The age of the farmers has
shown different responses among farmers to land degradation. The higher age group understand
both depleting of the environment is from age of 30-49.Their age is positively correlated with
higher degree of farmer’s perception and knowledge about the soil erosion processes and associated
problems. The effect of age of the farmer on conservation decision may be either negative or
positive ( Mulatu,2014) . The household survey conducted at the three kebeles revealed that of the
total sample households 65 (20%) were in between the age of 15-49 , 125 (38%) was between the
age of 49-65 and the remaining 139 (42%) were above 65. A large proportion of the households
were found above 49 years age group. Sex composition of the sampled households revealed that of
the total 329 households 40 (14.8 %) were females, whereas 289 (85.2%) of households were males
(Table 13).
Table-13, shows that out of 329 respondents, about 37.8 % of respondents has an age between
49-65 years and about 42 % of sample respondents are above the age of 65 years. Concerning to
relationship between the age structure of sample household and adoption of land management
practice measures, the age group above 49 years were adopted physical structures than when
compared the age group less than 49 years. This could be due to greatest activity in the use of
management practices was displayed by middle‐aged farmers who were both well established in
their farming careers and still anticipating a number of years in farming. Thus, more experienced
respondents (i.e. relatively aged ones) in farming are likely to manage their land better than less
experienced respondents. Age of members of the household influence the overall land management
practice efforts of the household. Through experience respondents perceive and understand the
problem of land degradation and the decline in the fertility of the land and the use of land
51
management technology in controlling soil erosion and add available organic and/or inorganic
fertilizer to preserve and/or improve the fertility of the land.
The correlation coefficient and regression test showed that there was a significant relationship
between age of households and land management practices in the study area. This was consistent
with the previous study which indicates the age of households have positive and significant
influence on adoption of land management practices (Mulatu ,2014).
4.5.4. Farm land size and land management practices
According to the view of focus group discussion, there was no fair distribution of farmland in the
study area. Table 6 shows farm land holding size 10 years ago reveals that 142 (43.9 %) of the
households have farm land holding size less than 0.5ha, 109 (33.6 %) the households farm land
holding size between 0.5-1ha, 41(12.6%) households farm land holding size between 1-2 ha.
Furthermore 32(9.9 %) of the households have a farm land holding size between 2-3 ha.
Currently, farm land holding size of the sampled households in the study area varied from one to
the other. Accordingly, households with less than 0.5ha farm land holding size was 164 (50.6 %).
Households with farm land holding size between 0.5-1 ha accounts 110 (34 %) and sampled
households with farm land holding size between 1-2 ha accounts 27 (8.3%). The main reason for
declining in the amount of farmland is the growth of population . Ethiopia is one of the most
populated countries in Africa with about 105 million people . Rain-fed agriculture employs 80 % of
the population forming the basis of Ethiopia’s economy.
The FG revealed that fragmented land holdings may have different adverse effects on the
management of croplands. When land holdings are intensively fragmented and scattered much time
and energy are lost in moving from one plot to another and make difficulty in application of organic
manure. As land is further fragmented because of population growth , it becomes uneconomical in
size and left with little room for implementing structural land management measures. Land size and
practice of structural land management measures have strong relationship. The small farm-size
holders have negative attitudes towards structural land management measures. These farmers lack
trust on structural land management measures as they were poorly participated in the planning and
designing of land management program. In this study, there was a significant relationship observed
between farm land size and land management practices (Table 13). This was consistent with the
52
study conducted by Demoze, 2014 as land holding size increases the adoption of fallowing, crop
rotation and cover cropping increases.
4.5.5. Marital status and land management practices
Marital status of farmers is one of the most important demographic variables, which has an impact
on responding to environmental problem. Marital status is an important variable affecting land
management practices. So the change in the distribution of marital status has an important bearing
on the size and structure of families and households. The survey at the three kebeles has revealed
that 296 (90%) of the sampled households were married, 18 (6%) widowed and 15 (4%) divorced.
From this we can conclude that the majority of the sample households were married.
In this study, there was a significant relationship observed between marital status of the household
heads and land management practices (Table 13). Focused group discussants revealed that married
households were able to manage their farm land than divorced, widowed and separated households.
4.5.6. Family size and land management Practices
There is strong relationship between family size of households and the practice of land management
in the study area. The HHs which has large family( more than 5 children ) was practicing land
management .This was consistent with the previous study which indicates the family size of
households have positive and significant influence on adoption of land management practices
(Mekonnen, 2013).
53
Table 13. Association of Socio-demographic variables with land management practices
Socio-demographic Frequency Land management practices

variables Yes No Correlation Regression
(Frequency ) (Frequency ) Coefficient Coefficient
Educational Status of HHS
Cannot read and write 66 36 29
Read and write 92 55 37
1-4 123 74 49 0.99 0.96
5-8 35 28 7
9-12 13 9 4
Sex of the Household Heads
Male 289 230 59 0.97 0.95
Female 40 9 31
Age of the household heads
<49 65 21 44 0.89 0.87
49-65 years 125 94 31
>65 years 139 106 33
Farm land Size
<0.5 142 53 89
0.5-1ha 114 41 73
1-2 ha 41 18 23 0.97 0.94
2-3ha 32 21 11
Marital Status
Married 296 212 84
Divorced 15 2 13 0.98 0.97
Widowed 18 5 13
Separated 0 0 0
Family Size
1-5 59 22 37
5-10 201 172 29 0.89 0.87
>10 64 58 6
Significant at 95% confidence level and 0.05 level margin of error

Source: Computed from field survey, 2017
54
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1. Summary
Land degradation is the process of reducing or depleting the productivity capacity of land and
caused by improper and poor farming system, improper land use system, deforestation, soil erosion,
high population pressure and overgrazing. Land degradation problems are principal problem to
sustained and integrated socio-economic development. For the implementation, management and
coordination of development activities, land conservation practices are not only necessary but also
vital.
This study was designed to examine the major features of land degradation ,the LU/LCC , the land
management practices and the problems that face farmers in the implementation of land
management practices in the Kersa woreda . The woreda is composed of various land forms such
as mountains, plateau, hills and plain. It is also characterized by agro climatic conditions of Woina
dega and Kolla. In the study area there are different types of natural vegetation. The major
economic activities of the society is agriculture which is characterized by subsistence farming
system and livestock production .
To achieve the objective of the study the researcher used questionnaires, focus group discussion
and interviews. The total sample households who participated in the study were 329 households
from three kebeles of Kersa woreda. For the sake of this study questionnaires, field survey,focused
group discussion and semi structured interview were employed. The primary data was collected
through questionnaires, focus group discussion , interviews and satellite images of 1985,2000 and
2017 LC/LU changes .Whereas, secondary data was collected from both published and unpublished
sources. Finally quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis were employed to describe
the main features of land degradation and major land management practices and the major
problems that face farmers in the study area.
Therefore the main findings of the study were mainly based upon the assessments of the analyzed
and interpreted data. The major findings of the study are summarized as here under:
 The study shows that land degradation was the main environmental problem in the study
area. Almost all 100 % of the sampled households perceived land degradation as a major problem
55
in the area. Its existence can be manifested by decrease in crop yield, soil nutrient depletion,
deforestation, out crops of rocks on the surface and the development of rills and gullies at different
places in the study area taken as indicators of land degradation.
 Sampled households have identified varied factors that caused the land use/cover changes in
the study area. Accordingly, population increase, expansion of agricultural and settlement lands and
deforestation were identified as the most important causes of land use/cover changes. Majority
304(93.8%) of sampled households identified population increase as the main cause of land
use/cover changes in the study area.
 The study also found that indigenous land management practices implemented by the
farmers were included: Traditional water way, terracing, Planting trees, Mixed cropping /Strip
Cultivation , Animal manure, Crop rotation and Crop residue. Where as, adopted land management
practiced by the respondents were found to be Agro-forestry , Cut off drain, check dam and water
way among the physical structures and grass strips, Area enclosure, Agro-forestry, Mulching,
Compost and use of Fertilizer were the Adopted methods applied in their farm plot. Furthermore,
application of modern land management measures such as compost and check dam were found to
be less prevalent due to financial constraints as well as shortage of knowhow or low technical
support for their applications demand knowledgeable procedures.
 Socio-demographic variables of population dynamics have great effects on the practice of

land management practices. The correlation and regression coefficient result points out that the
educational status of the household head, sex, age, family size, farm land size and marital status
have significant association with the practices of land management.
56
5.2. Conclusion
This study was made on the premises that land degradation is a critical problem and it is the major
environmental degradation. And people’s positive attitude towards land management practices can
contribute to the betterment of the current environmental degradation problem. In the study area
there is also a problem of land degradation which affects economic and social life of the societies.
Land use/cover changes have occurred at an unprecedented rate nearly for the past thirty years. The
total land use/cover conversions, which has total of 20,069ha of land, the share that goes to farm
land constitutes 29.6% (13,424 ha) and settlements 14.65 % (6643 ha). Thus, conversion to
settlement has increased in an extra ordinary rate in the study area while shrub land, grassland and
forest land has significantly decreased by 29.78 % ,6.78% and 7.66 % in 1985 and 2017
respectively. This trend is likely to continue for the years to come especially the continuing natural
increase of population in the rural areas of the woreda which includes the study areas.
Land degradation was the main environmental problem in the study area. As this study indicates,
there was a problem of land degradation in the study area which are manifested by decline in crop
yield, crops become stunned, and the rocks outcrops to the surface, development of gullies and rills
and the land become out of cultivation that decreases the income of farmer’s results in poverty.
Population will increase in the future exerting a profound pressure on the remaining natural
resources given the current high birth rates, declining death rate and in migration in the study area.
The one approach that the households used to mitigate land degradation and enhance land fertility
include intensification of farming such as terracing , contour ploughing, ditch drainage, crop
rotation, strip cropping, use of compost/manure and agro-forestry. However, their level of practice
was different. For instance the mechanisms used to mitigate land degradation and enhance soil
fertility that are highly practiced among the farmers in the study area were terracing, contour
ploughing and use of manure/compost.
In response to land degradation, the households’ have been taking structural management practices
like terracing, crop rotation, contour ploughing, strip cropping, agro-forestry etc. in the study area.
These land management practices were increased from time to time in quantity with the increment
of population but their practice was not in similar way in all study area.
57
5.3. Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are forwarded to enhance
sustainable land management in the face of increasing land degradation.
 Farmers need to give great emphasis to the land management practices to the considerable
spatial and temporal variations in land degradation, focusing on restoring and maintaining
degraded land.
 In association with the increased population pressure a number of adverse effects on the
environmental conservation of the study area and land management practices have been identified.
Easing population pressure on natural resource needs due attention. This can be achieved by
continuous training and awareness creation on family planning, technological improvements in
agriculture and development of other sectors of the economy to minimize burdens on natural
resource.
 In making intervention in land management practices, there should be active participation of
local people primarily farmers. This helps to integrate indigenous land management practices with
the new ones and enhance easy adoption and sustainable use of effective introduced practices. In
addition, it is also essential to provide benefits to the local communities from enclosed area in
sustainable manner which, in turn, increased the sense of one’s resource .
 To improve the productivity of the farm land focus should be given to intensive
technique of agricultural system that promote the use of various soil fertility improvement and
conservation practices to boost production from small plot of land.
 Land management practices can be further promoted if they are carried out in conjunction
with other developmental activities like provision of family planning, education and empowering
Women .
 To ensure sustainable adoption of SLM practices and beneficial impacts on productivity and
other outcomes, rigorous empirical research is needed on where particular SLM interventions are
likely to be successful. This information would assist policymakers and development practitioners
in their efforts to reduce poverty and promote natural resource management strategies.
58
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65
7. APPENDICES
66
APPENDIX- I
Questionnaire to be Completed by Sample Households
Dear Farmers, This questionnaires were designed to collect data that are intended to
investigate Land Degradation and Land Management Practices in Hararghe
highlands: the Case of Kersa Woreda. To achieve this purpose your response to the
questions presented below has a great value. Thus, you are kindly requested to
respond the following question clearly and genuinely.
Mark (√ ) against the provided question below.
I hope that the research outcomes contribute to the improvement of land management
practices.
General Directions:
1.The response you give will not have any negative impact on you.
2. No need of giving your name on the questionnaire.
3. Please respond feeling freely on what you think is correct.
Yours faithfully
BAHIRU LEMMA
Identification
Enumerator’s Name _______________________________
Part one – Background information of the respondents
Please give the required information for the appropriate space.
Name of kebele’s _____________
1. Sex of the respondent A) Male B) Female
2. Age of the respondent………..
3. Marital Status of the respondent A) Single B) Married C) Divorced D) Widowed
E) Others Specify-------------------
4. Educational status of the respondent ; A) No education B) Read and Write
C) 1-4 D) 5-8 E) 9-10 F) >10
5. Family size Male……… Female………. Total……..
67
6. Do you have your own farm land? A) Yes B) No
7. If your answer is ‘yes’, what is the estimated total size of your farmland?
A) 0.5- 1 ha B) 1-2 ha C) 2-3 ha D) 3-4 ha E) less than 0.5
8. How is the trend of your landholding size? A) Increasing
B) Decreasing C) No change D) Other (specify)-------------------
9. If your answer is ‘increasing’ what are the reasons behind the increment?
(Multiple answers are possible) A) Encroachment into forest area
B) Land reallocation C) Cultivation of marginal land D) Others (specify)---------
10. If your answer to Q. No.9 above is ‘decreasing’, what are the root causes?
(Multiple answers are possible) A) Increase in human population
B) Using marginal land due to loss quality C) Land redistribution
D) Land taken away by government E) Others (specify) --------------
11. How do you see the change in land use/cover in the last 30 years or between 1986 and now?
(Years in G.C.) A) Low____ B)) High ____ C) Very high _______.
12. If you see an increase in land use/cover change in the last thirty years, what factors do you
think might have caused it? (You may give multiple answers) A) Population increase
B) Expansion of agricultural land C) Shortage of farm land
D) Deforestation E) Expansion of settlement F) Other, specify _________
13. What were the major forms of land degradation in your area? (Multiple answers are possible
A) Soil erosion by running water B) Erosion of top fertile soil
C) Deforestation D) Overgrazing of rangeland E) Rill and Gully formation
F) Others ( specify)-------
14. Which type of erosion by running water is more common in your farm land?
A) Sheet erosion B) Rill erosion C) Gully erosion
D) All form of erosion E) Others(specify)-------------------------
15. What were the root causes of land degradation? (Multiple Answers are possible)
A) Overstocking B) Cutting of trees for fuel and construction
C) Ploughing steep slopes D) Limited use of conservation structures
E) Over cultivation/no fallowing F) Heavy rainfall
G) Steep topography H) Population pressure I) Deforestation
16. Do you think that is it possible to halt/minimize land degradation problems?
68
A) Yes B) No C) I don’t now
17. How do you see the productivity of the farm land overtime?
A) Increasing B) Decreasing C) No change D) I don’t know
18. If your answer is ‘decreasing’, what are the reasons? (Multiple answers Possible)
A) Soil Erosion B) Decrease in farm size C) Decrease in soil fertility
D) Others(specify)------------------------------
19. Is there land management practices in your area? A) Yes B) No
20. If your answer is ‘yes’, what are the major land management practices? A) Closure of
grazing land B) Terracing C) Mixed cropping D) Organic manure/composting
E) Crop rotation F) Making water way G) Mulching H) Tree planting
I) Crop Rotation J) Contour ploughing K) Fallowing
21. Which conservation measures listed in question No.20 do you think are used Traditionally
in managing degraded lands? Why? ___________________________________
22. What mechanisms did you use to maintain soil fertility in your farmland?
A) Chemical fertilizer B) Crop rotation C) Manuring D) Terracing
23. What were the adopted land management Practices you had used in your area?
A) Contour ploughing B) Stone bunds C) Soil bunds
D) Soil and Stone bunds E)Terraces F) Cut off drain
G) Forage strips H) Minor- Water basin development
24. What mechanisms did you use for gully treatment? A) Check-dam B) Cut off drains
C) Planting trees, legumes and grasses D) Others (specify)----------------------
25. What are the major factors that affect land management practices ?
69
Appendix- II
Check List for Key Informant Interviewees
Structured Interview for Woreda’s Experts of Natural Resource Management, Land Use and Land
Management and Agricultural Extensions (DA’S) at Woreda and Kebeles.
1. Is there a problem of land degradation in your area, what are the indicators?
2. What are the contributing factors ( the major causes) for land degradation?
3. What is the trend of productivity of land through time? Give justification for
your response.
4. How did you see land management practice carried out in your area in the past?
5. Is there land use /land cover changes over the last three decades in your area ?
6. What interventions are there by government and NGOs in the area with regard to land
management practice?
7. What are the constraints to the sustainability of land management practices in your area?
8. What measures do you suggest for the management of degraded land in effective manner?
Thank you in advance!!

70
Appendix- III
Focus Group Discussion checklist
1. How do you describe the productivity of land overtime?

2. If there are changes, what are the contributing factors?
3. What mechanisms are used by the farmers to improve the productivity of land?
4. Is there land use /land cover changes over the past three decades ?
5. If there are problems of land degradation, what are the indicators for the problems?
6. What are the major causes for land degradation?
7. How did you see land management practice carried out in your area in the past?
8. How is the practice nowadays?
9. What should be done to promote and sustain natural resource conservation
in effective manner in your area? --------------------------------------------
10. What are the major factor that affect the land management practices ?
Thank you in advance!!

71
Appendix-IV
Check List for Field Observation
Table in the Appendix 1.Field Observation Checklist
No. Observation taken by the investigator Yes No

1 There are different rills and gullies in the study area 
2 Conversion of indigenous trees and others natural vegetations in 
to eucalyptus trees
3 The destructions of natural vegetations for settlement and 
farming activities
4 Implementations of major soil management practices in the study 
area
5 The crop residue used for fuel or energy in the study area 

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LAND DEGRADATION AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN

HARARGHE HIGHLANDS : A CASE STUDY OF KERSA WOREDA,

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA

A Thesis submitted to School of Geography and Environmental Studies,

In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

–––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––

–––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––

Name: Bahiru Lemma Signature: ___________________

CSA Central Statistical Agency

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR iv

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDICS xv

1.2. Statement of the problem 2

1.3. Objectives of the study 3

1.4. Research questions 4

1.5. Scope of the study 4

1.6. Significance of the study 4

1.7. Limitation of the study 4

1.8. Definition of Key Terms 5

1.9. Organization of the Thesis 6

2.1.2. Land Management Practices 8

2.2. The Major Features of Land Degradation 9

2.2.1. Global Land Degradation 9

2.2.2. Land Degradation in Africa 10

2.2.3. Land Degradation in Ethiopia 11

2.3. The Major Causes of Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands 12

2.3.1. Proximate or Direct causes 13

2.3.2. Underlying or indirect causes 13

2.4. Effects of Land Degradation 16

2.5. Land Use or Land Cover Changes and the Causes 17

2.6. Overview of Land Management Practices 18

2.6.1. Land Management Practices in the world 18

2.6.2. Land Management Practices in Ethiopia 20

2.6.2.1. Afforestation and Reforestation 21

2.6.2.3. Crop rotation 21

2.8. Conceptual Framework 23

3.1.1. Location and Size 25

3.1.3. Climate and Drainage 26

3.1.5. Land Use 27

3.1.7. Economy Activity 28

3.2. Research Design 28

3.3. Data Sources 29

3.4. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size 29

3.4.1. Sampling procedure 31

3.5. Methods of Data Collection 31

3.5.1. Data Collection Procedure 31

3.5.2. Data Collection instruments 31

3.5.2.2. Key informant 32

3.5.2.3. Field observation 32

3.5.2.4. Focus group discussion 32

3.5.2.5. Remote sensing 32

3.5.2.6. Acquisition of Geospatial Data 33

3.6. Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis 34

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35

4.1.2. Martial status 35

4.1.3. Educational status of the respondents 36