DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY
SABBAVARAM
VISHAKAPATNAM, AP., INDIA

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

HISTORY

FACULTY NAME- PROF. VISHWACHANDRA

NATH MADASU

SIDDHI VINAYAK
22LLB133

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would sincerely like to put forward my heartfelt appreciation to our respected History
professor, Prof. Viswachandra Nath Madasu for giving me a golden opportunity to take up
this project on the topic named ― “Vijaynagara Empire”. I have tried my best to collect
information about the project in various possible ways to depict clear picture about the given
project topic.

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 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………4
2. VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE………………………………………………………........6
2.1 SANGAMA DYNASTY………………………………………………………….7
2.2 SALUVA DYNASTY………………………………………………………...…..8
2.3 TULUVA DYNASTY…………………………………………………………….9
2.4 ARAVIDU DYNASTY…………………………………………………….……10
3. ADMINISTRATION……………………………………………………………….11
3.1 CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION…………………………………………… ..12
3.2 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION…………………………………………16
3.3 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION…………………………………………………19
4. SOCIAL CONDITIONS……………………………………………………………22
4.1 CASTE AND COMMUNITY………………………………………………….22
4.2 SOCIAL INSTITUTION……………………………………………………….23
4.3 WOMEN………………………………………………………………………...24
4.4 HABITTION…………………………………………………………………….25
4.5 FOOD……………………………………………………………………………25
4.6 DRESS…………………………………………………………………………...26
5. TRADE………………………………………………………………………………27
6. LAW AND JUSTICE……………………………………………………………….29
7. RELIGION………………………………………………………………………….33
8. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………...……37
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………..……38

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 1.INTRODUCTION
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646) ruled a substantial part of southern peninsula of India
for three centuries, beginning in the middle of the fourteenth, and during this epoch this
Indian society was transformed from its medieval past towards its modern, colonial future.
This empire is one of the most powerful empire that ruled for almost 200 years covering the
population of south India including present states like Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. This empire was established in 1336 A.D. by Harihara I and his brother Bukka
Raya I of Sangama Dynasty. In the time of muslim reign, Vijayanagara Empire was created
and epoched and promoted regionalism using Hinduism as a unifying factor.

The Vijayanagara Empire which stood surrounded by the Muslim powers not only
championed the Hindu cause but also left its legacy behind even after its fall. In spite of
Harihara-I and Bukka-I championing the cause of Hindus they had to struggle for the survival
of their newly established kingdom both against Hindu and Muslim states alike. But it was to
the credit of Harihara-I, Bukka-I and Harihara-II that they transformed their small kingdom
into a mighty empire by strength of their sword in the last quarter of the 14th century.

Vijaynagara Empire was ruled by four dynasties altogether, i.e., Sangama Dynasty
(13361485), Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505), Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570) and Aravidu
Dynasty (1570-1646) among various kings of different dynasty Krishnadev Ray of Tuluva
Dynasty who ruled between 1509–1529 became very famous and is remembered even today
for his policies, administrative skills, his interest in art, music and culture.

Vijayanagara empire is known for its rich art and architecture, strong political control,
efficient administrative system, diverse social conditions and rigorous trade policies. The
south Indian temple building style is derived from Vijayanagara architecture style.
Vijayanagara has seen the visit of many foreign visitors and maximum information of
Vijayanagara Empire is procured from foreign source only.

The establishment of Vijayanagara Empire constitutes an event of great significance in Indian

history. It filled the political vacuum created due to downfall of powerful dynasties like the

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Hoysalas, the Sevunas, and the Kakatiyas. The Vijayanagara Empire has left a permanent
impression of its existence in the field of religion, administration, social order and literature.

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2. VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

The establishment of the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 marks a new period in the history of
the post-Yadava rule in the South as it achieved its founding aim richly. The Vijaynagara
Empire was established in the midst of the Muslim attacks and, in rebellion against the
Muslim rule, Alaud-din Khilji paved the way for the Muslim invasion of the South by his
surprise attack on Deogiri in 1294, and the Southern Hindu dynasties collapsed in the first
decade of the 14th century. Subsequent attacks by Mahmud-bin-Tughluk led by Ala-ud-din
Khilji in which Kampili Empire was completely crushed and several captives were taken to
Delhi. Among the captives were the Harihara and Bukka brothers who later rose in Sultan's
esteem and when his governor, Malik Muhammad, failed to control Kampili, the Sultan sent
the two brothers back on a mission to bring down the revolt in Kampili. Harihara and Bukka
were successful in their Kampili mission. But he was backfired by the move. The Hindus
started to revolt, and so failed miserably the Muslim rulers who had to keep control of the
Hindus. The emergence of powerful militant saivism in the Kakatiya region marked the
reaction of the Hindu people, and soon the territories of Andhra and Dravida were liberated,
fighting for independence. The spirit of autonomy and the changes around it have influenced
the Kampili people. Because of the changed circumstances, Harihara and Bukka found it
rather difficult to maintain the Muslim authority in that area and the prospects of obtaining
some support from Sultan were grim. They may have thrown their lot under the
circumstances with the subjects identifying themselves with the Hindu reaction wave. As a
result, they declared their independence and the Vijayanagara Hindu Kingdom was
established in 1336 A.D.

Vijayanagara Empire broadly consisted of four dynasties. They are

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485)
2. Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505)
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570)
4.Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646)1

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V.D MAHAJAN HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 270-77 (2018)

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 2.1SANGAMA DYNASTY

The dynasty founded by Harihara I and Bukka I is known as Sangama Dynasty after the name
of their father Sangama.

HARIHARA I-

Harihara succeeded in expanding his little kingdom's borders. By 1340, he established control
over the Tungabhadra Valley, parts of Konkan and the coast of Malabar. During the reign of
Harihara I, the Vijaynagar empire stretched from Krishna in the north to the Kaveri
neighborhood in the south and constituted the entire country between the east and west
coasts. I died in 1353, Harihara.

BUKKA I-

Around 1353 and 1379, Bukka I ruled. He completed Vijaynagar's town building and added
to his empire as well. The master of the eastern, western and southern oceans is identified in
inscriptions.

HARIHARA II-

From 1379 to 1406 he ruled. He has taken Maharajadhiraja and Rajaparameshvara titles. His
reign was said to be the "time of unbroken peace." It appears from the inscriptions that during
his reign Vijaynagar Empire spread across southern India including Mysore, Kanara,
Chingleput, Trichinopoly and Kanchi.

DEVA RAYA II-

He ruled between 1422 and 1446. The rule of Deva Raya II is the golden age in South India's
history and especially that of Karnataka. Deva Raya II fought three major battles against
Odisha's Gajapati in 1427 in the battle of Kondavidu against King Bhanudeva, in 1436
against King Kapilendra when the latter tried to conquer Rajamahendri, and again in 1441.
Even repulsed was an attack by the Kondavidu Reddis and by c. In 1432, all the region's
small chiefs were put under the command of Vijayanagar.

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 2.2SALUVA DYNASTY

The Saluvas, who were natives of the Kalyani area of northern Karnataka in modern India by
historical tradition, founded the Saluva dynasty. The inscription of Gorantla traces its origins
from the time of Karnataka's Western Chalukyas and Kalachuris to this region. Mangaldeva,
the great grandfather of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, was the earliest known Saluva from
inscription evidence in the Vijayanagara period. Mangaldeva played a major role in King
Bukka Raya I's victories over Madurai's Sultanate. His descendants were one of the ruling
lines of the Vijayanagara Empire of Southern India and founded the Saluva Dynasty. Around
1485 to 1505, three kings ruled.

SALUVA NARASHIMA DEVA RAYA-

Between 1486 to 1492, he presided over the Vijaynagar Empire. He enjoyed the people's trust
and was able to subdue most of the rebellious provinces. But as a ruler, as Saluva Narashima
tried to expand the empire, he was constantly faced with difficulties caused by chieftains
rebelling. The war between Saluva Narashima and the Gajapatis over Udayagiri in 1489
proved disastrous when he was taken prisoner and later released after surrendering the fort
and surrounding areas to the Orissa Gajapatis.

Saluva Narashima passed away in 1491, but his sons were too young to go up to the throne.
Narasa Nayaka, a loyal general and minister from the Tuluva family, was entrusted with their
guardianship.

NARASHIMA RAYA II-

From 1491-1505, he ruled. He was the Saluva Dynasty's third and last ruler. He was just a
teenager when, after his elder brother's violent death, he became the emperor. He ruled that
for 12 years, mostly under Narasa Nayaka's guardianship.

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 2.3TULUVA DYNASTY

The Tuluva Dynasty is Vijaynagar Empire's third and most successful ruling dynasty. It
traces its patriarchal lineage from Narasa Nayaka who murdered Narasimha Raya II and
brought an end to the dynasty of Suluva.

KRISHNA DEVA RAY-

He ruled between 1509 and 1529. He was Vijaynagar's greatest monarch, and one of India's
most prominent kings. He was an accomplished scholar and a reading mentor. While his
personal interest was in Vaishnavism, he valued all denominations of Hindu religion alike.
He was kind to the fallen empires, to the people of these fallen empires he was merciful and
compassionate. He had a powerful military. He granted royal welcome and great hospitality
to foreign travellers. He's been a great warrior and he's been a strong warrior. He defeated
Ummattur's king in 1510, and took Sivasamdram's castle. He was able to get back the
Udaygiri stronghold, which his predecessors had lost to Gajapati of Odisha. He established
the tradition of temple building in the South during his rule, including the famous Tirumala
Temple. He has outstanding connections with foreign countries such as Portuguese. His trade
policies have been very well-known and successful. As a monarch, he was almost flawless in
all facets of his leadership. He passed away in 1529.

SADASIVA RAY-

Between 1542 to 1570 he ruled. He was just a puppet in his minister Rama Ray's hands.
Throughout his reign, Muslim rulers joined forces to fight and wage war against the Tuluva
Dynasty. Which brought an end to the dynasty of Tuluva.

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 2.4ARAVIDU DYNASTY

The Aravidu Dynasty is Vijayanagar Empire's fourth and last dynasty. It was created by
Tirumala Deva Raya whose brother was the masterful ruler of the last Tuluva dynasty king,
Rama Raya. The death of Rama Raya in the Talikota Battle in 1565 led to the eventual
conquest of Vijayanagar by the combined forces of Bijapur's Muslim states.

TIRUMALA DEVA RAYA-

After the Tulluva Dynasty he was the first ruler of the Aravidu Dynasty. He ruled between
1570 and 1572. During this time, Madurai and Gingee's Southern Nayakas proclaimed partial
independence, while others rebelled against the authority of Tirumala Deva Raya. He took
the title of "Reviver of the Decadent Karnataka Empire" as he became the king after the
Battle of Tlikota.

SRIRANGA I-
He was Tirumala Deva Raya's eldest son. He ruled between 1572 and 1586. He brought the
restoration of the Vijayanagar kingdom, but his rule was marred by his Muslim neighbors '
repeated attacks and territorial loss. Sriranga Deva Raya died without a successor in 1586 and
was succeeded by Venkatapathi Raya, his youngest brother.

SRIRANGA II-

He was the last ruler of both the Kingdom of Aravid and the Empire of Vijaynagar. Between
1642 to1646 he ruled. His reign was full of wars and revolt. The Vijaynagar Empire came to
an end following his death in 1646.

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 3. ADMINISTRATION

The Empire of Vijayanagar had a feudal form of government that was a requirement of the
time. There was a monarchical style of administration. King was acting as a pillar of empire
unity. He was not the absolute and autocratic monarch because his powers were subject to
some more or less traditional and customary checks and balances. In the administrative
system, customs played a vital role, especially in tax levies and methods of collecting
revenue. Different types of methods were used to recruit the military, and kings in times of
war were largely dependent on feudal levies. The administration of justice has been presented
in a manner that serves the general public and is convenient. Mostly mediation was used by
the local public to settle disputes or was conducted locally. The government was so
fragmented that it fulfilled the age's need. There were three pieces of the government, i.e.-

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION2

Administration at the provincial level was structured in a way to meet the age's requirement.
The village councils were active in local communities and offered very valuable local service.
Temples played a very important role as the center of cultural and economic activity in the
government. Guilds were other regional bodies in the government which played a prominent
role.

Vijayanagar Empire's administration was one of the most effective in Indian history. That
was the reason why, instead of Muslim rule, the empire lasted 230 years and reigned in North
India. Vijayanagar Empire was able to sustain the repeated and continuous wars and agitation
on the Muslim side due to the strong administrative system.

2
T. V. MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE (1940).

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 3.1 CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

The central level administration basically comprised of three major officials. They are:

The King
The Imperial Council
The Secretariat

THE KING

A monarchical state is recognised by its sovereign's authority. The powerful emperors give
the empire a distinguished and well-known position. Vijayanagar Empire was so remembered
by its powerful and influential leaders. We made the empire nearly 230 years old with their
strong management skills and gave it enormous prominence as one of South India's strongest
empires. His administration was further strengthened by the kings such as Deva Raya II,
Saluva Narasimha and Krishnadeva Ray, being founded and strengthened by powerful and
enthusiastic brothers Harihara and Bukka.

King was the head of administration as a monarchical form of government, holding the
dominant role in the country. King was the administration's focus. According to the state of
the scholar, it consisted of seven major elements, one of which was king. 3The ceremony of
the coronation was a big ceremony that gave the ruler the power to choose, giving the rulers
the power to rule the country. The eldest son was usually chosen as the ruler before he
became the king and was given the title of Yuvaraja. He received training in combat,
administration of case resolution, etc.

The primary duties of king included affording protection to his subjects and redress their
grievances. His duties also included to protect the land from foreign aggression because the
empire was itself established to stem out Mohammodian aggression. His duties also included
maintaining an effective police organisation for peace and tranquillity in the state. King was
entrusted with the responsibility of addressing the grievances of the people.King was also
entitled to interfere in matters of riots conducted by the provincial heads. His elementary duty

3
T. V. MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE (1940).

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was to maintain social solidarity by imposing swadharma on people on basis of vedas4. The
kings assumed the title of “maintainer of castes” and imposed swadharma on different castes
and communities.

Kings were well aware of the economic needs of the people and recognised that agriculture
was their main source of income. For this king ordered for clearance of forests and brought
new land under cultivation. King provided irrigational facilities, reduced tax rates and created
new lands for cultivation.

Trade with foreign countries was encouraged by the king and immigrants and foreigners were
provided protection by him.

Another major role of king was administration of justice. Vijaynagar Empire strongly
believed that for a peaceful society “danda” (punishment) was necessary and this function
was bestowed upon the king. King was the highest court of appeal when lower courts failed
to provide justice. King was not the lawmaker, he executed the law.

THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL

Besides the council of ministers there existed another council ,i.e, the imperial council. The
imperial council consisted provincial heads (nayaka), pontifical heads and great scholars,
bards, dancer, singer and others depending on state patronage, who had to be honoured. They
were to be present in the court during important ceremonial functions. The members were
feudalistic in nature. The presence of feudal vassals in the assembly provided strength to the
king. It ensured loyalty of feudatory to the feudal assembly and his pledge to support the
imperial cause.

Apart from this larger council there was a smaller council which the had to consult for
administrative matters. It was permanent body which influenced the policy of the sovereign.
The numerical strength of the council varied from time to time.

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The ministers had their own official designations. According to inscriptions of that time, it is
observed that some of the official designations were- Pradhani, the Upapradhani, Dannayaka.
The head of some administrative department seem to have seat in ministerial council.
The council appear to have two classes of advisors (a) the prime minister and other head of
departments, (b) a few blood relatives of the king. Strict secrecy was maintained regarding
the deliberation that took place in the council.

High qualification was expected of the ministers. A minister was to be scholar, afraid of
dharma, well versed in rajaniti, between the age fifty and seventy, healthy in body. His
connection with the king should have come from previous generation and he should not have
conceited. During choosing of ministers hereditary factor was taken into consideration by the
king.

The ministerial council was a strong and powerful body. There existed rival interests in the
council so the king had to keep a close watch on the discussions and deliberations.

THE SECRETARIAT

For a vast empire like Vijayanagar it was not easy for the king to run the entire administration
with the help of the council. For this an efficient secretariat staff was appointed to attend the
dry details of the administration. The kings never issued direct orders to their governors or
servant neither did the issue written grants. This work of forwarding letters about what king
wanted to convey was done by secretariats.

There was various secretariat like the ‘Rayasam’, which was the department of writing. The
office was probably a secretariat attached to the person of the king. The other one was
Karanikkam. The word karanikkam means an accountant. So karanikkam was the secretariat
of accountancy. The king had a large number of officers in his establishment each of whom
was assigned some work in the palace. The most important of them was the Sarvanayaka. He
can be considered to be the home minister. He was in charge of maintain the household of the
king and take care of palace establishments. The other such secretariat was that of
Mudrakarta. He was among the highest dignitaries. He was in charge of royal seal and was
one of the major confidants of the king. Another important officer of the palace was the Vasal
or Vasalcariyam.

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The office was bringing with it great prestige. Individuals seeking audience with the king or
entrance to the palace had to get permission from this officer who assigned his men to guard
the palace gates. In short, the secretariat carries out the role of the current executive that takes
government orders and makes the process of governance smooth.

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 3.2 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

The Vijayanagar kings paid great attention to the administrative arrangement of their vast
empire. To have a proper administration throughout the empire they divided it into provinces
generally known as rajyas or mandalas. In their turn these provinces were divided into what
we may call districts, taluks and villages.

In Vijayanagar empire two kinds of provincial administration existed. First one which was
held by the ‘lords’ from the king (on the feudal basis) and the other was directly governed by
the king through his governors or agents. These two types of provincial officers were the
nayakas and governors.4

GOVERNOR BASED SYSTEM-

Provinces were under the control of viceroys. Members of the royal family were generally
appointed as the governors of these provinces. But where it was thought desirable that some
eminent officer with wide experience could fill the post with credit and to the advantage of
the central government, such an officer was appointed as governor of the province. The
governors thus appointed were generally known as the Dandanayakas. Their position appears
to have been similar to that of the princes who served as provincial viceroys. The governors
of the provinces of the empire enjoyed some sort of local autonomy within their jurisdiction.
They held their own courts, had their own officers, maintained their own armies and ruled
their territories without being interfered with by the central authority so long as they regularly
discharged their obligations to the imperial sovereign. There does not seem to have been any
time limit for a governorship, for it depended not only upon the ability of the governor but
also on the local necessities. The provincial viceroys were given the right to issue their own
coins independently of the central government

Generally, the governors were appointed by the king in consultation with his ministers. The
governors had their own Councils which were probably modelled on that of the king. The
governors enjoyed the right to impose new taxes or remit old ones. Since they were generally
held responsible only for a fixed contribution of money to the imperial house they were not

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T.V MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE 175-202 (1940)

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interfered with in the minute details of the incidence of taxation and the manner of collection
of the taxes.

The provincial governors were also made responsible for the maintenance of law and order
within their jurisdiction; whenever the property of their subjects was stolen, they were bound
to catch the thief and restore the stolen property to the owner.

THE NAYANKARA SYSTEM:

Nayankara system was an important feature of Vijayanagar provincial level administration.

Under this king was considered to be the owner of the soil and he distributed lands to his
dependants. Those who held land from the king were called nayakas. They ruled over their
territories with great freedom. In return for the grant of territory that was made to them they
had two functions to discharge. Firstly, they had to pay a fixed annual financial contribution
to the imperial exchequer which was generally half of their revenue. Secondly, they had to
maintain for the king a sufficient number of troops and serve him in his wars. The king
generally decided the number of troops and amount of money each of these nayankara had to
pay and it was generally fixed by considering the proportion of revenue they received.

The nayakas were requires to maintain peace within their jurisdiction and were held
responsible for detection of crimes. If nayakas failed to perform these obligations they were
held liable for punishment. Their estates of these nayakas would be confiscated and
themselves severely punished if they did not maintain the full number of soldiers or pay
tribute according to their obligations.

DIFFRENCE BETWEEN GOVERNOR AND NAYANKARA FORM OF

ADMINISTRATION-

The constitutional position of the nayaka appears to have been different from that of a
governor of a province, though both of them had a few similar obligations to be fulfilled.
They are-

(1) While the governor was the king’s representative in a province and ruled it on behalf of
the king, the nayaka was only a military vassal. It was more to enable him to meet his

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financial and military obligations that he was assigned a district. (2) The nayaka enjoyed a
comparatively greater freedom in his territory. The internal administration of his district does
not appear to have been interfered with by the king. The nayaka enjoyed a comparatively
greater freedom in his territory. The internal administration of his district does not appear to
have been interfered with by the king (3) The nayaka had onerous responsibilities. The
responsible work of the clearance of forests, introduction of agriculture, and the spread of
civilization were a few of the more important works entrusted to and done by the nayakas. (4)
The governors were generally called Dandandyakas and were invariably Brahmans. (5) The
nayakaship which was in the initial stages personal became hereditary in course of time when
the kings at the centre became weak and effeminate.5

CONTROL OF PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Inspite of provinces having autonomy regarding their internal administration “Special

Commissioners” were appointed to keep their freedom under control. These “Special
Commissioners” were generally of royal family with exceptional skills and quality. As from
its origin Vijayanagar Empire had seen numerous revolts from feudalistic vasels appointment
of therse special commissioners was necessary.

5
T. V. MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE 197 (1940).

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 3.3LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

1. THE SABHA:

In the midst of changing centuries, empires, dynasties. Rulers and government, one thing that
has remined constant is village assemblies or sabhas. An important feature about the
administration of local areas in India was the active functioning of. what we may call local
assemblies which carried on the administration of the local areas.

The village assemblies possessed the right of disposing of or acquiring lands or other kinds of
property in the name and on behalf of the village. In villages land were held in common by
the community and one important activity of village assemblies were to ensure that any
outsider was not allowed to get any right or share of that land.

The next important function of the village sabha was that of tax collection. The collection of
taxes payable to the imperial government was at times entrusted to the village sabhas. Where
the local bodies collected the taxes due to the imperial government, these local tax collecting
agents had to be informed by the authorities of any remissions in the taxes or new impositions
if levied, and they made the necessary entries in their account books and carried out the order.
These local assemblies had great influence over the revenue policy of the government. In
presence of these sabhas the government could not impose new taxes or remit old ones
without their consent since they carefully guarded the interests of the community.

The local assemblies possessed some judicial power as well. They had the authority to try
some cases and inflict punishments based on that. They also had the power to confiscate
lands of guilty persons.

These assemblies enjoyed the right to confer certain titles to individuals who rendered certain
social services. Sometimes they even acted as guardians of the public endowments and
charities, administered trusts, expenses of which were to be made by the income from a
particular landed property or money deposits placed in charge of the village.

The Sabha or the local assemblies indeed played a very crucial role in smooth and proper
administration of the village.

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 2. THE AYAGARA SYSTEM:

Ayagara system was an important feature of village administration. Under this system village
was entirely a separate unit and its affair was conducted by a body of twelve functionaries
who were collectively known as Ayagars. These functionaries were appointed by the
government. Once they were appointed, they had a hereditary right over the title after that.
They were granted tax free lands which they enjoyed in perpetuity for their services.

These Ayagars had onerous responsibilities within their locality. They were the guardians of
the peace within their jurisdiction. No transfer of property could be effected or grant made
without the knowledge and consent of these village functionaries and sale of land had to be
made only with the knowledge of these officers.

3. PROFFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND GUILDS:

Side by side with the political and corporate bodies, certain professional associations, guild
and mercantile corporation also worked which discharged similar duties as of the local
republics. They enjoyed certain constitutional status in relation to the central government and
they worked in managing the local administration. They constituted a political body by
themselves and their consent either implicitly or explicitly was sought by the government.
They helped the local rulers in administration of the local area. Basically, each guild was
formed by people of a particular profession or people practicing a particular craft.

Besides these there were certain mercantile corporations which were recognised to be
quasipolitical bodies within the empire. In the same way as almost, every village had an
assembly, every town appears to have had a mercantile association or guild. Every guild had
a leader who exercised some control over the working of the organisation and acted as its
accredited representative in its dealings with the government. Guilds were also formed basing
on religious sect and this religious faith acted as a unifying factor. These guilds were usually
consulted by the government when the taxes due from them were the subject of a gift.

The guilds also enjoyed the right to confer honours on highly placed officials. They were also
allowed to make some regulation on religious and social character of its members. They also

20
exercised great influence over the policy of the government. They at times made petition to
the government to do a particular thing which was done.

4. THE TEMPLES:

Temple was another institution which played an important role in the local administration. It
was not only played religious functions but also it played major economic and political
functions. At that time temples owned their own lands. They acted as landlord and employers
as well. The authorities of the temple administration acted as judges in certain cases. Temple
acted as promoters of rural industries and handicrafts.

The temples were constructed by kings and the lands were endowed for maintenance and
such offerings were called Devadana. The temple authorities acted as protectors of the
interests of temple tenants and other people of the locality when they were affected by
arbitrary polices of the government. The temple authorities like the village assembly had the
right to sell the temple lands and purchase new lands under certain circumstances.

In many cases the temple treasury served as a local bank, and helped the people when they
were in distress; and when it was not able to realise the amount it had lent, it purchased the
lands of the debtor to the extent necessary to wipe out the debt.

The temples, maintained hospitals for the convenience of the people.

To sum up Sabhas, the Ayankara, Guild and Temples constituted the entire local government
of Vijayanagar Empire

21
 4. SOCIAL CONDITIONS

4.1. CASTE AND COMMUNITY:

In the vast Vijayanagar Empire, there existed a large number of castes and communities. The
traditional four-fold caste system had further divided in sub castes and sub groups. Many of
these sub castes fought among themselves for particular rights and privileges which were
often customary in nature. The caste of an individual was generally determined by the type of
profession he followed. So, there were the number of castes as many profession existed.

There existed various castes and communities such as:-

(I) THE BRAHMANS-

As in ancient India, so in the Vijayanagar days, the most respected member in society was the
Brahman. Almost every foreign traveller who visited the Vijayanagar court was struck by the
respect the Brahman commanded and the simple life he led. The Brahmans enjoyed certain
special privileges; and they were not liable to be put to death whatever crime they
committed.6 7 Brahmins were found in every aspect on life. Few of them were priests at
temples. Some were owners of estates and lived upon the fruits which they got from their
lands.7The Brahmans maintained their high position and status in social and political life.

(II) THE ARTISANS-

This community consists of goldsmiths, blacksmiths, idol-makers, brass smiths and

carpenters. They members were often fighting for certain rights and privileges. At a particular
time the quarrels between them assumed such serious magnitude, that they separated from
each other

6
T. V. MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE 240 (1940).

7
ibid, pg. 240

22
The various social groups in the empire vied with one another for getting certain social
privileges and honours in public festivals and in temples and artisans were no exception to it.

(III) THE KAIKOLAS-

The Kaikkolas were another influential community in the Vijayanagar empire. They lived
generally round the temple precincts, and it appears that they had separate streets 8. They
generally carried out weaving activities. They had certain amount of say in the matters of
levying of taxes. As the artisans, the Kaikkolas also clamoured for certain social privileges.

(IV) THE TOOTIYANS-

Originally shepherds they became petty poligars in the south. Polyandry and postpuberty
marriages prevailed among them; and very often the bridegroom was younger than the bride.
Female morality was very loose among them, and in fact a woman was allowed to have
marital relations with the father or other male relations of her husband. Divorce and
remarriage of widows and in certain cases satl were also allowed. The Tottiyans were
generally Vaisijavas but their patron deities were Jakkanna and 'Bommakka who committed
sati.9

4.2. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

(1) MARRIAGE-

Hindus consider marriage as a religious sacrament and it holds a very crucial position in the
social life. According to hindu beliefs there are 8 kinds of marriage but presence of all these
forms was not found in Vijayanagara Empire. Kanyadan was the only form of marriage found

8
Inscription at Madambakkam
9
ibid, pg-254.

23
there. Certain evidences indicated the presence of dowry system and child marriage. Bride
price was a very evil practice found at that time.

(2) SATI-

Another equally important social institution in the Vijayanagar days was that of sahagamana
or sati. There are a large number of satikals or mastikals in the Kanarese districts where are
found the sculptured representation of the women committing sati and under a few of them
are inscribed a few words, recording under what circumstances the sahagamana was
performed. The classes of people who performed sahagamana were generally the nobility in
the empire who were made up of the king, the great lords, the knights and fighting men.
According to the inscriptions, which are many, the classes of people who were called the
gaudas and the ndyakas also performed sahagamana or sati. Lastly, Brahman widows also
appear to have performed sati.

4.3 WOMEN:

Starting from the women who lived inside the palace, mostly the wives of the king. They
lived in the, Harem. Each one of them had had each a house, maidens, women of the
chamber, women guards and servants. No man was allowed to see them unless he was a very
old man of high rank, and specially permitted by the king. The wives of the king were usually
carried in closed litters, so that they could not be seen, and were closely followed only by the
eunuchs. Many women worked in the palace. Each one of them had their house inside the
boundary of the palace. Women were employed as cooks, guards, cleaners and caretakers at
the palace. Nuniz says that women held positions of authority also. The Vijayanagar Empire
legalised prostitution as tax were levied upon prostitutes. Devadasi system was also
prevailing.

24
Barbosa says that they were taught from their childhood to sing, play and dance, to turn about
and make many light steps. Apart from their knowledge of these arts, many of them were
very literate.

4.4 HABITATION-

India was a land of villages as it still continues to be, and the condition of life in the villages
was not so attractive. City of Vijayanagar had seven fortified walls one within the other. The
palaces had paintings on its walls. The nobility of Vijayanagar Empire lived in well-equipped
and well provided houses. The rich merchants in the city also lived in such well-equipped
houses. There were broad and beautiful street around the fine houses and were owned by rich
men who were able to afford it. Unlike rich population, the middle-class population majorly
lived in one-storeyed houses with low surrounding walls. The general planning of the houses
were quite well. The poor population lived in small thatched and straw houses with only
small doors. The arrangement of houses was done in according to the occupation. Towns
enjoyed certain special amenities which villages could not enjoy. Towns had parks and
gardens, fountains and lakes. Towns had town bell which facilitated people to know the time.

4.5 FOOD:

The crops grown in Vijayanagar Empire were rice, corn, beans, grains and other type of
crops. Grains were produced in large quantity because they were used by humans as well as
by horses as food. Very good quality of wheat was grown. Some classes of people even used
poultry and fowls as food. Meat was used by few classes of people. The Brahmins and
Lingayats only ate vegetarian foods. Food items like honey, butter, rice, sugar, which stewed
like pulse and milk were used by the people. According to Chronicles by Nuniz- king had no
expense in connection with his food because his nobles sent it to him every day which
consisted of rice, wheat, meat and fowls with all the necessary things. The ordinary people
appear to have used only leaves to eat their food from. While the kings used gold and silver
utensils to eat from.

25
4.6 DRESS:

The kings of Vijayanagar Empire spent a large sum of money on dress. Kings came to the
court wearing robe made up of satin. When they went to war they wore a quilted dress of
cotton over which was put another garment with golden plasters with jewels all round it. The
kings even wore a cap of gold brocade. The common people wore clothes as a girdle below
“wound very tightly in many folds and short white shirt of cotton or silk or coarse brocade”
which were gathered between the thighs but were open in front. On their heads they carried
small turbans while some wore silk or brocade caps. The practice of using wool was very
limited. People used shoes on regular basis. Women on the other hand who belonged to rich
and to the families of nobles, used very rich clothes. They wore white garments of very thin
cotton or silk of bright colours, five yards long, one part of which was girt round below and
the other part thrown over one shoulder and across their breasts in such a way that one arm
and shoulder remained uncovered.

26
 5. TRADE

Indian empires have a very glorious history regarding trade and commerce. Vijayanagar
Empire is no exception to it. In majority of cases trade has served as the major source of
income and revenue. Vijayanagar was a very prosperous empire and due to this various
foreign travellers were attracted to it. Arrival of these travellers and guests widened the scope
of trade and commerce. Vijayanagar empire had both inter-state trade and foreign trade
practices. In foreign trade, the empire had very good relations with Greek, Portugal, Arab and
China.

The empire had different industries at different part of the state. Salt industry was one of the
major industries of the empire due to presence of the long coastline. Salt was transferred to
the interior towns by local traders.

The other manufacture goods were sugar, silk, cotton, etc. especially silk had great demand
both in local and foreign trade. Western countries were good in silk production and
Vijayanagar was producers of spices. Vijayanagar and foreign traders traded silk and spices
one for the other.

Inland trade flourished through a well organised network of merchant guilds and craft guilds.
Development of agriculture and industry and the emergence of money economy in a big way
paved the way for the growth of internal and external trade. The internal trade continued to be
in the hands of the local or native merchants. They enjoyed the patronage of kings.

The major import products were elephants, copper, coral, mercury, vermilion, china silk, and
velvet. Elephants were imported from Ceylon and silk from China. The empire was major
importer of animals. Portugese dominated the horse trade in the empire

Articles like cloth, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar and spices were exported to Portugal. Food
grains were exported to Maladives Islands, Ormuz and Aden. Spices were exported to Mecca
from Batkal port. Some of the important port towns were Ankola, Calicut, Basrur, Barakur
and Mangalore. foreign trade attracted a large number of merchants, both Indian and foreign
merchants to purchase their required materials from the Vijayanagar market. Taxes were
collected from foreign traders. This became a major source of income for the empire.

27
Due to the flourishing trade, both domestic and foreign, many developments took place.
There were roads running from Vijayanagara City to Sivanasamudram and Srirangapattana,
from Vijayanagara to Adavani and Raichur; and from Vijayanagara to Udayagiri.

The state policy towards the improvement of trade and commerce can be understood from the
Amuktamalyada where it is stated that a king should improve harbours of his country and
encourage its commerce so that horses, elephants, precious gems and other articles were
freely imported. He should arrange that foreign sailors who came to his country were looked
after in a manner suitable to their nationalities.

28
 7. LAW AND JUSTICE

In the present time law means the body of rules and regulations made by a sovereign
authority for the guidance of the society. But in ancient India law was always intertwined
with religion. The Vedas were the main source of law. It gave the individual his duty and
ways to perform it. If the individual fails to perform his duties in the way prescribed then it
also directs the procedure of punishment. The other major source of law were customs. The
early lawmakers, while making laws took into consideration the practices of the group. But
the customary law was accepted only when it went accordance with the sacred law or law of
the land.

Laws were made by man. He only followed the sacred Veda and customs in codifying laws.
As laws were not made by him he had no authority to change it. The state, which was the
repository of all sovereign power, had only to enforce the laws. The Hindu king, who was the
supreme head of the state, was himself no law-maker. He was as much subject to the laws as
any other person. The duty of the king was to enforce the existing laws on his subjects.

Laws could only be effectively be enforced only when there would be fear for any
consequence on denial of performance or the system of punishment or Danda. The view of
Manu on the concept of Danda is: “It is danda that rules the subjects, it is only danda that
protects all people; danda is awake when others sleep; hence according to the learned danda
is Dharma itself.” The Vijayanagara rulers very well realised the importance of punishment.
For implementation this punishment, kind possessed enough poser and authority.

The primary duties of king included the preservation of society and prevention of conflict.
This could be achieved if the king followed his Dharma properly. The major sort of offences
that could be found are that- treason against the state or the king was considered a heinous
offence. In the modern day, it is said that after a period of twelve years one’s claim to a
property, if it is in the possession of another, becomes debarred by the law of limitation.
Almost the same law prevailed in the Vijayanagar days. Mortgaged lands could be in the
name of the mortgagee only for a period of twelve years.

29
 COURTS OF JUSTICE:

According to the observation of Sir H.S. Maine,“ Though the Brahminical written law
assumes the existence of king and judge, yet at the present moment in some of the best
governed semi-independent. Native States, there are no institutions corresponding to our
courts of justice. Disputes of a civil nature are adjusted by the elders of each village
community, or occasionally when they relate to land, by the functionaries charged with the
collection of the Prince’s revenue. Such criminal jurisdiction, as is found, consists in the
interposition of the military power to punish breaches of the peace of more than ordinary
gravity. What must be called criminal law is administered through the arm of the soldier.”
25Civil cases were largely resolved through arbitration.

As in any monarchical constitution king is the chief judge, same was in Vijayanagar Empire.
But it appeared that king directly did not dispose cases himself. There was a king who
administered justice on behalf of the king. However, the existence of a separate court
presided over by a judge or a panel of judges did not preclude the king from dispensing
justice himself. The king also received complaints from his people and disposed of them.
Sometimes the king asked the officers by his side to try the cases presented to him.

Other than the king’s court, there were several inferior courts at provincial levels, where
justice was administered by king’s agents or governors. In the outlying parts of the empire,
besides these regular courts of justice there were certain popular courts which were
empowered to dispense justice in the cases that arose within their jurisdiction. For instance,
the village assemblies, the temple trustees and the caste elders had courts of their own.

Thus, it is that in the Vijayanagara period there were village courts, presided over by the
village Mahdjanas, caste courts presided over by the caste elders, courts presided over by the
temple trustees and courts of the guilds presided over by their leading men. These courts had
all the judicial and magisterial authority of the judge of a regular court. In those days special
officers were appointed to supervise the working of the temples, and whenever disputes arose
in them these special officers enquired into such cases and decided them. Questions affecting
the social and religious practices of the people were decided by special officers called
samaydcdras or dasaris who were appointed by the government as the censors of morals. The
Nayakas of the Vijayanagara days who were semi-independent rulers in their own territories.

30
They enjoyed complete powers of police and judicial administration. They held their own
courts and decided cases that came before them.

JUDICIAL PROCESS:
(A)CIVIL CASES-
Civil cases were generally decided by the popular courts more by arbitration than by a
detailed and dispassionate examination of all the legal points involved in a case. Even such
difficult and complicated cases like the right of succession to a property were decided by the
local magnates by means of arbitration. When the regular courts or the king tried the cases,
they went into their merits, examined the documents, tried witnesses, and finally gave their
decisions. The value of documentary evidence was highly appreciated. The kings or chiefs
did not fail to examine all relevant documents in connection with any suit that appeared
before them. An aggrieved party had the right of petition to the governor or king. When the
governor or king by himself could not decide the case, he sought the aid of the nattar. But
even when this influential body of people could not decide the case, perhaps owing to the fact
that it was too important a question and involved serious points of law, the Mahajanas of the
surrounding villages. The appeals could be made from the popular courts to regular courts of
justice which belonged to the king.

Though human and documented evidences were given much importance, divine evidences
also played a major role. When there was lack of sufficient evidence, the help of ordeals was
sought. If the accused was saved or was less injured during performance of the ordeal, he was
assumed to be innocent. If the contrary happened he was held guilty.

(B)CRIMINAL CASES-

The criminal cases were tried both at the imperial court and in the mofussil centres. In
dealing with political offences, real or suspected, the king at times combined in himself the
duties of the complainant, the policeman and the magistrate. The king was only one of the
authorities that were in charge of the administration of criminal justice. The village
assemblies, the temple authorities, and provincial governors also went elaborately into the
criminal cases, examined the evidence and pronounced judgments. Sometimes arbitration was
resorted to even for deciding criminal cases. At certain places the local residents (nattar) were
allowed to decide criminal cases.

31
 PUNISHMENTS-

The normal code of punishment was severe under the Vijayanagar kings. According to
Nuniz- for a theft, however mere it maybe, hands and limbs of the thief was cut off. And if
the theft turns to be grave then then hooks were hanged under the chin of the thief. If a man
outrages a respectable woman or a virgin he has the same punishment, and if he does any
other such violence his punishment is of a like kind. Nobles who became traitors are sent to
be impaled alive on a wooden stake thrust through the belly, and people of the lower orders,
for whatever crime they commit, he forthwith commands to cut off their heads in the
marketplace.

The law of the land allowed differential treatment among the citizens. All men were not equal
in the eyes of law. The Brahmans, were not executed for their grave crime, but were simply
imprisoned and blinded. Human sacrifices were not rare under the Vijayanagara kings.
Regular prisons were maintained where the prisoners were lodged. Whenever there was felt
any necessity for the sacrifice of human beings the prisoners ‘who deserved death’ were
ordered to be executed.

Certain offences were punished with excommunication and loss of caste. In such cases the
property of the accused was also forfeited to the palace. A few offences were punishable by
the levy of fines. Injustice done to a particular individual by the state was compensated by it.

The method of the administration of justice in the Vijayanagara days shows clearly that the
kings were anxious that justice should be administered to the people. Whether it was the
judge at the imperial court or the village assembly in the outlying parts of the empire, the
cases that appeared before them were examined in all their aspects. It may be that the code of
criminal procedure was harsh and rigorous in certain cases. But it was only the fear of such
severe punishment that made the people law-abiding citizens.

32
 RELIGION

The religion of Vijayanagara was characterised by intense religious activity in southern India.
Various sects and sub-sects emerged, temples assumed great importance and ‘mathas’
fostered the spread of religion and learning.

A towering figure in the Hindu renaissance of the early medieval era was the great
Shankaracharya (AD 781-820), who had given a definite shape to the monistic or non-
dualistic school of philosophy known as the Advaita system, the followers of which are
known as the Smartas. The two important Advaita ‘mathas’ at Sringeri and Kanchipuram,
besides a number of others, propagated the Smarta religious system and the Advaita
philosophy in southern India. Inscriptions from AD 1346 onwards reveal the close links
between the Vijayanagara rulers and the former ‘matha’.

The Pasupata sect of Shaivism and its offshoots, the Kapalika and Kalamukha, were
important Saivite sects. However, by the time of the establishment of the Vijayanagara
kingdom, the Pasupatas and the Kapalikas appear to have lost their influence. The
Kalamukhas continued to be popular till the early fifteenth century. The later history says that
the Kalamukhas did not appear after fifteenth century and it is probable that the sect was
absorbed by the reformist Virashaiva religion. Other important Saivite schools were the
Shaiva-Siddhanta and Shivadvaita. The most important Saivite group in the Vijayanagara
times was the Virashaiva or the Lingayat sect. The Virashaiva reform during the twelfth
century AD spread rapidly from Karnataka to Andhra Pradesh and Nadu Tamil. The
Virashaivas are also called the Lingayats on account of the linga that the followers of this sect
wear. Besides the Vedas, the Agamas and the Puranas, the Virashaivas accept the authority of
the sixty-three Tamil Shaiva saints and 770 later Virashaiva saints. This new faith is a
departure from the ritualism of the Vedic traditions and social practices.

Vaishnavism received a great momentum in southern India, catalyzed by the work of the two
great Acharyas namely Ramanuja and Madhava. Ramanuja (AD1017-1137), the great
philosopher of Visistadvaita, or qualified monism, followed a long line of Vaishnava thinkers
in Tamil Nadu. Twelve poet saints had expressed their intense devotion in the form of songs
that constitute the basis of Visistadvaita, equally with the Upanishads and the Bhagavata

33
Purana . The poet saints were followed by a succession of Acharyas, the greatest of whom
was Ramanuja. According to the religious system of the Acharyas, Vishnu is the supreme
deity, accompanied by Sri or Lakshmi, who represents divine grace. That is why this religion
is called Sri-Vaishnavism. This sect won many followers in Tamil Nadu and had also spread
to parts of Karnataka before the Vijayanagara period. In the early fourteenth century the Sri-
Vaishnava sect split into two divisions, viz. the Vadagalai and the Tengalai.

Madhavacharya (AD1238-1317) preached the philosophy of Dvaita or dualism in Karnataka.

Following the Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya, a movement started in Karnataka in the
fifteenth century, known as the Haridasa movement. This movement became widely popular
in the Vijayanagara kingdom and furthered the spread of the Vishnu cult. Purandaradasa was
a great Haridasa who was closely associated with Vijayanagara city.

Besides the Shaivite and Vaishnavite sects, there was also the Sakta cult; the Saktas worship
the supreme deity exclusively as the female principle. At the same time, side by side with the
‘greater’ or Sanskritik sects of Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism, there also existed the
‘lesser’ or non-Sanskritik cults of the popular or folk deities. Most of the deities of these cults
were female divinities. The fertility cult and the predominant role of women in an agrarian
society, perhaps, were the reasons for this. The worship of snakes represented by snake-
stones, of sacred trees and of men and women who had died under heroic circumstances were
also a part of popular religiosity.

Jainism had been a dominant religion in this region for about fifteen centuries. But the Hindu
renaissance struck a death blow to Jainism and before the fourteenth century it had
disappeared from many parts of southern India. Its last stronghold in the south was in
Karnataka. Even though the Virashaiva movement resulted in the further decline of Jainism,
the latter continued to be fairly influential in Karnataka during the early Vijayanagara period,
strengthened by patronage from the rulers. However, by the sixteenth century, Jainism’s
decline, even in Karnataka, had become marked.

Among other religions co-existing in southern India was Islam, which reached south India via
the Arab traders who settled along the west coast. However, the presence of Islam was felt
throughout southern India only in the aftermath of the invasions from the north in the early

34
fourteenth century. During the Vijayanagara period the employment of Muslim soldiers in the
army resulted in a greater Muslim presence. Although there were Christian communities in
Malabar long before the Vijayanagara period, it was only with the coming of the Portuguese
that Christianity spread to other areas. However, the impact of Christianity remained minimal
during the period under survey.

In so far as the sectarian affiliations of the Vijayanagara rulers are concerned, it is clear that
the Sangamas were Shaivas. The early rulers of this dynasty had Kalamukha gurus as their
preceptors, but at the same time there was also a close link between the monks of the Sringeri
Advaita matha and the Vijayanagara state, at least from 1346 AD onwards. The name of
Vidyaranya, a pontiff of this monastic lineage, is closely associated with the early history of
Vijayanagara. Virashaivism was influential in the later Sangama period. According to one
school of thought, Devaraya II and his immediate successors were Lingayats, and although
there is no conclusive evidence to support this contention, it is undoubtedly true that this sect
did enjoy royal favour.

A shift to Vaishnavism occurred with the change in dynasty. Saluva Narasimha was a
devotee of Verikatesvara of Tirumalai-Tirupati, as were numerous Tuluvas and Aravldus who
were also greatly devoted to this deity. Since the Saluvas and Tuluvas were staunch
Vaishnavas, Vaishnava sectarians, both Sri-Vaishnavas and Madhavas, Vaishnava temples
and institutions gained in prominence during their rule.

Harihara I and his successors had placed the realm under the protection of Sri Virupaksha, the
local deity of the Hampi area where they pitched their capital. Virupaksha is considered to be
a form of Shiva. ‘Sri Virupaksha’ was adopted as the sign-manual of the Vijayanagara rulers.
As long as the capital remained at Vijayanagara city there was no alteration in this practice,
which continued till the early seventeenth century when the king Verikata II replaced ‘Sri
Virupaksha’ by ‘Sri Verikatesa’ as the official signature.

Despite their sectarian preferences, the Vijayanagara rulers, on the whole, adopted the
deliberate policy of tolerance towards all sects, so as to incorporate them all within the polity.
Devaraya II endowed Sri Vaishnava temples at Srirangam and Tirumalai, favoured Jain
institutions in the capital and elsewhere, employed Muslims in his army and allowed them to

35
practice their religion freely. The Vaishnava Krishnadevaraya bestowed showered grants and
gifts on Shaiva temples, and Achyutaraya on the occasion of his coronation gave an equal
number of villages to the Shaiva and Vaishnava temples of Ekambaranatha and Varadaraja
respectively, at Kanchipuram. However, under Sadashiva and Ramaraya, although there was
no persecution of Shaiva institutions, the official patronage was primarily extended towards
Sri-Vaishnava ones. This departure from the traditional policy had unhappy consequences.

36
7. CONCLUSION

From the research it is fairly reasonable to conclude that Vijayanagara Empire was one of the
greatest empires that existed in India. Its administration was a model administration as it was
systematically divided into central, provincial and local level. These levels were smartly
divided and were under efficient administrators. King was the supreme head but he never
directly controlled these levels but always had sharp supervision on them. The empire’s
social conditions were fairly well. King maintained the social order and provided justice to its
citizens. All castes and communities were respected and given equal freedom. Special guilds
based on profession were also created. Though not fully independent but women were
allowed for literacy activities and employment. Economically Vijayangara was very strong
due to its trade. Both domestic and foreign trade flourished immensely. Art and architecture
of Vijayanagara was very rich and beautiful.

Every empire’s ultimate aim is to provide utmost happiness to its citizen and Vijaynagara
empire was to great extent able to achieve that.

37
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS REFFERED:

1. V.D. MAHAJAN, HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA (2018).

2. S.R. MYNENI, INDIAN HISTORY (2010).

3. T. V. MAHALINGAM, ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGAR

EMPIRE (1940).

4. K.A. NILAKANTHA SHASTRI. A HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA (2d ed. 1958).

38
39