MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to

determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation. It is a vital and
important aspect of surveying since levelling operations are undertaken to provide
necessary data for engineering design and construction, and the production of
topographic maps. The suitability of a site for development can be better
determined by using the results obtained from levelling operations. Through the
processes of levelling, buildings, roads, canals, and other vertical and horizontal
structures can be designed and laid out to best conform to the configuration of the
ground.

Definition of Terms:

Figure 3: Relationship between level surfaces

1. Level surface

Level surface is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the

direction of gravity or the plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a
large body of still water. However, a level surface is not a plane and does not
have a regular form because of local deviations of the plumb line. To some
effect, the direction of gravity depends on the distribution of the masses of
the earth’s crust and on their densities. Such that if a plumb bob is held
vertically at the base of a mountain, it will have the tendency to deflect
toward the mountain. Although the deflection would be small and negligible,
nevertheless it makes the level surface slightly irregular.

2. Level line

A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal to
the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.

3. Horizontal surface

The horizontal surface is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a

particular point. It is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the same point.

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 4. Horizontal line

Horizontal line is a straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level

line at one point. This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the
point of tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is comparatively large,
it is practical for most purposes to assume that a level line and a horizontal
line are the same for short distances.

5. Vertical line

A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of gravity. It is

exemplified by the direction taken by a string supporting a suspended plumb
bob passing through a point. For ordinary purposes it is convenient to assume
that the earth is a true sphere with a smooth surface, and that a plumb line
held at any point on its surface is always directed toward the center of the
sphere.

6. Mean Sea Level

Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between
high and low tides. It is taken as the reference surface to which most ground
elevations are referred. This surface is determined by averaging the height of
the sea’s surface for all its tide stages over a long period of time which may
extend to about 20 years. Readings are usually taken at hourly intervals on
various properly distributed stations. Mean sea level is not a steady frame of
reference due to the melting of ice in the polar regions, the effects of
volcanic activity, and many other influencing factors. It is for these reasons
that it is necessary to have a continuing observation of sea level fluctuations
to detect changes. This surface, which is considered to be at zero elevation,
conforms to the spheroidal shape of the earth and is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity at every point.

7. Datum

Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea
level to which elevations of a particular area are referred. Any surface may
be used as a datum when a relative elevation over a limited area needs to
be established. It is done by assigning an assumed elevation to a reference
point and determining the elevation of other points in the vicinity with regard
to this value.

8. Elevation

For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below
mean sea level or any other selected datum. Points on or near the surface of
the earth have either positive or negative elevations, depending if the point is
above or below mean sea level.

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 9. Difference in elevation

The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance

between the two level surface in which the points lie.

Leveling methods:

There are various methods which could be employed to determine the

elevation of points and their difference in elevation. These methods may be
undertaken either directly or indirectly in the field. The principle involved in each
method differs in some aspects. Also, they may differ with respect to the type of the
instruments used, the procedure employed, and the attainable degrees of precision.
Traditional methods of leveling have been used for so many years and they still
continue to be useful in the present time. Such methods include: direct leveling,
trigonometric leveling, and barometric leveling. Concurrent with recent
developments in surveying instruments, newer and more precise techniques have
been developed. Some of these utilize electronic instruments such as total geodetic
stations, the airborne profile recorder, satellite doppler systems, and inertial
surveying systems.

1. Direct leveling

Direct leveling is the common employed method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of set ups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route. This method of leveling is also referred to
as spirit leveling since the device used is a spirit level. Differential leveling,
double-rodded leveling, and three-wire leveling are forms of direct leveling.
In direct leveling vertical distances are measured above or below a level line
and these values are used to compute the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation. Being the most precise method of leveling, it is used
when a high degree of accuracy is required.

2. Reciprocal leveling

Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining the difference in

elevation between two intervisible points located at a considerable distance
apart and between which points leveling could not be performed in the usual
manner. This method is commonly employed when leveling across a wide
river, a deep ravine, or across canyons and gullies where it would be difficult
or impossible to maintain a foresight and a backsight distance of nearly equal
lengths. Reciprocal leveling provides a faster method of determining
differences in elevation and when it is carefully conducted; it could be as
precise as direct leveling. In determining the difference in elevation between
the two points, it will require two sets of observations and the mean of which is
used. Since there is inequality between the sights taken, the process of
reciprocal leveling is expected to eliminate the errors resulting from curvature
of the earth and the refraction of the atmosphere, provided that atmospheric
conditions do not change during the process of leveling.

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 3. Profile leveling

This method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation between

points at designated short measured intervals along an established line to
provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted. In the deisgn of roads, railroads, canals, drainage systems, and
transmission lines, it is necessary to first obtain a profile of the existing gorund
surface. It is this method of leveling which will best suit such requirements.

4. Trigonometric leveling

This method of leveling is employed in determining by trigonometric

computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle
between the points. The required distances are usually obtained by stadia,
triangulation, or by direct taping. By most leveling standards, trigonometric
leveling only provides a very rough determination of differences in elevation.
Its degree of precision may be improved by using precise measuring
instruments such as optical theodolites and total geodetic stations which
measure angles to seconds. However, there are certain occasions such as in
mapping or surveying over very rugged terrain when it would be fully justified
to undertake trigonometric leveling. It is also a convenient method to adapt
when it is required only to determine the elevation of principal stations or
control points.

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DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Differential leveling is the process of determining the difference in elevation

between two or more points some distance apart. It requires a series of set ups of
the instrument along a general route and, for each set up, a rod reading back to
the point of known elevation and forward to a point of unknown elevation are
taken. The basic equipment used in differential leveling include a graduated
leveling rod and a leveling instrument such as a dumpy level, automatic level, or an
engineer’s transit. These leveling instruments are used to establish a horizontal line of
sight and to measure the vertical distance between the line of sight and the point
on which the rod is held.

Definition of terms:

A cursory look at the figure may imply that the points along the leveling route
all lie in a straight line. It is important to understand that it is not always the case in
actual leveling work. The points and the instrument stations may in fact be
positioned in plan along a zigzagging pattern.

Figure 4: Differential leveling

1. Bench Mark (BM)

A bench mark is a fixed point of reference whose elevation is either known or

assumed. They may be permanent or temporary. Permanent bench marks
(PBM) are those which are established at intervals throughout the country by
the Philippine Coast and Geodetic Surveys (PCGS) or the Bureau of Lands.
They serve as points of reference for levels in a given locality and their
elevations are determined by precise leveling methods. Permanent PCGS
bench marks consist of bronze or brass disks which are permanently set in
concrete foundations. They are marked with the elevation above sea level,
the year it was established, and its reference number. Temporary bench
marks (TBM) are those set up by the surveyor for his own use in a particular
surveying project and may have assumed elevations. They should be stable
and semi-permanent marks such as a wooden peg set in concrete, a nail or
spike driven into a tree, an x-mark on a bridge abutment, a notch cut out in
the root of a tree, or the top of a fire hydrant.

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 It is important that bench marks are easily recognized and located where
they will have the smallest likelihood of being disturbed. Accurate record
should be kept for each bench mark since they may be frequently referred to
later by other surveyors. They should be thoroughly described in the field
notes.

2. Backsight (BS)

A backsight is a reading taken on a rod held on a point of known or assumed

elevation. It is a measure of the vertical distance from the established line of
sight to the point sighted, and is always the first rod reading taken after the
instrument has been set up and leveled. Backsights are frequently referred to
as plus “+S” sights since they are added to the elevation of points being
sighted to determine the height of instrument. The backsight does not
necessarily mean that it is always a sight taken backward.

3. Foresight (FS)

A reading taken on a rod held on a point whose elevation is to be

determined is called a foresight. It is represented as a vertical distance from
the line of sight of the instrument to the point observed. Since the reading for
a foresight is subtracted from the height of instrument to determine the
elevation of the point on which the rod is held, a foresight is usually referred to
as a minus “-S” sight. Foresights are often taken forward or in the general
direction in which the leveling work proceeds. It is usually the last reading
taken before the leveling instrument is moved to another location.

4. Backsight Distance (BSD)

The backsight distance is measured from the center of the instrument to the
rod on which a backsight is taken.

5. Foresight Distance (FSD)

The horizontal distance from the center of the instrument to the rod on which
a foresight is taken is referred to as the foresight distance. Its length is usually
made nearly equal to its corresponding backsight distance.

6. Turning Point (TP)

A turning point is an intervening point between two bench marks upon which
point foresight and backsight rod readings are taken to enable a leveling
operation to continue from a new instrument position. It is also sometimes
referred to as a change point (CP), and is established as far away as practical
in the general direction of the line of levels. In order that the rod can be
removed and later positioned back in the same place as many times as may
be necessary, the turning point should be located on some stable object. For
this purpose, a rock, a stake driven into the ground or a paint mark on a
concrete pavement is preferable. Turning points are described them in detail
since they are only used to carry forward a line of levels.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 33

 7. Height of instrument

The height of instrument (or height of collimation) is the elevation of the line of
sight of an instrument above or below a selected reference datum. It is
determined by adding the rod reading on the backsight to the elevation of
the point on which the sight is taken.

Procedure of differential leveling:

1. The leveling instrument is set up at any convenient location along the level
route and a backsight is taken on a leveling rod held vertically on BMa. The
backsight reading added to the known or assumed elevation of the initial
bench marck gives the height of instrument above datum or:

Where:

= Height of instrument
= Elev BM + BS = Bench mark at point A
= Backsight

2. The rodman moves forward along the general direction of BMb and holds the
rod at a convenient turning point (TP1). The instrumentman takes a foresight
on the rod. This foresight reading subtracted from the height of instrument
gives the elevation above datum of the turning point or:

Where:

= First turning point

= HI − FS
= Height of instrument
= Foresight

3. The level is then transferred and set up at another convenient location

beyond TP1, but still in the general direction of BMb. The exact location at
which the level is set up is of little importance. The more important thing to
consider is that the level is set up at a location where backsight and foresight
rod readings can be made.

4. A backsight is then taken on TP1 to establish a new height of instrument (HI2).

The rodman finally moves forward to the location of BMb and a foresight is
taken on the rod held on it. Since the new HI has already been determined,
the elevation of BMb is computed by subtracting the foresight reading from
the height of instrument.

5. If the terminal point BMb is still some distance away such that more turning
points have to be established before it could be foresighted, the procedure
of reading a backsight, the rodman moving ahead to establish another
turning point, and reading a foresight is repeated. This is done as many times
as necessary until the elevation of BMb is finally obtained.

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 34

Leveling notes:

It is important that all data gathered in differential leveling work be properly

recorded in a special field notebook ruled with suitable lines. The left-hand page is
usually divided into columns for observed and computed data and the right-hand
page is reserved for sketches and descriptive notes or remarks concerning bench
marks and turning points which may be useful in subsequent field operations. The
standard column headings on the left-hand page are: station, backsight, height of
instrument, foresight, and the elevation. Accepted abbreviations are normally used.
It must be remembered that the station is not the point occupied by the leveling
instrument, but it is the point on which the rod is held. The following additional
information may also be indicated on the upper portion of the right-hand page:
date and time of survey, average temperature observed, and weather condition
prevailing during the survey.

Figure 5: Typical differential leveling notes

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DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

Double-rodded differential leveling is a method of determining differences

in elevation between points by employing two level routes simultaneously. This
method differs from conventional differential leveling in that two turning points are
established such that at each setup of the leveling instrument, two sets of
independent backsights and foresights are taken.

This method has an advantage of providing a continuous check on the

process of determining ground elevations while the work is in progress. It is extremely
useful when there is an urgent need to undertake differential leveling in a short
period of time where no established bench marks are available for checking results.
Double-rodded leveling is also useful when running a long line of levels which do not
close back on the initial bench mark.

Leveling notes:

In these notes the turning points are listed as H or L (high line or low line) to
identify the backsight and foresight readings on the two level lines. Although this
method of leveling can be run with a single rod and only one rodman, it is
preferable to employ two rods and two rodmen to speed up the process of leveling.
When using this method, it is advisable to use sets of turning points which are near
each other and having elevation differences of at least one-half meter or more. This
technique eliminates the possibility of making the same mistake in reading the meter
marks on both rods. It is also advisable to swap rods on alternate setups of the
instrument to minimize systematic errors.

Upon completion of
the leveling operation, it will
be observed that the two
computed elevations of the
terminal bench mark will
vary slightly from each other.
The discrepancy is due
usually to errors of
observation, and the correct
elevation is determined by
taking the average value.
However, when the
discrepancy between two
final elevations is sufficiently
large, it is advisable to
repeat the leveling process.
Figure 6: Notes for double-rodded leveling

It should also be expected that the discrepancy will increase as the length of the
line increases. Just as in conventional differential leveling, there is a need to perform
the customary arithmetic check before leaving the survey site.

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THREE-WIRE LEVELING

A more precise method of differential leveling can be attained by the three-

wire method of leveling. It is a method of determining differences in elevation
wherein three horizontal hairs (or threads) are read and recorded rather than from a
single horizontal hair. The leveling instrument used should be equipped with stadia
hairs in addition to the regular vertical and horizontal hairs. For each backsight and
foresight, all three horizontal hairs are read to the nearest millimetre and the
average of the three readings is taken as the correct value.

Where:

= upper stadia hair reading

= lower stadia hair reading
= Horizontal cross-hair reading or rod reading on P
= stadia intercept or the difference between the
upper stadia hair reading and the lower stadia
hair reading
= a−b = mean of three-hair readings
= horizontal distance from the level to the rod
a+b+c held at P
= = stadia interval factor
3
= instrument constant
= height of the line of sight above datum or
= Ks + c
mean sea level
= unknown elevation of station P
= HI − m

The figure illustrates a typical setup for three-wire leveling. The level is set up at
station L and the rod is held vertically at station P. The horizontal distance between
the instrument and the rod is shown as HD, and the vertical distance between the
line of sight and station P is taken as the mean of the three hair readings. The stadia
intercept, s, provides an indirect measure of the distance from the center of the
leveling instrument to the rod sighted. In determining the horizontal distance, the
stadia interval factor, K, and the instrument constant, c, must first be known or given.
For most leveling instruments, K is usually equal to 100 and c is zero.

Figure 7: Typical setup for three-wire leveling

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 37

Sample Problem:

1. Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary arithmetic check. Level notes from BM1 to BM4:

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION

BM 1.256 127.133 m
TP 1.116 1.886
TP 1.228 1.527
BM 1.189 2.246
BM 1.070 2.017
TP 1.831 2.656
BM 2.765

Figure: Level route from to

Figure: Level Route from to

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 Figure: Level Route from to

2. The accompanying schematic arrangement of lines in the figure below

portrays a differential level route. The values indicated represent backsight
and foresight readings taken at different points as labelled. Prepare and
complete differential level notes for the information shown and show the
customary arithmetic check.

Figure: Schematic arrangement of lines along the level route

3. Complete the following differential level notes for double-rodded line from
BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.

STATION BS HI FS ELEVATION

1.964
BM 1.964 205.549 m

TP H 2.187 1.104
TP L 2.629 1.549
TP H 1.393 1.794
TP L 1.780 2.202
TP H 0.317 2.991
TP L 0.741 3.415

BM 2.634
2.634

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 39

 4. The figure shows a schematic arrangement of a differential level route
employing two rods. The values indicated represent backsight and foresight
readings taken on two sets of turning points. Prepare and complete
differential level notes for the information shown and perform the customary
arithmetic check.

Figure: Schematic arrangement of lines for the double-rodded level route

5. Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary arithmetic check.

BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN S HI HAIR MEAN S ELEV
RDGS RDGS RDGS RDGS
1.152
BM 0.935 444.242
0.718
2.784 1.117
TP 2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682
1.713 1.900
TP 1.440 1.537
1.166 1.172
2.591 1.450
TP 2.094 1.177
1.599 0.904
0.913 2.210
TP 0.730 1.714
0.547 1.218
BM 1.593
1.410
1.227

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 40

 Figure: Set-up between and

Figure: Set-up between and

Figure: Set-up between and

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 41

 Figure: Set-up between and

Figure: Set-up between and

Fundamentals of Surveying Page 42