CHAPTER # 4

Introduction :
Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or
differences in elevation are determined.
Leveling results are used to:

 Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities having
grade lines that best conform to existing topography.
 Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations.
 Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials.
 Investigate drainage characteristics of an area
 Develop maps showing general ground configurations.
 Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

Definitions :
 Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.
 Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts).Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A
body of still water is the closest example of a level surface. Within local areas, level surfaces
at different heights are considered to be concentric.1 Level surfaces are also known as
equipotential surfaces since, for a particular surface, the potential of gravity is equal at every
point on the surface.

 Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.

 Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying,
it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line. Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal
plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to the local vertical.
  Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that
is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero . This level surface is also known as a reference
datum since points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.
 Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or
object. If the elevation of point A is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the reference datum. The
elevation of a point is also called its height above the datum.
 Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.
 Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide
over a 19-year period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.
 Tidal datum. The vertical datum used in coastal areas for establishing property boundaries of
lands bordering waters subject to tides. A tidal datum also provides the basis for locating
fishing and oil drilling rights in tidal waters, and the limits of swamp and overflowed lands.
Various definitions have been used in different areas for a tidal datum, but the one most
commonly employed is the mean high water (MHW) line. Others applied include mean
higher high water (MHHW), mean low water (MLW), and mean lower low water
(MLLW). Interpretations of a tidal datum, and the methods by which they are determined,
have been, and continue to be, the subject of numerous court cases.
 Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point
whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed. Common examples
are metal disks set in concrete, reference marks chiselled on large rocks, non-movable parts of
fire hydrants, curbs, etc.
 Levelling. The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.
 Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established
throughout an area, also termed basic control or level control.

Curvature & Refraction :

Horizontal plane departs from a level surface because of curvature of the Earth.

Cm = 0.0785K2

 Why sun is red at dusk and dawn?

At Dusk and Dawn the rays have to travel a larger part of the atmosphere because they are very close
to the horizon. Therefore, light other than red is mostly scattered away. Most of the red light, which is
the least scattered, enters our eyes. Hence, the sun and the sky appear red. At the moment when the
sun has just passed below the horizon, it is seen just above the horizon. The sun’s diameter of
approximately 32 min is roughly equal to the average refraction on a horizontal sight. Since the red
wavelength of light bends the greatest, it is not uncommon to see a red sun in a clear sky at dusk and
dawn.

 Refraction, Rm = 0.011K2
Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions, length of
line and the angle a sight line makes with the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction in feet or in
meters is expressed approximately by the formulas (Rf = 0.093 M2 = 0.0033 F2).This is about one
seventh the effect of curvature of the Earth, but in the opposite direction.

 The combined effect of curvature and refraction,

hm = 0.0675 K2 (hf = 0.574 M2 = 0.0206 F2)
Where hf is in feet and hm is in meters.

Determining Differences In Elevation :

 Taping : Application of a tape to a vertical line between two points is sometimes possible.
This method is used to measure depths of mine shafts, to determine floor elevations in
condominium surveys, and in the layout and construction of multi-story buildings, pipelines,
etc.
 Differential Levelling : In this most commonly employed method, a telescope with suitable
magnification is used to read graduated rods held on fixed points. A horizontal line of sight
within the telescope is established by means of a level vial or automatic compensator.

HI = elev + BS => elev = HI – FS

A plus sight also termed back-sight (BS),is the reading on a rod held on a point of known or assumed
elevation. This reading is used to compute the height of instrument (HI),defined as the vertical
distance from datum to the instrument line of sight. Direction of the sight—whether forward,
backward, or sideways—is not important. The term plus sight is preferable to back-sight, but both are
used. If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on point X, a minus sight also called
foresight (FS),is obtained.

 The barometer, an instrument that measures air pressure, can be used to find relative
elevations of points on the Earth’s surface since a change of approximately 1000 ft in
elevation will correspond to a change of about 1 in. of mercury (Hg) in atmospheric pressure.

Calibration of the scale on different models is in multiples of 1 or 2 ft,0.5 or 1 m. Air pressures are
affected by circumstances other than difference in elevation, such as sudden shifts in temperature and
changing weather conditions due to storms. Also, during each day a normal variation in barometric
pressure amounting to perhaps a 100-ft difference in elevation occurs. This variation is known as the
diurnal range. In barometric levelling, various techniques can be used to obtain correct elevation
differences in spite of pressure changes that result from weather variations. In one of these, a control
barometer remains on a benchmark (base) while a roving instrument is taken to points whose
elevations are desired. Readings are made on the base at stated intervals of time, perhaps every 10 min
and the elevations recorded along with temperature and time.

Trigonometric Levelling :
The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring:

 The inclined or horizontal distance between them.

 The zenith angle or The altitude angle to one point from the other.
 V = S cos(z)
V = S sin(a)
Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is
V = H cot(z)
V = H tan(a)
The difference in elevation between points A and B

where hi is the height of the instrument above point A and r the reading on the rod held at B when
zenith angle z or altitude angle is read. If r is made equal to hi, then these two values cancel. Note the
distinction in this text between HI and hi .Although both are called height of instrument, the term HI
is the elevation of the instrument above datum, while hi is the height of the instrument above an
occupied point, as discussed here.

Δelev = hi + V + hCR – r
Example 4.1

Example 4.2
Categories Of Level :
Four categories:

 Dumpy levels,
 Tilting levels,
 Automatic levels, and
 Digital levels
Two common components:
  A telescope to create a line of sight and enable a reading to be taken on a graduated rod and
 A system to orient the line of sight in a horizontal plane.
Other types of levels:

 Hand levels
 Total station instruments
 Electronic laser levels : Electronic laser levels that transmit beams of either visible laser or
invisible infrared light are another category of leveling instruments. They are not commonly
employed in differential leveling, but are used extensively for establishing elevations on
construction projects.

Telescopes :
The telescopes of levelling instruments define the line of sight and magnify the view of a graduated
rod against a reference reticle, thereby enabling accurate readings to be obtained. The components of
a telescope are mounted in a cylindrical tube. Its four main components are the objective lens,
negative lens, reticle, and eyepiece.
Objective Lens. This compound lens, securely mounted in the tube’s object end, has its optical axis
reasonably concentric with the tube axis. Its main function is to gather incoming light rays and direct
them toward the negative focusing lens.
Negative Lens. The negative lens is located between the objective lens and reticle, and mounted so its
optical axis coincides with that of the objective lens. Its function is to focus rays of light that pass
through the objective lens onto the reticle plane. During focusing, the negative lens slides back and
forth along the axis of the tube.
Reticle. The reticle consists in a pair of perpendicular reference lines (usually called crosshairs)
mounted at the principal focus of the objective optical system. The point of intersection of the
crosshairs, together with the optical center of the objective system, forms the so-called line of sight,
also sometimes called the line of collimation. The crosshairs are fine lines etched on a thin round
glass plate. The glass plate is held in place in the main cylindrical tube by two pairs of opposing
screws, which are located at right angles to each other to facilitate adjusting the line of sight. Two
additional lines parallel to and equidistant from the primary lines are commonly added to reticles for
special purposes such as for three-wire levelling .The reticle is mounted within the main telescope
tube with the lines placed in a horizontal-vertical orientation. Eyepiece. The eyepiece is a microscope
(usually with magnification from about 25 to 45 power) for viewing the image. Focusing is an
important function to be performed in using a telescope. The process is governed by the fundamental
principle of lenses stated in the following formula:
Eyepiece. The eyepiece is a microscope (usually with magnification from about 25 to 45 power) for
viewing the image. Focusing is an important function to be performed in using a telescope. The
process is governed by the fundamental principle of lenses stated in the following formula:

Where f1 is the distance from the lens to the image at the reticle plane, f2 the distance from the lens to
the object, and f the lens focal length. The focal length of any lens is a function of the radii of the
ground spherical surfaces of the lens and of the index of refraction of the glass from which it is made.
It is a constant for any particular single or compound lens. To focus for each varying f2 distance, f1
must be changed to maintain the equality of Equation.
Focusing the telescope of a level is a two-stage process. First the eyepiece lens must be focused. Since
the position of the reticle in the telescope tube remains fixed, the distance between it and the eyepiece
lens must be adjusted to suit the eye of an individual observer. This is done by bringing the crosshairs
to a clear focus; that is, making them appear as black as possible when sighting at the sky or a distant,
light-colored object. Once this has been accomplished, the adjustment need not be changed for the
same observer, regardless of sight length, unless the eye fatigues.
The second stage of focusing occurs after the eyepiece has been adjusted. Objects at varying distances
from the telescope are brought to sharp focus at the plane of the crosshairs by turning the focusing
knob. This moves the negative focusing lens to change f1 and create the equality in Equation for
varying f2 distances.
After focusing, if the crosshairs appear to travel over the object sighted when the eye is shifted
slightly in any direction, parallax exists. The objective lens, the eyepiece, or both must be refocused to
eliminate this effect if accurate work is to be done.

Level Vials :
Level vials are used to orient many different surveying instruments with respect to the direction of
gravity.
There are two basic types:

 The tube vial

The axis of the level vial is an imaginary longitudinal line tangent to the upper inside surface at its
midpoint. When the bubble is centered in its run, the axis should be a horizontal line.
Sensitivity:
Its radius of curvature, established in manufacture, determines the sensitivity of a level vial; the larger
the radius, the more sensitive a bubble. A highly sensitive bubble, necessary for precise work, may be
a handicap in rough surveys because more time is required to center it. Sensitivity of a level vial is
expressed in two ways:
1. The angle, in seconds, subtended by one division on the scale and
2. The radius of the tube’s curvature.
θ = S/R
S=Length, R=Radius
Coincidence-type tube level vial used on precise equipment. A prism splits the image of the bubble
and makes the two ends visible simultaneously. Bringing the two ends together to form a smooth
curve centers the bubble. This arrangement enables bubble centering to be done more accurately.

 The circular or so-called “bull’s-eye” version

Circular level vials are spherical in shape ,the inside surface of the sphere being precisely
manufactured to a specific radius. Like the tube version, except for an air bubble, circular vials are
filled with liquid. The vial is graduated with concentric circles having 2-mm spacings. Its axis is
actually a plane tangent to the radius point of the graduated concentric circles. When the bubble is
centered in the smallest circle, the axis should be horizontal. Besides their use for rough levelling of
tilting and automatic levels, circular vials are also used on total station instruments, tribrachs, rod
levels, prism poles, and many other surveying instruments. Their sensitivity is much lower than that
of tube vials—generally in the range from to per 2-mm division.

Tilting Levels :
A surveying instrument with sighting telescope so mounted that it can be raised or lowered through a
limited arc without impairing accuracy of reading, though axis of rotation is not precisely horizontal.
The tilting level has a three-screw leveling head, magnification 42x and sensitivity of the level vial
equal to 10”/2 mm.

Automatic Levels :
An automatic level, self-levelling level, or builder's auto level includes an internal compensator
mechanism (a swinging prism) that, when set close to level, automatically removes any remaining
variation. This reduces the need to set the instrument base truly level, as with a dumpy level.

The operating principle of one type of automatic compensator used in automatic levels is shown
schematically.The system consists of prisms suspended from wires to create a pendulum. The wire
lengths, support locations, and nature of the prisms are such that only horizontal rays reach the
intersection of crosshairs. Thus, a horizontal line of sight is achieved even though the telescope itself
may be slightly tilted away from horizontal. Damping devices shorten the time for the pendulum to
come to rest, so the operator does not have to wait
Most of these instruments have a three-screw levelling head, which is used to quickly center a bull’s-
eye bubble, although some models have a ball-and-socket arrangement for this purpose. After the
bull’s-eye bubble is centered manually, an automatic compensator takes over, levels the line of sight
and keeps it level. some automatic compensators are affected by magnetic fields, which result in
systematic errors in rod readings. The sizes of the errors are azimuth-dependent, maximum for lines
run north and south, and can exceed 1 mm/km. Thus, it is of concern for high-order control levelling
only.

Digital Levels :
digital levels. Digital automatic levels are precise instruments used for precise levelling. Operation
of digital levels is based on the digital processing of video information from the coded staff. At the
beginning of measurement a visual pointing of the instrument to the surface of levelling meter is
performed. Thus as a part of its image processing, the instrument is also able to automatically
compute the sight length, a feature convenient for balancing back-sight and foresight lengths. The
instrument’s maximum range is approximately 100 m, and its accuracy in rod readings is

Tripods And Hand Levels :

A tripod is a three-legged stand, important in providing the foundation for laser levels and
other levelling instruments such as: rotary laser levels, line laser levels, dot laser levels,
builder's levels, transit levels, automatic levels and even sometimes torpedo laser levels.
A hand level is essentially a spirit level inside of a telescope. The device is generally used by grading
contractors and land surveyors to compare multiple points against a reference point to get
approximations of level or distance. Hand levels save time compared to setting up a tripod and
levelling instrument.

Level rods :
A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminium rod, used with a levelling
instrument to determine the difference in height between points or heights of points above a vertical
datum. It cannot be used without a levelling instrument.

Testing And Adjusting Levels :

 Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments
1. Nearly level terrain, 200 ft sights in opposite directions.
2. Good atmospheric conditions, preferably on cloudy days free of heat waves.
3. No sight line should pass through alternate sun and shadow.
4. Place the instrument in shade, or shield it from direct rays of the sun.
5. Tripod shoes are tight and the instrument is screwed firmly.
6. Tripod legs well apart and position so that the tripod plate is nearly level.
7. Press the shoes into the ground firmly.
 Adjusting for Parallax.
 Testing and Adjusting Level Vials.
 Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal Crosshair.
 Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight (collimation error).
 1. The axis of the level vial and the line of sight must be parallel. If they are not, a
collimation error exists.

2. After rough levelling by centering the circular bubble, the automatic compensator
must define a horizontal line of sight if it is in proper adjustment. If it does not, the
compensator is out of adjustment and again a collimation error exists. The collimation
error will not cause errors in differential levelling as long as back-sight and foresight
distances are balanced. However, it will cause errors when back-sights and foresights
are not balanced, which sometimes occurs in differential levelling, and cannot be
avoided in profile levelling.
3. Error Formula:

Example 4.3
Example 4.4