FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 3.0

Leveling

Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to determine the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation. It is a vital and important aspect of surveying since leveling operations are undertaken to
provide necessary data for engineering design and construction, and the production of topographic maps. The suitability
of a site for development can be better determined by using the results obtained from leveling operations. Through the
processes of leveling, buildings, roads, canals, and other vertical and horizontal structures can be designed and laid out
to best conform to the configuration of the ground.

Definition of Terms

To better understand leveling operations, the following basic terms are defined below, and some of which are illustrated
in figure.

1. Level Surface

It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the plumb line. It is best
represented by the surface of a large body of still water. However, a level surface is not a plane and does not have a
regular form because of local deviations of the plumb line. To some effect, the direction of gravity depends on the
distribution of the masses of the earth’s crust and on their densities. Such that if a plumb bob is held vertically at the
base of a mountain, it will have the tendency to deflect toward the mountain. Although the deflection would be small
and negligible, nevertheless it makes the level surface slightly irregular.

2. Level Line

A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal to the direction of gravity and equidistant
from center of the earth.

3. Horizontal Surface

It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point. The horizontal surface is also perpendicular to the
plumb line at the same point.

4. Horizontal Line

A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at one point. This line is perpendicular to the direction
of gravity at the point of tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is comparatively large, it is practical for most
purposes to assume that a level line and a horizontal line are the same for short distance.

5. Vertical Line

A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction taken by a string supporting a suspended plumb bob passing
through a point. For ordinary purposes it is convenient to assume that the earth is a true sphere with a smooth surface,
and that a plumb line is held at any point on its surface is always directed toward the center of the sphere.
6. Mean Sea Level

Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between high and low tides. It is taken as the
reference surface to which most ground elevations are referred. This surface is determined by averaging the height of
the sea’s surface for all its tide stages over a long period of time which may extend to about 20 years. Readings are
usually taken at hourly intervals on various properly distributed stations. Mean sea level is not a steady frame of
reference due to the melting of ice in the polar regions, the effects of volcanic activity, and many other influencing
factors. It is for these reasons that it is necessary to have a continuing observation of sea level fluctuations to detect
changes. This surface, which is considered to be at zero elevation, conforms to the spheroidal shape of the earth and is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every point.

7. Datum

Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea level to which elevations of a particular area
are referred. Any surface may be used as a datum when relative elevations over a limited area needs to be established.
It is done by assigning an assumed elevation to a reference point and determining the elevation of other points in the
vicinity with regard to this value.

8. Elevation

For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean sea level or any other selected datum.
Points on or near the surface of the earth have either positive or negative elevations, depending if the point is above or
below mean sea level.

9. Difference in Elevation

The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which one
points lie.
Leveling Methods

There are various methods which could be employed to determine the elevation of points and their differences in
elevation. These methods may be undertaken either directly or indirectly in the field. The principle involved in each
method differ in some aspects. Also, they may differ with respect to the type of instruments used, the procedure
employed, and the attainable degrees of precision. Traditional methods of leveling have been used for so many years
and they still continue to be useful in the present time. Such methods include: direct leveling, trigonometric leveling,
and barometric leveling.

Concurrent with recent developments in surveying instruments, newer and more precise techniques have been
developed. Some of these utilize electronic instruments such as total geodetic stations, the airborne profile recored,
satellite Doppler systems, and inertial surveying system. In these new leveling methods. Concentration will be made only
on conventional and traditional methods of leveling, this being an elementary course of study in surveying.

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling

Direct leveling is commonly employed method of determining the elevation points some distance apart by a series of set
up of a leveling instrument along a selected route. This method of leveling is also referred to as spirit leveling since the
device used is a spirit level. Differential leveling, double-rodded leveling, and three-wire leveling are forms of direct
leveling. In direct leveling vertical distances are measured above or below a level line and these values are used to
compute the elevation of points or their difference in elevation. Being the most precise method of leveling, it is used
when a high degree of accuracy is required.

2. Reciprocal Leveling

Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining the difference in elevation between two intervisible points
located at a considerable distance apart and between which points leveling could not be performed in the usual manner.
This method is commonly employed when leveling across a wide river, a deep ravine, or impossible to maintain a
foresight and a backsight distance of nearly equal lengths. Reciprocal leveling provides a faster method of determining
difference in elevation and when it is carefully conducted, it could be as precise as direct leveling. In determining the
difference in elevation between two points, it will require two sets of observations and the mean of which is used, the
process of reciprocal leveling is expected to eliminate the errors resulting from curvature of the earth and the refraction
of the atmosphere, provided that atmospheric conditions do not change during the process of leveling.
3. Profile Leveling

This method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation between points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted. In
the design of roads, railroads, canals, drainage systems, and transmission lines, it is necessary to first obtain a profile of
the existing ground surface. It is this method of leveling which will best suit such requirements.

4. Trigonometric Leveling

This method of leveling is employed in determining by trigonometric computations the difference in elevation between
two points from measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between the points. The
required distances are usually obtained by stadia, triangulation, trigonometric leveling only provides a very rough
determination of differences in elevation. Its degree of precision may be improved by using precise measuring
instruments such as optical theodolites and total geodetic stations which measures angles to seconds. However, there
are certain occasions such as in mapping or surveying over very rugged terrain when it would be fully justified to
undertake trigonometric leveling. It is also a convenient method to adapt when it is required only to determine the
elevation of principal stations or control points.
5. Stadia Leveling

Stadia leveling combines features of direct leveling with those of trigonometric leveling. This method is in fact a form of
trigonometric leveling. It can provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary surveys, mapping, and rough leveling where
quick measurements are needed. In stadia leveling, differences in elevations between points are computed from
observed vertical angles and the three intercepts on a rod held at each point backsighted or foresighted. Any surveying
instrument may be employed in stadia leveling as long as it has a telescope to read the vertical angles and is equipped
with stadia hairs in addition to the standard cross hairs.

6. Barometric Leveling

Barometric leveling involves the determination of differences in elevation between points by measuring the variation in
atmospheric pressure at each point by means of a barometer. This leveling method depends on the basic principle that
differences in elevation are proportional to the differences in atmospheric pressure. The readings of a barometer at
different points on the earth’s surface provides a measure of the relative elevations of these points. It is an accepted
fact that the pressure caused by the weight of a column of air above the observer decreases as the observer goes higher
in altitude. The method is particularly useful for low precision leveling over rough terrain where extensive areas need to
be covered and differences in elevation are large. It is principally employed on reconnaissance surveys or other work
requiring only approximate values. However, it is not desirable to employ when the atmospheric pressure in the area
changes rapidly.

7. Cross-Section Leveling

In highway or railroad constructions it is often necessary to obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side
of the centerline. Short profiles at right angles to the line of work are usually plotted at regular intervals for this purpose.
This type of data is obtained in the field by a process referred to as cross-section leveling.
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling

Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the
purpose of calculating volumes of earthworks. This type of work is usually encountered in the construction of roads and
railroads.

Types of Levels

There are various types of instruments used in leveling work, the basic instrument used, however, is the spirit level.
Other instruments employed in leveling work include the hand level, alidade, transit, theodolite, aneroid barometer,
and EDM instruments. Although these instruments may differ somewhat in design, each can be used to establish a
horizontal line of sight by means of a telescope fitted with a set of cross hairs and a level bubble.

1. Dumpy Level

The dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument. It has a long telescope which is rigidly attached to
the level bar. The telescope, which can be rotated through 360 degrees, fixes the direction of the line of sight. Attached
to the level bar is a level vial which always remain in the same vertical plane as the telescope. A leveling head supports
the telescope and permits the bubble in the tube to be centered by means of the leveling screws. The whole instrument
is in turns supported by means of a tripod.
2. Wye Level

The wye level is very identical to the dumpy level. The only distinct difference between these two instruments is in the
manner by which their telescopes are attached to the supporting bar. The wye level has a detachable telescope which
rests in supports called wyes. It can be removed from the Y-Shaped supports and turned end for end during adjustment
by releasing the two clamping collars which fit across the tops of the Y’s. Curved clips are used to fasten the telescope in
place.

The wye level is now almost obsolete and seldomly used since newer levels are better constructed and satisfactory for
most leveling work. Although this leveling instrument was not as popular as the other levels, many of its older models
have more sensitive bubble tubes than the other types of engineer’s level.

3. Builder’s Level

This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of building construction where a high degree of precision is not
a primary requisite. Engineers, architects, and builders use it in the setting of concrete forms, batter boards, and in
establishing grades for earthwork.

It is often called a construction level or an architect’s level. The level vial is not as sensitive as in other levels and its
telescope has a much lesser magnifying power. The horizontal circle, which is found between the level vial and the
leveling head, is its special feature. This circle is used when measuring or laying out horizontal angles.

4. Automatic Level

Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels. This type of level has become popular for conventional
leveling work because of the ease and speed of their operation. It does not use a level vial and its ability to level itself
depends upon the action of a complex pendulum-and-prism device.
An automatic level is equipped with a prismatic device called a compensator which is suspended on fine, non-magnetic
wires. When the instrument is approximately centered by means of a bull’s-eye level, the force of gravity on the
compensator allows the optical system to swing into a position which will automatically make the line of sight horizontal.
The line of sight remains horizontal as long as the circular bubble remains approximately centered.

The level is not affected by any slight movement or settlement which would disturb the bubble or line of sight. Its
pendulum action automatically shifts to maintain a truly horizontal line of sight whenever the instrument is slightly
disturb. This type of leveling instrument is particularly useful where the ground is soft or when strong winds blow
against the instrument since it can automatically relevel itself.

5. Tilting Levels

This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its horizontal axis. A bull’s-eye level is employed for its
quick and approximate leveling. The tilting knob is used to rotate the telescope into a correct horizontal position. Tilting
levels are commonly employed for very precise leveling operations and in other general leveling work. It is always
equipped with a horizontal circle which makes it suitable for layout and construction surveys.

6. Geodetic Level

The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level. Most of its metal parts are made of invar to reduce the effects
of temperature. Geodetic level works where extreme precision is an important requirement. The instrument is equipped
with stadia hairs in addition to the standard vertical and horizontal cross hairs to make is suitable for three-wire leveling.
When using the instrument the observer has to stand erect since it is designed with high tripod to bring the line of sight
way above any intervening ground surface. This was purposely done to lessen the effects of differential refraction of
extra long line of sight.
7. Transit as a Level

The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the “universal surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses.
There is no doubt that it can also be used for leveling work. It can provide results which are fairly precise although not as
good as those obtained with conventional levels. This is because the transit has a relatively shorter telescope and level
vial.

8. Laser Level

A new innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of lasers. A laser system is separate unit equipped with a
portable power supply and may be a helium-neon laser or gas laser. They are usually mounted or attached to
conventional surveying instruments such as levels, transits, and theodolites. The Wild NA2 with an attached laser
eyepiece is an example of laser converted level. The eyepiece includes a special reticle which has a small free spot in its
center to allow the laser light beam to pass freely. Surveying instruments with laser attachments are ideally suited for
applications in leveling work, building construction, and layout, and in many other engineering activities where
reference lines have to be established accurately.

Laser light is a low-powered beam of red light which is suitable for projecting a line of since it is coherent and highly
collimated. A sharply defined light spot is focused at the target when the telescope image is focused. The laser beam can
be projected along an optically straight path and it spreads only very slightly as the distance from the source to target
increases. Projected is a visible “straight line” beam which can be seen on targets under different lighting conditions.
The maximum range of the laser depends on atmospheric conditions and the nature of the target surface. During
daylight the range is about 300 m and at night time it is about 600 m.
9. Hand Level

The hand level is a hand-held instrument used on surveys involving short sight and where a low order of accuracy is
sufficient. It has been proven to be useful in reconnaissance surveys, in cross-sectioning to obtain additional rod reading
on sloping ground, and in taping to determine if the tape is held horizontally during measurement. This instrument also
provides a quick way of determining how high or how low the engineer’s level should be set up in order to be able to
read a leveling rod held a certain distance away.

The hand level consists of a brass tube about 15 cm long having a plain glass objective and a peep sight eye-piece. On
top of the tube is a small level vial reflecting through a prism which appears to move vertically when viewed through the
eye piece. When the bubble appears to be on the cross line it is in the center of the tube and a horizontal line extends
across the hand level. During leveling, the instrument is held in one hand and leveled by raising or lowering the objective
end until the cross line bisects the bubble. To obtain a steady sight, it may be held beside a vertical staff or by bringing it
close to one’s checkbone. The user of a hand level takes a backsight or foresight on a rod while standing in one position
and then moves ahead to repeat the process. There is no magnification by the hand level and the length of sight is
limited by the visibility of rod readings using the naked eye.

The use of a hand level could provide results with sufficient accuracy and it is more convenient and rapid to use than the
engineer’s level. They are designed to stand up under rough usage and do not require frequent adjustment being simple
in construction. The hand level is also extremely useful in different phases of construction such as in excavations, setting
of grades for curbs and gutters, and in checking the positioning of formwork for the pouring of concrete.