SHS

General Physics 2

Quarter 4 – Week 1

Module 1 – Direct-Current

Circuits

General Physics 2

Grade 12 Quarter 3: Week 6 - Module 6A – DC Circuits

First Edition, 2021

Copyright © 2020

La Union Schools Division

Region I

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form

without written permission from the copyright owners.

Development Team of the Module

Author: DARRYL G. BERSALONA, SST-I

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Schools Division Superintendent

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Michael Jason D. Morales, PDO II

Claire P. Toluyen, Librarian II

Before going on, check how much you know about this topic. Answer the

pretest on the next page in a separate sheet of paper.

Target

In everyday life, we use various devices that we rely on to do basic to complex

tasks. We always lean on them, from the computing of data, processing of data,

storage of data and so much more. Inside of these devices is a complex analysis of

connections which are called circuits that make the processes work.

In the preceding discussion, you have learned about electrostatics

(stationary charges) then transitioned to electrodynamics (moving charges). In this

section, we would be going to deal with electric circuits and quantities that we can

directly measure and change without having to think about those invisible

electrons.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Evaluate the equivalent resistance, current, and voltage in a given network

of resistors connected in series and/or parallel (STEM_GP12EMIIIg-48);

2. Calculate the current and voltage through and across circuit elements using

Kirchhoff’s loop and junction rules (at most 2 loops only)

(STEM_GP12EMIIIg-49);

3. Solve problems involving the calculation of currents and potential difference

in circuits consisting of batteries, resistors and capacitors

(STEM_GP12EMIIIg-51);

Direction: Write the letter of the term or phrase that best completes the statement

or answers the question.

Activity: Connect!

1. What do we call the materials that allow electric charges to move freely

through them?

A. Insulators B. Conductors C. Resistors D. Magnets

2. What is the buildup of charges on an object called?

A. Static discharges B. Static electricity

B. Positive charged. D. Negative charge

3. An electric current will always follow.

A. electrons

B. neutrons

C. protons

D. none of these

Discover

Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_1.html

If you look inside your TV, your computer, or under the hood of a car, you

will find circuits of much greater complexity than the simple circuits. Whether

connected by wires or integrated in a semiconductor chip, these circuits often

include several sources, resistors, and other circuit elements interconnected in a

network.

Let’s take a look at some introductory part of these circuits and we will be digging

in a more complex contents throughout this module.

Two Types of Connections

When there are two or more electrical devices present in a circuit with an

energy source, there are a couple of basic means by which to connect them. They

can be connected in series or connected in parallel.

Figure 1. Two Types of

Connections; series (left) and

parallel (right).

Photo credit: Physics Classroom

Suppose that there are three light bulbs connected together in the same circuit.

If connected in series, then they are connected in such a way that an individual

charge would pass through each one of the light bulbs in consecutive fashion.

When in series, charge passes through every light bulb. If connected in parallel, a

single charge passing through the external circuit would only pass through one of

the light bulbs. The light bulbs are placed within a separate branch line, and a

charge traversing the external circuit will pass through only one of the branches

during its path back to the low potential terminal. The means by which the
so on. Then, resistors in series have a Common Current flowing through them as

the current that flows through one resistor must also flow through the others as it

can only take one path.

Resistors are said to be in series whenever the current flows through the

resistors sequentially. Consider in Fig. 3, which shows three resistors in series with

an applied voltage equal to Vab. Since there is only one path for the charges to flow

through, the current is the same through each resistor. The equivalent resistance

of a set of resistors in a series connection is equal to the algebraic sum of the

individual resistances.

Figure 3. (a) Three resistors

connected in series to a

voltage source. (b) The original

circuit is reduced to an

equivalent resistance and a

voltage source.

Photo credit: Physics Libretext

In Figure 3, the current coming from the voltage source flows through each

resistor, so the current through each resistor is the same. The current through

the circuit depends on the voltage supplied by the voltage source and

the resistance of the resistors. For each resistor, a potential drop occurs that is

equal to the loss of electric potential energy as a current travels through each

resistor. According to Ohm’s law, the potential drop (V) across a resistor when a

current flows through it is calculated using the equation V=IR, where I is the

current in amps (A) and R is the resistance in ohms (Ω). Since energy is conserved,

and the voltage is equal to the potential energy per charge, the sum of the voltage

applied to the circuit by the source and the potential drops across the individual

resistors around a loop should be equal to zero:

∑𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

This equation is often referred to as Kirchhoff’s loop law, which we will look

at in more detail later in this module. For Figure 3, the sum of the potential drop

of each resistor and the voltage supplied by the voltage source should equal zero:

𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0,

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3,

Solving for 𝐼

𝐼=

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

𝑅𝑆

Equivalent Resistance in Series Circuits

Any number of resistors can be connected in series. If N resistors are

connected in series, the equivalent resistance is

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁−1 + 𝑅𝑁 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖

𝑖=1

Since the current through each component is the same, the equality can be

simplified to an equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑆) or equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑒𝑞), which is

just the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors.

One result of components connected in a series circuit is that if something

happens to one component, it affects all the other components. For example, if

several lamps are connected in series and one bulb burns out, all the other lamps

go dark.

To help you more, take a look at the following entities:

• Equivalent Resistance
The equivalent resistance of a circuit is the amount of resistance that a

single resistor would need in order to equal the overall effect of the collection of

resistors that are present in the circuit.

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯

Figure 4. Equivalent

Resistors along a circuit line;

2 resistors, 3 resistors and 4

resistors.

Photo credit: Physics Classroom

As far as the battery that is pumping the charge is concerned, the presence

of two 6-Ω; resistors in series would be equivalent to having one 12-Ω resistor in

the circuit. The presence of three 6-Ω resistors in series would be equivalent to

having one 18-Ω resistor in the circuit. And the presence of four 6-Ω resistors in

series would be equivalent to having one 24-Ω resistor in the circuit.

• Current

The rate at which charge flows - is everywhere the same. It is the same

at the first resistor as it is at the last resistor as it is in the battery.

𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = ⋯

These current values are easily calculated if the battery voltage is known

and the individual resistance values are known. Using the individual resistor

values and the equation above, the equivalent resistance can be calculated. And

using Ohm's law (ΔV = I • R), the current in the battery and thus through every

𝑉
𝑉

resistor can be determined by finding the ratio of the battery voltage and the

equivalent resistance.

𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 =

𝑅𝑒𝑞

• Electric Potential Difference and Voltage Drops

There is a voltage drop for each resistor, but the sum of these voltage

drops is the same as the voltage rating of the power supply. This concept can

be expressed mathematically by the following equation:

∆ 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = ∆𝑉1 + ∆𝑉2 + ∆𝑉3 + ⋯

In series circuits, the resistor with the greatest resistance has the

greatest voltage drop.

The Ohm's law equation can be used to not only predict that resistor in

a series circuit will have the greatest voltage drop, it can also be used to

calculate the actual voltage drop values.

∆𝑉1 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅1 ∆𝑉2 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅2 ∆𝑉3 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑅3

Sample Problem

A battery with a terminal voltage of 9V is connected to a circuit consisting

of four 20 Ω and one 10 Ω resistor all in series. Assume the battery has negligible

internal resistance.

a. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

b. Calculate the current through each resistor.

c. Calculate the potential drop across each resistor

d. Determine the total power dissipated by the resistors and the power

supplied by the battery.

Figure 5. A simple series circuit with five resistors

Photo credit: Physics Libretexts

Strategy

In a series circuit, the equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of

the resistances. The current through the circuit can be found from Ohm’s

law and is equal to the voltage divided by the equivalent resistance. The

potential drop across each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law. The

power dissipated by each resistor can be found using P = I2R, and the total

power dissipated by the resistors equal to the sum of the power dissipated

by each resistor. The power supplied by the battery can be found using
𝑃 = 𝐼𝜖.

Solution

a. The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances:

𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅5 = 20Ω + 20Ω + 20Ω + 20Ω + 10Ω = 𝟗𝟎𝛀

∆ 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦

b. The current through the circuit is the same for each resistor in a series

circuit and is equal to the applied voltage divided by the equivalent

resistance:

𝐼=

𝑉
𝑅𝑆

9𝑉

90 Ω

= 𝟎. 𝟏𝑨

Note that the sum of the potential drops across each resistor is equal

to the voltage supplied by the battery.

c. The power dissipated by a resistor is equal to 𝑃 = 𝐼

2𝑅, and the power

supplied by the battery is equal to 𝑃 = 𝐼𝜖. (where I is the current and 𝜖 is the

electromotive force or the voltage)

𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = 𝑃4 = (0.1𝐴)

2(20Ω) = 0.2 𝑊,

𝑃5 = (0.1𝐴)

2(10Ω) = 0.1 𝑊,

𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.2 𝑊 + 0.2 𝑊 + 0.2 𝑊 + 0.2 𝑊 + 0.1 𝑊 = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝑾,

𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝜖 = (0.1 𝐴)(9𝑉) = 0.9 𝑊.

Significance

There are several reasons why we would use multiple resistors

instead of just one resistor with a resistance equal to the equivalent

resistance of the circuit. Perhaps a resistor of the required size is not

available, or we need to dissipate the heat generated, or we want to minimize

the cost of resistors. Each resistor may cost a few cents to a few dollars, but

when multiplied by thousands of units, the cost saving may be appreciable.

Resistors in Parallel

Figure 4 shows resistors in parallel, wired to a voltage source. Resistors are

in parallel when one end of all the resistors are connected by a continuous wire of

negligible resistance and the other end of all the resistors are also connected to one

another through a continuous wire of negligible resistance. The potential drop

across each resistor is the same. Current through each resistor can be found

using Ohm’s law I=V/R, where the voltage is constant across each resistor. For

example, an automobile’s headlights, radio, and other systems are wired in

parallel, so that each subsystem utilizes the full voltage of the source and can

operate completely independently. The same is true of the wiring in your house or

any building.

Figure 4. Two resistors

connected in parallel to a

voltage source. (b) The original

circuit is reduced to an

equivalent resistance and a

voltage source.

Photo credit: Physics Libretext

The current flowing from the voltage source in Figure 4 depends on

the voltage supplied by the voltage source and the equivalent resistance of

the circuit. In this case, the current flows from the voltage source and enters a

junction, or node, where the circuit splits flowing through resistors R1 and R2. As

the charges flow from the battery, some go through resistor R1 and some flow

through resistor R2. The sum of the currents flowing into a junction must be equal
to the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction:

Equivalent Resistance in Parallel Circuits

Generalizing to any number of N resistors, the equivalent resistance RS of

a parallel connection is related to the individual resistance by

𝑅=(+++⋯+

𝑅𝑅𝑅

11111

−1

𝑁 −1

𝑠 𝑅1 2 3 𝑁−1 𝑁

) = ൭∑ ൱

𝑖=1 𝑖

∑𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕.

This equation is referred to as Kirchhoff’s junction rule and will be

discussed in detail in the next section. In Figure 4, the junction rule gives I = I1+

I2. There are two loops in this circuit, which leads to the

equations V=I1R1 and I1R1=I2R2. Note the voltage across the resistors in parallel are

the same (V=V1=V2) and the current is additive:

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑉1

𝑅1

𝑉2

𝑅2
𝑉

𝑅1

𝑅2

=𝑉(+

1𝑉

)=

Solving for the RS

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑆

𝑅𝑆 = ( +

1 −1

𝑅1 𝑅2

This relationship results in an equivalent resistance RS that is less than the

smallest of the individual resistances. When resistors are connected in parallel,

more current flows from the source than would flow for any of them individually,

so the total resistance is lower.

Let’s take a look at these:

• Current

In a parallel circuit, charge divides up into separate branches such that

there can be more current in one branch than there is in another. Nonetheless,

when taken as a whole, the total amount of current in all the branches when

added together is the same as the amount of current at locations outside the

branches. The rule that current is everywhere the same still works, only with a

twist. The current outside the branches is the same as the sum of the current
in the individual branches. It is still the same amount of current, only split up

into more than one pathway.

In equation form, this principle can be written as

𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯

where Itotal is the total amount of current outside the branches (and in the

battery) and I1, I2, and I3 represent the current in the individual branches of the

circuit.

• Equivalent Resistance

Looking from the figures below, this is the concept of equivalent

resistance. The equivalent resistance of a circuit is the amount of resistance

that a single resistor would need in order to equal the overall effect of the

collection of resistors that are present in the circuit. For parallel circuits, the

mathematical formula for computing the equivalent resistance (Req) is

𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝑅1

𝑅2

++⋯

𝑅3

where R1, R2, and R3 are the resistance values of the individual resistors

that are connected in parallel.

equal the current output of the source.

d. Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.

e. Find the power output of the source and show that it equals the total power
dissipated by the resistors.

Strategy

(a) The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is found using

Equation 𝑅 = (

1+

1+

1 −1.(Note that in these calculations, each

𝑠 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅3

intermediate answer is shown with an extra digit.)

(b) The current supplied by the source can be found from Ohm’s law,

substituting RS for the total resistance 𝐼 =

𝑉
𝑅𝑆

(c) The individual currents are easily calculated from Ohm’s law (𝐼𝑖 =

𝑉𝑖

), since

𝑅𝑖

each resistor gets the full voltage. The total current is the sum of the individual

currents:

𝐼 = ∑𝐼𝑖

(d) The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using any of the

equations relating power to current, voltage, and resistance, since all three

are known. Let us use 𝑃𝑖

2
, since each resistor gets full voltage.

𝑅𝑖

(e) The total power can also be calculated in several ways, use 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉.

Solution

a. The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is found using

the following equation. Entering known values gives

𝑅𝑠 = ( +

1 1 −1 1 1

+)=(++

−1

) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝛀

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 1.00Ω 2.00Ω 2.00Ω

The total resistance with the correct number of significant digits is 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =

0.50Ω. As predicted, RS is less than the smallest individual resistance.

b. The total current can be found from Ohm’s law, substituting RS for the

total resistance. This gives

𝐼=

𝑉
𝑅𝑆

3.00 𝑉

0.50 𝑉

= 6.00 𝐴.

Current I for each device is much larger than for the same devices

connected in series. A circuit with parallel connections has a smaller

total resistance than the resistors connected in series.

c. The individual currents are easily calculated from ohm’s law, since each
resistor gets the full voltage. Thus,

𝐼1 =

3.00 𝑉

= = 3.00 𝐴

1.00 Ω

Similarly,

and

𝐼2 =

𝑅
𝑉

𝐼3 =

3.00 𝑉

= = 1.50 𝐴

2.00 Ω

3.00 𝑉

= = 1.50 𝐴.

2.00 Ω

The total current is the sum of the individual currents:

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 6.00 𝐴.

d. The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using any of the

equations relating power to current, voltage, and resistance, since all

three are known. Let us use 𝑃 =

2
, since each resistor gets full voltage. 𝑅

Thus,

Similarly,

and

𝑃1 =

𝑅
𝑉

𝑃2 =

𝑅
𝑉

𝑃3 =

(3.00 𝑉)

= = 9.00 𝑊.

1.00 Ω

(3.00 𝑉)

= = 4.50 𝑊.

2.00 Ω

(3.00 𝑉)

= = 4.50 𝑊.

2.00 Ω

e. The total power can also be calculated in several ways. Choosing 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

and entering the total current yields

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = (6.00 𝐴)(3.00 𝑉) = 18.0 𝑊.

Significance

Total power dissipated by the resistors is also 18.00 W:

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 9.00 𝑊 + 4.50 𝑊 + 4.50 𝑊 = 18.0 𝑊.

Notice that the total power dissipated by the resistors equals the power

supplied by the source.

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Kirchhoff’s rules are named after German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

who outlined a systematic way of solving multi-loop circuits. Note that we have

already been applying these principles. The basis for how and why they work have

already been laid out. Kirchhoff’s rules keep everything organized as we analyze

and solve more complicated networks.

First, here are two terms that we will use often. A junction in a circuit is a

point where three or more conductors meet. A loop is any closed conducting path.

In Fig. 6a points a and b are junctions, but points c and d are not; in Fig. 6b the

points a, b, c, and d are junctions, but points e and f are not. The lines (blue lines)

inside and outside of the circuit in Figs. 6a and 6b show some possible loops in

these circuits.

Figure 6. Two networks that cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel

combinations of resistors.

Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)

Kirchhoff’s rules are the following two statements:

Kirchhoff’s junction rule: The algebraic sum of the currents into any
junction is zero. That is,

∑𝑰 = 𝟎 (𝒋𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆,𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒋𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

∑𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

Kirchhoff’s loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any

loop, including those associated with emfs and those of resistive elements,

must equal zero. That is,

∑𝑽 = 𝟎 (𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆,𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑)

Figure 7. Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that as much current flows into a

junction as flows out of it.

Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)

The junction rule is based on conservation of electric charge. No charge can

accumulate at a junction, so the total charge entering the junction per unit time

must equal the total charge leaving per unit time (Fig. 7a). Charge per unit time is

current, so if we consider the currents entering a junction to be positive and those

leaving to be negative, the algebraic sum of currents into a junction must be zero.

It’s like a T branch in a water pipe (Fig. 7b); if you have a total of 1 liter per minute

coming in the two pipes, you can’t have 3 liters per minute going out the third pipe.

We may as well confess that we used the junction rule (without saying so) in the

previous part in the derivation of the equation for resistors in parallel.

The loop rule is a statement that the electrostatic force is conservative.

Suppose we go around a loop, measuring potential differences across successive

circuit elements as we go. When we return to the starting point, we must find that

the algebraic sum of these differences is zero; otherwise, we could not say that the

potential at this point has a definite value.

Sign Conventions for the Loop Rule

In applying the loop rule, we need some sign conventions. We first assume

a direction for the current in each branch of the circuit and mark it on a diagram

of the circuit. Then, starting at any point in the circuit, we imagine traveling around

a loop, adding emfs and IR terms as we come to them. When we travel through a
source in the direction from to the emf is considered to be positive; when we travel

from to the emf is considered to be negative (Fig. 8a). When we travel through a

resistor in the same direction as the assumed current, the IR term is negative

because the current goes in the direction of decreasing potential. When we travel

through a resistor in the direction opposite to the assumed current, the IR term is

positive because this represents a rise of potential (Fig. 8b). Kirchhoff’s two rules

are all we need to solve a wide variety of network problems. Usually, some of the

emfs, currents, and resistances are known, and others are unknown. We must

always obtain from Kirchhoff’s rules a number of independent equations equal to

the number of unknowns so that we can solve the equations simultaneously. Often

the hardest part of the solution is not understanding the basic principles but

keeping track of algebraic signs!

Use these sign conventions when you apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule. In each

part of the figure “Travel” is the direction that we imagine going around the loop,

which is not necessarily the direction of the current.

Figure 8. (a) Sign conventions for emfs and (b)sign conventions for

resistors

Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)

Strategy for Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules to Multi-loop Networks

a. Name and label the direction of the current in each branch. Based on these

directions, label the high and low-voltage ends of each resistor.

b. Pick a loop direction for every loop minus 1.

c. Apply the junction rule to every junction minus 1.

d. Apply the loop rule to every loop you picked in step 2.

e. Solve the equations simultaneously. You should have as many equations as

there are unknowns.

f. Check your answers by using the loop rule on the extra loop you did not use

in step 4.

Sample Problem
Using Kirchhoff’s rules. Calculate the currents 𝐼1,𝐼2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 in the three

branches of the circuit in Fig. 9.

Approach and Solution

1. Label the currents and their directions Fig. 9 uses the labels I1, I2, and I3

for the current in the three separate branches. Since (positive) current tends

to move away from the positive terminal of a battery, we choose I2 and I3 to

have the directions shown in Fig. 9. The direction of I1 is not obvious in

advance, so we arbitrarily chose the direction indicated. If the current

actually flows in the opposite direction, our answer will have a negative sign.

2. Identify the unknowns. We have three unknowns and therefore we need

three equations, which we get by applying Kirchhoff’s junction and loop

rules.

3. Junction rule: We apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to the currents at point

a, where I3 enters and I2 and I1 leave:

𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 (𝑎)

This same equation holds at point d, so we get no new information by writing

an equation for point d.

Figure 9. Currents can be calculated using

Kirchhoff’s rules.

Photo credit: Giancoli Physics (6th)

4. Loop rule: We apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to two different closed loops. First,

we apply it to the upper loop ahdcba. We start (and end) at point a. From a

to h we have a potential decrease 𝑉ℎ𝑎 = −(𝐼1)(30Ω). From h to d there is no

change, but from d to c the potential increases by 45 V: that is, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 =

−(𝐼1)(40Ω + 1Ω) = −(41Ω)𝐼3. Thus we have 𝑉ℎ𝑎 + 𝑉𝑐𝑑 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 0, or

−30𝐼1 + 45 − 41𝐼3 = 0, (𝑏)

Where we have omitted the units. For our second loop, we take the outer

loop ahdefga. (We could have chosen the lower loop abcdefga instead.) Again

we start at point a and have 𝑉ℎ𝑎 = −(𝐼1)(30Ω), and 𝑉𝑑ℎ = 0. But when we take
our positive test charge from d to e, it actually is going uphill, against the

current – or at least against the assumed direction of the current, which is

what counts in this calculation. Thus 𝑉𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼2(20Ω) has a positive sign.

Similarly, 𝑉𝑓𝑒 = 𝐼2(1Ω). From f to g there is a decrease in potential of 80V since we

go from the high potential terminal of the battery to the low. Thus 𝑉𝑔𝑓 = −80𝑉.

Finally, 𝑉𝑎𝑔 = 0, and the sum of the potential changes around this loop is

then

−30𝐼1 + (20 + 1)𝐼2 − 80 = 0. (𝑐)

5. Solve the equations. We have three equations – labeled (a), (b), and (c) –

and three unknowns. From Eq. (c) we have

80 + 30𝐼1

𝐼2 =

From Eq. (b) we have

𝐼3 =

21 = 3.8 + 1.4𝐼1. (𝑑)

45 + 30𝐼1

= 1.1 − 0.73𝐼1. (𝑒)

41

We substitute Eqs. (d) and (e) into Eq. (a):

𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 = 1.1 − 0.73𝐼1 − 3.8 − 1.4𝐼1.

We solve for I1, collecting terms:

3.1𝐼1 = −2.7

𝐼1 = −0.87 𝐴.

The negative sign indicates that the direction of I1 is actually opposite to that

initially assumed and shown in Fig. 9. Note that the answer automatically

comes out in amperes because all values were in volts and ohms. From Eq.

(d) we have

𝐼2 = 3.8 + 1.4𝐼1 = 3.8 + 1.4(−0.87) = 2.6 𝐴,

and from Eq. (e)

𝐼3 = 1.1 + 0.73𝐼1 = 1.1 − 0.73(−0.87) = 1.7 𝐴.

This completes the solution.

Note: The unknowns in different situations are not necessarily currents. It

might be that the currents are given and we have to solve for unknown

resistance or voltage.

RC Circuits

Capacitors and resistors are often found together in a circuit. Such RC circuits are

used to control a car’s windshield wipers and the timing of traffic lights; they are

used in camera flashes, in heart pacemakers, and many other electronic devices.

Charging a capacitor

In RC circuits, we are not so interested in the final “steady state” voltage and charge

on the capacitor, but rather in how these variables change in time. A simple

example is shown in Fig. 10a. We now analyze this RC circuit.

Figure 10. For the RC circuit

shown in (a), the voltage across

the capacitor increases with

time, as shown in (b), after the

switch S is closed.

Photo credit: Giancoli Physics (6th)

When the switch S is closed, current immediately begins to flow through the

circuit. Electrons will flow out from the negative terminal of the battery, through

the resistor R, and accumulate on the upper plate of the capacitor. And electrons

will flow into the positive terminal of the battery, leaving a positive charge on the

other plate of the capacitor. As charge accumulates on the capacitor, the potential

difference across it increases (𝑉 =

sthe capacitor’s voltage (and charge) to reach 63% of the maximum. This can be

checked using any calculator with 𝑒𝑥 key: 𝑒−1 = 0.37, so for t=RC, then 1 − 𝑒−𝑅𝐶 =

(1 − 𝑒−1) = (1 − 0.37) = 0.63. In a circuit, for example, where R=200Ω and 𝐶 = 3.0𝜇𝐹,
the time constant is (2.0𝑥105Ω)(3.0𝑥10−6𝐹) = 0.60 𝑠. If the resistance is much

smaller, the time constant is much smaller and the capacitor becomes charged

almost instantly. This makes sense, since a lower resistance will retard the flow of

charge less. All circuits contain some resistance (if only in the connecting wires),

so a capacitor can never be charged instantaneously when connected to a battery.

Discharging a Capacitor

The circuit just discussed involved the charging of a capacitor by a battery

through a resistance. Now let’s take a look at another situation: a capacitor is

already charged (say, to a voltage 𝑉0 and charge 𝑄0), and it is then allowed to

discharge through a resistance R as shown in Fig. 11a. (In this case there is no

battery.) When the switch S is closed, charge begins to flow through resistor R from

one side of the capacitor decreases, as shown in Fig. 11b. This “exponential decay”

curve is given by

𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉0𝑒

−1/𝑅𝐶

where V0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor. The voltage falls 63% of the way

to zero (to 0.37V0) in a time 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶. Because the charge Q on the capacitor is Q=CV,

we can write

𝑄 = 𝑄0𝑒

−1/𝑅𝐶

for a discharging capacitor, where Q0 is the initial charge.

Figure 11. For the RC circuit

shown in (a), the voltage VC on

the capacitor decreases with

time, as shown in (b), after the

switch S is closed. The charge

on the capacitor follows the

same curve since Q ∝ V.

Photo credit: Giancoli Physics (6th)

Table 1: Charging and Discharging Equations for RC Circuits

Discharging Charging

Charge 𝑄0𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏 𝑄0(1 − 𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏)

Current 𝐼0𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏

𝐼0𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏

Voltage 𝑉0𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏 𝑉0(1 − 𝑒

−𝑡/𝜏

The charging curve for a RC charging circuit is exponential and not linear.

This means that in reality the capacitor never reaches 100% fully charged. So, for

all practical purposes, after five times constants (5T) it reaches 99.3% charge, so

at this point the capacitor is considered to be fully charged.

As the voltage across the capacitor Vc changes with time, and is therefore a

different value at each time constant up to 5T, we can calculate the value of

capacitor voltage, Vc at any given point, for example.

We can show in the following table the percentage voltage and current values

for the capacitor in a RC charging circuit for a given time constant.

Table 2. RC Charging Table

Also, we can show in the following table the percentage voltage and current

values for the capacitor in a RC discharging circuit for a given time constant.

Table 3.

RC Discharging

Table

Note that as the discharging curve for a RC discharging circuit is

exponential, for all practical purposes, after five time constants the capacitor is

considered to be fully discharged.

So, an RC circuit’s time constant is a measure of how quickly it either

charges or discharges.

Sample Problem 1

Calculate the RC time

constant, τ of the following circuit.

Figure 12. RC circuit with 1000microF,

R=47kΩ, t=0, Vs=5V.

Photo credit: Electronic Tutorials

The time constant, τ is found using the formula T = R x C in seconds.

Therefore, the time constant τ is given as: T = R x C = 47k x 1000uF = 47 Secs

a) What will be the value of the voltage across the capacitors plates at

exactly 0.7 time constants?

At 0.7 time constants ( 0.7T ) Vc = 0.5Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 5V = 2.5V

b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 1 time constant?

At 1 time constant ( 1T ) Vc = 0.63Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.63 x 5V = 3.15V

c) How long will it take to “fully charge” the capacitor from the supply?

We have learnt that the capacitor will be fully charged after 5 time

constants, (5T).

1 time constant ( 1T ) = 47 seconds, (from above). Therefore, 5T = 5 x 47

= 235 secs

d) The voltage across the Capacitor after 100 seconds?

The voltage formula is given as Vc = V(1 – e(-t/RC)) so this becomes: Vc = 5(1

– e(-100/47))

Where: V = 5 volts, t = 100 seconds, and RC = 47 seconds from above.

Therefore, Vc = 5(1 – e(-100/47)) = 5(1 – e-2.1277) = 5(1 – 0.1191) = 4.4 volts

Sample Problem 2

In the circuit given in Fig. 12, find the

a. Current the instant the switch is closed

(maximum current),

b. Time constant,

c. Maximum charge stored in the capacitor,

and

d. Charge stored after 10ms has elapsed.

Given: 𝜀 = 9𝑉, 𝑅 = 2𝑘Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 6𝜇𝐹.

Solution:

a. The very first current is the maximum current, given by Ohm’s law:

𝜀 9𝑉

𝐼 = = = 4.5𝑋10−3𝐴 = 4.5 𝑚𝐴

𝑅 2000 Ω

b. The time constant 𝜏 is the product RC:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = (2000Ω)(6𝑥10−6𝐹) = 0.012 𝑠 = 12 𝑚𝑠

c. We can get the maximum charge from the definition of capacitance.

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶 𝜀 = (6𝑥10−6𝐹)(9𝑉) = 5.4𝑋10−5𝐶 = 54 𝜇𝐶

d. To get the charge after t=10ms, we use Equation:

−10𝑋10−3

𝑄 = 𝑄0(1 − 𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶) = (5.4𝑋10−5𝐶) (1 − 𝑒 0.012 𝑠 ) = 3.05𝑥10−5𝐶 = 30.5 𝜇𝐶

Explore

Direction: Read and analyze the following statements . Fill in the blanks with the

correct term to complete the statement.

Activity 1: Connect me!

1-2. As the number of resistors in a series circuitincreases,the overall resistance

(increases, decreases, remains the same) and the current in the

circuit (increases, decreases, remains the same).

3. Two 3-Ω resistors placed in series would provide a resistance that is equivalent

to one -Ω resistor.
4. Three 3-Ω resistors placed in series would provide a resistance that is equivalent

to one -Ω resistor.

5. Three 5-Ω resistors placed in series would provide a resistance that is equivalent

to one -Ω resistor.

Activity 2: The Junction

Find current I3 at the node shown below.

Currents I1 and I2 are flowing into the node and

currents I3 and I4 are flowing out of the node. Apply

Kirchhoff's law of current at the given node.

∑𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑜𝑢𝑡

Activity 3: Discharged!

A capacitor is fully

charged to 10 volts. Calculate

the RC time constant, τ of the

following RC discharging circuit

when the switch is first closed.

The time constant, τ is found

using the formula T = R*C in

seconds. Therefore, the time

constant τ is given as: T = R*C =

100k x 22uF = 2.2 Seconds

a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7 time constants?

b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor after 1 time constant?

c) How long will it take for the capacitor to “fully discharge” itself, (equal to 5 time

constants)

Gauge

Directions: Read carefully each item. Write only the letter of the best answer before

the number.

1. What are the two types of connection which binds electrical devices in a
circuit?

A. Series – Parallel B. Open - Closed

C. Chain – Cyclic D. Current - Voltage

2. When you remove a bulb from a three-bulb circuit, and the other two bulbs

go off, then the bulbs must have been connected in .

A. Parallel b. Series C. Open D. Closed

3. How are these resistors connected in a

circuit?

A. Series

B. Parallel

C. Both A and B

D. None of these

4. Two resistors (R1=50 Ω and R2=500Ω) are connected in parallel. What is the

resistance of the two resistors together?

A. 75 Ω B. 55 Ω C. 65 Ω D. 45 Ω

5. What is the charge stored by a 10 nF capacitor, if it is connected to a 3 V

battery? Note: C=Q/V

A. 30 nC B. 0.3 nC C. 3 nC D. 300 nC

6. This component within a circuit that limits the flow of charge.

A. Capacitor B. Capacitance C. Resistor D. Resistance

7. What are the possible reasons why we would use multiple resistors instead

of just one resistor with a resistance equal to the equivalent resistance of

the circuit?

I. a resistor of the required size is not available

II. we need to dissipate the heat generated

III. we want to minimize the cost of resistors

IV. required size are always cheap and available

A. I, III

B. II, IV
C. I, II, III

D. II, III, IV

8. What is the systematic way of solving multi-loop circuits that includes

complex networks which quantify how current flows through a circuit and

how voltage varies around a loop in a circuit?

A. Ohm’s law

B. Kirchhoff’s law

C. Lenz’s law

D. Joule’s law

9. Kirchhoff’s rules have two laws, junction rule and loop rule. What is the

other name for these two rules?

I. Kirchhoff’s resistance law and current law

II. Kirchhoff’s voltage law and capacitance law

III. Kirchhoff’s resistance law and capacitance law

IV. Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law

A. I and II

B. IV only

C. III and IV

D. I only

8.Abattery with a terminal voltage of 12V is connected to a circuit consisting of

four 10 Ω and one 5 Ω resistor all in series. Assume the battery has

negligible internal resistance. Calculate the current through each resistor.

A. 0.1 A

B. 0.2 A

C. 0.3 A

D. 0.4 A

11.Calculate the RC time constant, τ of a circuit having a resistance of 15 MΩ

and 3 010 𝜇𝐹.

A. 48 530 s B. 47 280 s C. 46 410 s D. 45 150 s

12.An RC circuit have a 9 V source and lies at a 54-seconds of time constant.

Then, find the voltage across the Capacitor after 153.6 seconds of charging.

A. 9.636 V B. 8.477 V C. 7.258 V D. 6.899 V

13.A 12-V battery, a 12-ohm resistor and a 4-ohm resistor are connected as

shown. The current in the 12-ohm resistor is that in the 4-ohm resistor.

A. 1/3 B. ½ C. 2/3 D. three times

14.A 12-V battery, a 12-ohm resistor and

a light bulb are connected as shown in

circuit X below. A 6-ohm resistor is

added to the 12-ohm resistor and bulb

to create circuit Y as shown. The bulb

will appear .

A. dimmer in circuit X

B. dimmer in circuit Y

C. the same brightness in both circuits

D. none of these

15. From the given circuit find the value of I.

A. 0.3 A

B. 0.4 A

C. 0.5 A

D. 0.6 A

References

Books

Giancoli, D. C. (2005). PHYSICS: Principles with Applications (6 ed.). New Jersey, USA: Pearson

Education, Inc. Retrieved October and november 2020

Silverio, A. A. (2006). Exploring LifeThrough Science. Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines: Phoenix

Publishing House, Inc.,. Retrieved October and November 2020

Walker, J. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics (Halliday and Resnick) (10th ed.). United States of

America: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Retrieved October and November 2020
Young , H. D., Freedman , R. A., & Ford, L. A. (2012). University Physics with Modern Physics (13 ed.).

San Francisco, California, United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc. (as AddisonWesley).
Retrieved October and November 2020

Websites

Electronics Tutorial. (2018). Resistors in Parallel. Retrieved January 2020, from Electronics Tutorial:

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/res_4.html

Electronics Tutorial. (2018). Resistors in Series. Retrieved January 2020, from Electronics Tutorial:

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/res_3.html

Electronics Tutorials. (n.d.). RC Discharging Circuit. (AspenCore, Producer, & AspenCore, Inc. )

Retrieved January 2021, from Electronics Tutorials: https://www.electronicstutorials.ws/rc/rc_2.htm

Ling, S. J., Sanny , J., & Moebs, B. (2020, November 06). Kirchhoff's Rules. (OpenStax University

Physics under a Creative Commons Attribution License) Retrieved January 2021, from

Physics Libretexts:

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_

(OpenStax)/Map%3A_University_Physics_II_-

_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/10%3A_DirectCurrent_Circuits/
10.04%3A_Kirchhoff's_Rules

Ling, S. J., Sanny , J., & Moebs, B. (2020, November 06). Resistors in Series and Parallel. (OpenStax

University Physics under a Creative Commons Attribution License ) Retrieved January 2021,

from Physics Libretexts:

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_

(OpenStax)/Map%3A_University_Physics_II_-

_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/10%3A_DirectCurrent_Circuits/
10.03%3A_Resistors_in_Series_and_Parallel