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POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE
USES, PROPERTIES
AND DEGRADATION
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POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE
USES, PROPERTIES
AND DEGRADATION
NAOMI A. BARBER
EDITOR
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Preface vii
Chapter 1 Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate):
Synthesis and Physicochemical Properties 1
Marija V. Pergal and Milica Balaban
Chapter 2 The Applications of Polyethylene Terephthalate
for RF Flexible Electronics 103
Tzu-Hsuan Chang, Yei Hwan Jung, Dong Liu,
Hongyi Mi, Juhwan Lee, Jiarui Gong
and Zhenqiang Ma
Chapter 3 Progress in Polyethylene Terephthalate Recycling 155
Adel Elamri, Khmais Zdiri, Omar Harzallah
and Abdelaziz Lallam
Index 187
Chapter 1
POLY(ETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE):
SYNTHESIS AND
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ABSTRACT
*
Correspondence to M. V. Pergal; e-mail: [email protected].
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SYNTHESIS OF PET
Two methods are used for the industrial manufacturing of PET. PET
can generally be produced by reacting ethylenediol with an aromatic
diester (dimethyl terephthalate – DMT) or diacid (terephthalic acid), in the
presence of a polyesterification catalyst [5]. Although polycondensation to
high conversions requires the stoichiometric balance of reacting groups,
the industrial methods for manufacturing polyesters such as PET involve
the initial use of excess ED, which is later removed and recycled in the
process.
The original industrial synthesis of PET is based on a relatively
expensive two-step melt polymerization reaction between dimethyl
terephthalate and excess ethylenediol of approximately 30-50%, in the
presence of a catalyst. The polymerization of dimethylterephthalate (DMT)
and ethylene glycol (EG) to PET proceeds in two steps: transesterification
and polycondensation [1-3, 5, 22]. The first, the transesterification step,
involves the conversion of the methyl ester groups of DMT into bis(2-
hydroxyethyl)terephthalate (bis-HET) and a small amount of oligomers are
formed in this step of the reaction. This reaction is performed at
atmospheric pressure, in an inert atmosphere to prevent oxidative side
reactions, and in a temperature range from 150 to 210°C. During the first
step methanol is distilled off and hydroxyethyl–terminated terephthalate
oligomers are produced [19]. If only one terephthalate residue exists per
molecule (x = 1 in Figure 1), the diester is usually called
bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate). In reality, the transesterification step
produces not only bis-HET, but also a decreasing number of 2-
hydroxyethyl-terminated oligomers containing 2,3,4,... terephthalate
residues. The first step is finished when the methanol stops distilling off.
In the second step of the method i.e., polycondensation, the
temperature increases to 270-280°C (well above the melting temperature of
PET) and a high vacuum is applied (10-50 Pa) [2]. bis-HET, and other low
molecular weight oligomers, formed during the transesterification step,
Figure 1. Synthesis of PET from DMT as the starting reactant: (a) Formation of bis-
HET and other hydroxyethyl–terminated terephthalate oligomers by transesterification
of DMT with ED and (b) polycondensation of bis-HET and hydroxyethyl–terminated
oligomers resulting in PET.
At the industrial level, PET can be made by using both batch and
continuous processes [3]. Early commercial processes were DMT-based
batch processes, which were typically run in at least two reactors. In the
batch processes, after the first step is completed (when no more methanol
is distilled off), the reaction mixture transfers to the second reactor for the
polycondensation step, where a vacuum is applied (< 1 mbar) at increased
temperatures (between 270°C and 280°C), well above the melting
temperature of PET, in order to strip off the excess ED.
Nowadays, batch processes are usually replaced by continuous
processes, which involve a series of reactors in which the pressure is
gradually reduced. Finally, so-called finishing reactors, which create a high
surface area combined with a deep vacuum, are applied to increase the
molecular weight even further. Batch processes are mainly used to produce
specialty PET grades.
Figure 3. Specific heat capacity of PET after isothermal crystallization at 190°C and
subsequent cooling to 40°C. The thick solid line is the total heat capacity by standard
DSC at 5°C/min, the solid circles represent the reversing heat capacity after 16 min of
modulation at T0, and the thin solid lines are the solid and liquid specific heat
capacities, as taken from the ATHAS Data Bank. The specific baselines heat capacity
of PET computed for a two- and three-phasemodel are shown as dashed and dotted
lines, respectively. The major endothermic peaks are numbered in order of increasing
temperatures as TI, TII and TIII, respectively [34].
Liu et al. [55] examined PET and a series of statistical and blocky
copolymers in which up to 30% of the terephthalate was replaced with
isophthalate by copolymerization and melt blending, respectively. The
polymers were oriented at four temperatures in the vicinity of the Tg and
characterized by oxygen transport, WAXS, positron annihilation lifetime
spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. Orientation of all the copolymers
resulted in property changes consistent with strain-induced crystallization.
Analysis of oxygen solubility based on free volume concepts led to a two-
phase model from which the amount of crystallinity and the amorphous
phase density were extracted.
Hu et al. [56] reported on improvement of gas barrier properties of
PET by blending with an aromatic polyamide, either poly(m-xylylene
adipamide) (MXD6) or a copolyamide based on MXD6 in which 12 mol.%
adipamide was replaced with isophthalamide (MXD6-12I). Incorporating a
small amount of sodium 5-sulfoisophthalate into the PET matrix
compatibilized the blends and reduced the polyamide domain size to 100-
300 nm. Thermal analysis showed that the polyamides had a nucleating
effect on PET crystallization, whereas crystallization of the polyamides
was inhibited especially in compatibilized blends. Without orientation,
blending with 10 wt.% MXD6 or MXD6-12I reduced oxygen permeability
of PET by a factor of about 0.8 (P/PPET) when measured at 43% relative
humidity (RH), in accordance with the Maxwell model prediction.
However, after biaxial orientation, oxygen permeability of blends with 10
wt.% MXD6 was reduced by 0.3 at 43% RH, and permeability of blends
with 10 wt.% MXD6-12I was reduced by 0.4. Even at 85% RH, oxygen
permeability was reduced by 0.4 and 0.6 for blends with MXD6 and
MXD6-12I, respectively. Blending with an aromatic polyamide was even
more effective in reducing carbon dioxide permeability of oriented PET.
Transformation of spherical polyamide domains into platelets of high
aspect ratio increased tortuosity of the diffusion pathway. The platelet
aspect ratio predicted by the Nielsen model was confirmed by atomic force
microscopy (AFM). Higher aspect ratio of MXD6 domains was ascribed to
a lower Tg compared to MXD6-12I. Similar reduction in oxygen
permeability was achieved in bottle walls blown from PET blends with
MXD6 or MXD6-12I.
The addition of an active oxygen scavenger directly into the PET
polymer can significantly improve the oxygen barrier properties of PET
films and containers. The PET active barrier system can be achieved by
blending through extrusion and reactive extrusion or by direct
polymerization of PET monomer with the incorporation of the scavenging
moiety as a copolymer. Mahajan et al. [57] synthesized copolymers of PET
by the melt polymerization of TPA with EG and with each of the active
oxygen scavengers: monoolein (MO) and 3-cyclohexene-1,1-dimethanol
(CHEDM) in separate compositions. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (1H NMR) and 2D correlation spectroscopy (COSY)
indicated that PET had reacted with both MO and CHEDM at their
hydroxyl end groups. Oxygen barrier properties of the MO and CHEDM
copolymers exhibited improvements of up to 40%, in comparison with an
unmodified commercial PET. Effects of the oxygen scavengers on the
copolymers’ physical properties were investigated in terms of their
crystallization, melting, and rheological behaviors. Both types of
copolymers showed decreases in peak melting temperatures with increased
scavenger concentrations and also crystallized more slowly as the
scavenger concentrations increased. The PET/MO copolymer showed non-
Newtonian rheological behavior with higher MO concentration; while the
PET/CHEDM copolymers showed Newtonian behavior within the studied
range of CHEDM concentrations.
Al-Jabareen et al. [58] reported on the oxygen gas barrier properties of
nanocomposites of PET containing graphite nanoplatelets (GNPs). The
effects of the structural morphology on oxygen gas permeability were
analyzed using a range of thermal, microscopic, and mechanical
characterization techniques. The investigated nanocomposite films
exhibited GNP exfoliated morphology and good mixing with PET, as well
as uniform dispersion within the polymer. All nanocomposite films were
shown to possess superior oxygen barrier properties and improved thermal
and dimensional stability compared with the plain PET films. In the best
case, for 1.5 wt.% GNP, the oxygen permeation was reduced by more than
99%. The improved barrier properties are attributed to the direct effect of
the GNPs and to their induced increase of degree of crystallinity. Also,
nanocomposites of PET and two different montmorillonite-based
organoclays were prepared by a co-rotating twin screw extruder. Both
organoclays had a good intercalation with PET and were uniformly
dispersed within the polymer. Oxygen permeability of thin films of
nanocomposites showed that the nanocomposites had better oxygen barrier
properties than the neat PET [59].
PET nanocomposites with low loading (0.1-0.5 wt.%) of graphene
oxide (GO) have been prepared by using in situ polymerization method.
Investigations of oxygen permeability of amorphous films of
nanocomposites showed that the nanocomposites had better oxygen barrier
properties than the neat PET. The improvement of oxygen permeability for
PET nanocomposite films over the neat PET is approximately factors of 2-
3.3 [60].
Property Value
Density (ρ), g/m3 1410
Glass transition temperature (Tg),°C 69-115
Melting temperature (Tm),°C 265
Heat of fusion (ΔH), kJ/mol 24.1
Breaking strength (σB), MPa 50
Tensile (Young’s) modulus (E), MPa 1700
Flexural modulus (rigidity) (E), MPa 2000
Ultimate strain (εB), % 180
Yield strain (εY), % 4
Impact Strength (Notched Izod), J/m 90
Hardness (Rockwell) R105
Water absorption after 24 h, % 0.5
Dielectric strength, kV/mm 15.7
Dielectric constant, 106 Hz 3.2 (thermal)
3.3 (electrical)
Volume resistivity, ohm cm 1016
Power factor, 106 Hz 0.0019
Hydrolysis occurs in the amorphous phase and at chain folds at the crystal
surface, whereas crystals are unaffected due to their impermeability to
water. The chain length decreases to tend, thus, towards Lc. Embrittlement
is expected to occur when the entanglement network is destroyed in the
amorphous phase. However, despite the above mentioned, PET hydrolysis
can be considered as a random chain scission process in kinetic studies.
[74].
Hosseini et al. [67] studied the hydrolytic degradation which occurred
at the drying of PET before processing and the loss of weight and
mechanical properties in textile materials during washing. Hydrolytic
conditions were used to expose fiber-grade PET chips in water at 85°C for
different periods of time. Solution viscometry and end-group analysis were
used as the main methods for determining the extent of degradation. The
experimental results show that PET is susceptible to hydrolysis. Also, as
the time of retention in hydrolytic condition increased, the molecular
weight decreased, while the rate of chain cleavage decreased to some
extent, at which point there was no more sensible degradation.
The effects of PET resin moisture content and temperature exposure
have been investigated in terms of material changes resulting from the
injection molding process. Two resins with initial carboxyl contents of
10 µeq/g PET and 20 µeq/g PET have been analyzed. Preforms processed
at different resin moisture contents and processing temperatures of 280,
290 and 300 °C were evaluated in terms of carboxyl end-group
concentration using a titration method. Mathematical models describing
the relationships of carboxyl end-group concentration and intrinsic
viscosity to the processing conditions were generated from the
experimental data. Carboxyl end-groups formed were compared for both
resins and shown to be dependent on initial carboxyl content in the resin.
Reducing the initial carboxyl content in the resin was shown to increase its
hydrolytic stability. The hydrolytic effect on the overall molecular weight
drop was separated from the thermal/thermal-oxidative degradation and
shown to be dependent on both the processing temperature and the resin
moisture content [75].
6. PROCESSING OF PET
In the two-stage process, the preform is injected into shape on the first
machine and then it is reheated and blown on the second machine. The
two-stage method is not very efficient as the heat lost is considered as a
loss of energy, but this machines are fully automated and about 200% more
efficient than the one-step machine [87].
When PET is stretched, it exhibits strain-hardening properties, which
are temperature and strain-rate dependent. This provides a self-leveling
effect on the stretching preform, which is important for forming a bottle of
uniform wall thickness. It is also well known that this behavior is
temperature and strain-rate dependent. At any given strain, increasing the
temperature reduces the strain hardening properties and vice versa. In
contrast, at a fixed temperature, increasing the strain rate causes the
polymer to strain-harden, above all at large strain values. To take
advantage of the strain-hardening properties of PET, the operating
conditions during blow molding, as well as the bottle and preform designs,
must be considered in order to achieve bottles of desirable quality. Pham et
al. [88] characterized experimentally two grades of PET using biaxial tests.
A visco-hyperelastic model is used to describe the stretching behavior for
the polymer. A biaxial characterization method is employed to determine
the model parameters using a robust nonlinear curve-fitting program. This
model can represent adequately well the stretching behavior of PET. Based
on this model, the membrane finite element formulation is developed to
simulate the stretch blow molding process. Two bottles of different
designs, produced based on the single-stage injection blow molding
process, are used to validate the model. Good agreement with the bottle
thickness profile is observed.
Simulations of various stretch blow and blow moldings of
axisymmetric PET bottles have been carried out using ABAQUS software.
A creep constitutive model with material data developed for a
thermoforming process was used in the finite element analysis. Simulations
using shell and solid elements were compared with experimental moldings.
The creep material model, when combined with solid elements and a very
high coefficient of friction, provided the best predictions for bottle side
wall thickness, strains, blowing pressure, and general material movement.
It was found that the predicted wall thickness distribution of the material in
an injection blow molded bottle agreed well with the values obtained using
commercial process conditions [89].
Also, Jang et al. [90] proposed a non-isothermal finite element (FE)
model for the injection stretch-blow molding (ISBM) process of PET
bottles. The constitutive behavior of PET is modeled by the physically
based Buckley glass-rubber model in form of UMAT in ABAQUS. The
heat transfer between the stretch rod, the preform and the mold was
modeled. Extensive FE simulations were carried out to model ISBM of a
20 g - 330 ml bottle made in plant tests. Comparisons of numerical results
with the measurements demonstrated that the model could satisfactorily
predict the bottle thickness and material distributions. Significant nonlinear
differentials were found in strain, temperature and temperature reduction
rate in both bottle thickness and length direction during the process.
Textile yarns, used for the production of finished fabrics, are of two
categories: filament yarns and spun yarns. Filament yarns are made of
continuous filaments which are kilometers long, while spun yarns are
composed of cut staple fibers which are a few centimeters long and are
twisted or spun to hold them together in the form of strands. For filament
and fiber applications, PET with inherent viscosity in the range 0.4 to 0.98
dL/g is used [91].
The most effective approach for the production of PET fibers with
improved mechanical properties so far is the utilization of high molecular
weight polymers, which can be obtained by solid-state polymerization.
Due to extremely high viscosity, fiber formation of high molecular weight
PET can be accomplished by solution spinning or spinning with a
plasticizer [42]. However, the melt process, without the added complexities
of chemical reaction and/or mass transfer, is the simplest, conceptually and
economically, for producing fibers suitable for textile and industrial end
uses. In the melt spinning technique, the molten polymer is extruded
through a die, called the spinneret, which has multiple capillaries to form a
slander and cylindrical jet of molten polymer. After passing a certain
distance (frost line) from the spinneret, the molten polymer jet becomes
solidified.
Lin et al. [92] studied fiber melt spinning of PET via modification of
threadline dynamics. Several techniques were implemented in the high-
speed spinning process for the judicious control of threadline dynamics.
This included a thermal conditioning zone (TCZ) for controlling the
threadline temperature profile and a hydraulic drag bath (HDB) for
controlling the threadline spinning stress. Through controlled threadline
dynamics, key factors affecting the structure development such as
temperature, tensile stress and crystallization time, were manipulated to
favor formation of a highly oriented and transversely uniform structure in
the spun fibers. The attenuation profile of the threadline is observed to be
dependent of TCZ temperature, residence time in the HDB, temperature of
the HDB, and take-up speed. It is believed that for the melt spinning
process with the TCZ and the HDB, the threadline dynamics is changed
from the one controlled by inertia and air drag forces to the one controlled
by the imposed hydraulic drag.
Bicomponent melt spinning technology is mainly used to make the
new fibers. Wool is a natural bicomponent fiber, and the side-by-side
bicomponent fibers were developed to imitate the crimp property of wool.
Hwan Oh [93] studied the crimp contraction and the thermal shrinkage in
the bicomponent fiber consisting of two different PET. Regular PET and
modified PET were selected to make a latent crimp yarn. The modified
PET was synthesized to increase thermal shrinkage. The crimp contraction
was mainly dependent on drawing conditions such as draw ratio, heat-set
temperature, and drawing temperature. Difference in shrinkage between
the PET and the modified PET caused the self-crimping of bicomponent
fibers. Although changing the heat-set temperature and the drawing
temperature could not affect dimensional change, the crimp contraction
varied with those variables. As the heat-set temperature and the drawing
temperature decreased, the crimp contraction increased. Difference in
elongation also affected the crimp contraction in the effect of draw ratio.
When the modified PET with neopentyl group was used for highly
shrinkable part, the crimp contraction was greater in comparison with
modified PET with dimethyl isophthalate.
Both, PET sheets (thicker than 180 μm) and films can be produced in
a melt polymerization line or by a secondary processing step from preform.
The unoriented PET sheets are made by extruding an appropriate
molecular weight PET melt through a slot die and quenching over a chill
roller. The amorphous, transparent sheets are used mainly in
thermoforming, where a sheet of polymer (50-1200 μm), is reheated
(softened) and then deformed by vacuum into a mold where it cools. The
products include clear cups, trays and blister packages for pharmaceutical
tablets [87].
A highly crystalline, but opaque PET trays are produced from a
polymer with very high inherent viscosity (1 dL/g) and high melting point
(260°C). Due to the high crystallinity, the trays can be heated with food in
a microwave oven and can withstand temperatures up to 220°C. For their
production, the transparent thermoformed PET article is transferred to a
heated mold to crystallize. Spherulite crystallization takes place because
the article formed by the initial thermoforming did not undergo much
strain-induced crystallization and it may be promoted by addition of
nucleation additives incorporated to promote fast thermal crystallization
[87].
Biaxially oriented films are much thinner (5-180 μm) than the
unoriented sheets. Their applications include video and magnetic tapes,
floppy disks, photographic products, and capacitors. A high degree of
purity is required, and clean room conditions similar to those used to
manufacture electronic or medical components are often applied. A
sequential drawing process for the production of biaxially oriented films
consists of four steps: melt extrusion through a slot die and quenching to
form an amorphous precursor film, on-line drawing in the extrusion
7.3. Methanolysis
7.4. Glycolysis
three alkali catalysts was directly related to their alkali strength, i.e.,
sodium hydroxide > sodium carbonate > sodium bicarbonate. Both losses
of weight and strength increased at higher temperatures, but with sodium
hydroxide they leveled off at 120°C. At 2 h of treatment, the treated PET
showed instantaneous wetting in most cases. The morphological changes
that substantiated strength loss of the fabrics were confirmed by FTIR
analyses, and the effect was greater with sodium hydroxide. DSC analysis
indicated that melting peaks of the glycolyzed PET were relatively
consistent except at high temperature (120°C), which showed a significant
conformational change. These results showed that the glycolysis treatment
of PET fabric at 80°C for 1 h could be an optimal condition to obtain the
balance between high hygroscopicity and desired physical properties [121].
Various experimental factors include temperature, pressure, reaction
time, as well as stirring speed, particle size, a choice of solvent and its ratio
[122]. López-Fonseca et al. [123] studied the kinetics of glycolysis of
PETW to give highly pure bis-HET in a batch reactor using EG in excess
at atmospheric pressure. The reaction was carried out in the presence of
sodium carbonate as active catalyst. A kinetic model considering the
reaction rate to be first order with respect to PET, bis-HET and sodium
carbonate concentration satisfactorily described the kinetics of the
glycolysis with an excess of EG. The effect of particle size (0.14–3 mm)
and stirring rate (50–800 rpm) on conversion was examined. The selected
PET particle size and stirring rate were 0.25 mm and 600 rpm,
respectively. Using PET:catalyst molar ratio of 100:1 about 80% bis-HET
yield was attained at 196°C after 1 h.
The type and amount of used glycol have a significant impact on the
properties of the final products. For the glycolysis of PETW can be used
different glycols, such as EG, diethylene glycol (DEG), propylene glycol
(PG), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), neopentyl glycol (NPG), 1,4-butanediol,
and hexylene glycol. Also, it is possible to use the mixture of some glycols,
but EG is more suitable and brings about remarkable result in PET
depolymerization [124]. An increasing of glycol/PET ratio increases the
rate of decomposition which leads to producing lower weight oligomers,
but the high glycol/PET ratio, which is suitable for achieving lower
7.5. Aminolysis
lower and the molecular weight distribution is narrower than that for the
bottle grade PET in order to attain higher viscosity for the latter, necessary
for the blow-molding process [134]. The aminolysis reaction can be also
run successfully as uncatalyzed reaction. Soni et al. [135] reported on the
uncatalyzed degradation of PETW by hydrazine monohydrate at ambient
temperature and pressure. The end product was characterized as
terephthalic dihydrazide (TPD) and further used in PVC compounding as
secondary plasticizer. The complete degradation of PETW was achieved
after 45 days in the case of a 1:10 weight/volume ratio of PET to amine,
but with a 1:2 weight/volume ratio of PET to hydrazine monohydrate, the
degradation time was considerably reduced to 24 h at ambient conditions.
Mittal et al. [136] studied the degradation properties of the PETW
flakes by aqueous methylamine and aqueous ammonia, respectively, at
room temperature in the presence and absence of quaternary ammonium
salt as a catalyst for different periods of time. PET degraded more quickly
in the presence of the catalyst, where the long polymeric chains in the
semicrystalline PET were reduced to monodisperse rods before full
degradation into the end products, and the fissures on the surface of PET
were found to deepen with time. The amorphous portion was removed at a
faster rate, and there was a marked increase in the crystallinity of the
residue toward the completion of the reaction.
The product of aminolysis, BHETA, has the potential for further
reactions to obtain useful products. There are few reports on usage of
recycled BHETA from PETW to synthesis of novel biodegradable
polyurethanes based on polycaprolactone diol, which showed excellent
chemical, thermal and mechanical properties [137]. Also, the suitability of
BHETA obtained from the aminolyzed PET waste was assessed for use as
an ingredient in the anticorrosive paint formulations for the protection of
steel structures [138]. The synthesized BHETA possessed high hardness
and stiffness, good resistance to weathering, creep strength, and high
dimensional stability. The addition of organic BHETA into the paint
formulation barely affected the physical and mechanical properties of the
paint films.
7.6. Ammonolysis
7.7. Hydrolysis
Figure 5. TEM image of poly(ester-ether) films based on PBT and PTMO: (a) 35 wt.%
of PTMO soft segment and (b) 60 wt.% of PTMO soft segment [160]. Similar
morphology was observed for PET-based poly(ester-ether)s with same soft segment
content.
many possibilities for blending PET with other polymers, some of which
are described below.
PET, and small amounts of crystalline PET. They observed that the two
major phases, SAN and amorphous PET, interpenetrated to result in co-
continuous structures over the compositional range of 30-70 wt.% PET.
The flexural modulus and yield stress increased in an almost linear fashion
with the increase of the PET content in the blend. However, the notched
Izod impact strength and toughness reached the highest levels at 50 wt.%
PET.
dispersion and thus, higher tensile strength and elongation at break in the
PET/organoclay/elastomer ternary nanocomposites than the aryl-based
organoclay did. Upon compounding PET with alkyl and aryl phosphonium
organoclays, the onset decomposition temperature of PET increased from
413°C to 420°C and 424°C, respectively. The DSC results showed that the
use of organoclays did not significantly promote the nucleation process in
PET based nanocomposites, whereas the elastomer decreased the level of
crystallinity.
There are reports in literature of PET nanocomposites incorporating
carbon nanotubes (CNTs), such as single-walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). CNTs are a
good candidate for use as nanofillers for high strength polymer
nanocomposites because of their excellent mechanical, thermal and
electrical properties, high aspect ratio, and nanometer scale diameter [229,
230]. An important increase of the tensile modulus and yield strength of
polymers has been reported after the random dispersion of CNTs. It is
known that the addition of CNTs to PET not only improves the mechanical
and electrical properties of PET, but also increases the rate of
crystallization of PET by acting as a nucleating agent [231]. The chemical
modification of CNTs is a good method for overcoming the problems
related to the poor dispersion of CNTs into the polymer matrix due to
strong van der Waals interactions between the CNTs [232]. Recently,
various approaches toward enhancing the properties of PET/CNT
nanocomposites using the surfactant and chemical functionalization of
CNTs have been demonstrated, including the functionalization of CNTs
through covalent and noncovalent reactions with organic molecules and
polymers [230]. The other methods for improving the dispersion of CNTs
within the PET matrix are solution processing techniques, in situ
polymerization and melt processing [230, 233].
Gómez-del Río et al. [234] observed that, due to their large aspect ratio
and mechanical properties, SWCNT are considered to be unique candidates
for making PET-based nanocomposites. They prepared nanocomposites of
PET reinforced with small quantities of carbon nanotubes by in situ
polymerization. The results showed that the Young’s modulus increases
242] have reported that the CB particles were first localized in the minor
phase (i.e., in PET), and then the conductive CB/PET masterbatch was
elongated in situ to form conductive in situ microfibrils in the polyethylene
(PE) matrix during melt extrusion processing. After compression molding,
a conductive three-dimensional microfibrillar network was obtained,
resulting in a relatively low percolation threshold (6.0 vol.%). Dai et al.
[243] successfully fabricated electrically conductive in situ microfibrillar
CB/PET/PE composite with the selective distribution of CB particles on
the surfaces of the PET microfibrils. The percolation threshold of the in
situ microfibrillar conductive PET composite was only ca. 3.8 vol.%,
showing a considerable decrease of percolation compared to that of the
common CB/PE composite. They found that interfacial tension, viscosity
and chemical groups on the surface of the CB particles and the processing
order, were in favor of the migration of the CB particles from the PE
matrix to the dispersed PET phases. The morphological observation
indicated that, depending on the mixing time, the CB particles gradually
migrated from the PE matrix to the surfaces initially, and then to the center
of the PET phases. They concluded that the anisotropic distribution of the
CB particles, the tunneling conduction, the geometry of the electrical
network, and the complex structure of the microfibrillar composite, are
likely to make conducting composites.
PET is one of the most commonly applied polymers for textile and
biomedical applications [244]. The polyester fibers have interesting
physicochemical and mechanical properties. However, the major problems
associated with PET are related to its hydrophobic character i.e., poor
hydrophilicity, low moisture regain (0.42%) and lack of softness [245-
248]. Enhancement of the hydrophilicity of PET fibers is an important
requirement for many applications, ranging from textile production to
applications in the biomedical field.
beds, and nonwovens for use as diaper top sheets and disposable medical
garments [260].
At a slightly higher molecular weight, PET is made into a high-
strength plastic that can be shaped by all the common methods employed
with other thermoplastics. Recording tapes and magnetic films are
produced by extrusion of PET film (often sold under the trademarks Mylar
and Melinex). Molten PET can be blow-molded into a transparent
container of high strength and rigidity that also possesses good
impermeability to gas and liquid. In this form PET has become widely
used in carbonated-beverage bottles and in jars for food processed at low
temperatures.
PET is used in the packaging sector in the form of films, trays or
bottles, its principle use being in bottles. In 2010, almost 70% of all bottled
water and soft drinks sold globally was supplied in PET bottles. Due to its
excellent mechanical and optical properties, good oxygen and carbon
dioxide barrier properties, as well as consumer trend favoring healthier
beverage options, lately the carbonated soft drink sector has been growing
more rapidly than other applications. Of the few polymers that are
potentially suitable for bottles, PET is the only plastic with a balance of
properties such as transparency (near 100% light transmission in a bottle),
gloss, lightweight and resistance to carbon dioxide permeation. This has
resulted in the nearly full replacement of glass in Europe for all but the
most demanding applications that require both an oxygen barrier and UV
resistance to protect the contents.
Recently, growing interest has been observed in the utilization of
chemically recycled PET products as raw materials for the preparation of a
rather different class of polymers such as unsaturated polyester resins,
polyurethanes, epoxy resins, vinyl esters, and alkyd resins [124]. Also,
PET is a commercially available fabric suitable for many biomedical
applications. Due to its ability to retain mechanical strength and fatigue
characteristics for a long period of time in the body, as well as considerable
biocompatiblity, PET has attracted considerable attention for many
applications such as vascular graft, sewing cuffs of mechanical heart
valves, sutures, etc. Under trademark Dacron®, PET has been used
Since the mid-twentieth century PET has been attracting a great deal of
interest due to its excellent mechanical properties, high thermal stability
and chemical resistance, as well as processability and optical clarity.
Nowadays, a broad range of pure and modified PET grades are available,
and are found in many applications such as fibers, films and food and
beverage packaging applications.
The use of PET as a recyclable polymer has opened numerous new
markets, which are in constant growth. Through mechanical recycling,
waste PET bottles can be found in films, sheets, strapping packaging and
fiber used for sacking, insulation and floor covering. In the field of
mechanical recycling, development of the strategies for maintaining the
high average molecular weight of PET during reprocessing is of great
importance. Also, the improvement of the chemical recycling processes
will certainly still be attracting great interest, both in terms of obtaining the
monomers for the re-synthesis of PET, and of producing chemically
recycled PET products as raw materials for the preparation of different
class of polymers such as unsaturated polyester resins, polyurethanes,
epoxy resins, vinyl esters and alkyd resins.
Among various polyesters, PET and also PBT are very suitable for use
as the hard crystallizable segments in thermoplastic copolyester
elastomers, whose commercial importance has constantly been increasing
in the last four decades. One of the future trends could be the inclusion of
hyperbranched polyesters or dendritic segments into PET-based
copolymers. Moreover, some prospect has been obtained in inclusion of
liquid crystalline sequences into the backbone or as side chains.
In addition, numerous studies have so far focused on the blends of PET
with other polymers in order to achieve an attractive balance of
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Chapter 2
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.3. A short development history of flexible RF active devices (and related
passive devices) on plastic substrates using transferrable nanomembranes. Update from
[14].
(111). By viewing the Si lattices from these three directions, the atomic
density of the three directions are different. The plane where Si has the
lowest density, (100), is more vulnerable to chemicals such as KOH(aq)
and TMAH. Si (110) and especially Si (111), which has the highest density
of Si atoms, are not etched until the surrounding Si atoms are attacked;
thus, the etching rate is much slower compared to Si (100). This
phenomenon is identified as the anisotropic etching of Si and has been
widely used in the micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) to fabricate
reliable vibration/gauge sensors. To release the thin Si nanomembrane, Si
(111) substrate is adapted as shown in Figure 2.1.1.
Before immersing the Si (111) substrate into the anisotropic KOH etchant,
a trench is formed in the Si substrate by plasma SF6 etching and the design of
the trench is to define the final thickness of the released Si nanomembrane.
After etching, thermal oxidation is applied and a Ti/Au protection layer is
deposited around the membrane area. SiO2 has high selectivity in KOH
etching and prevents the KOH from attacking the sidewalls of the membrane.
The Ti/Au layer is used as the hard-etching mask when removing the oxide in
the trench and the protection layer through the KOH wet etching process.
After immersing the structures in hot KOH/IPA/H2O solution, the exposed Si
will be etched inwards along the horizontal Si (111) plane that is protected
within the oxide. The front edge of the etching will stop at the Si (110) plane
and move towards the two sides until the etching from both sides meet. The
released Si nanomembrane is then rinsed with KI2 metal etcher to remove the
gold and is then ready for the post-transfer process.
Different from the anisotropic wet releasing approach, this method has
much higher controllability over the uniformity of the released
nanomembrane. The thickness of the released membrane could range from
a few nanometers to a couple of micrometers and the surface roughness
can be controlled within ~1 nm. To adapt this approach, special Si on
Figure 2.2.1. Generic process for Si nanomembrane release from SOI and transfer. (a)
Use SOI as the starting material; (b) Patterning top Si template layer into strips or
meshed NM and partially expose BOX; (c) Immersing SOI into aqueous HF to
undercut BOX; (d) Si template layer falls as BOX is fully undercut and gets registered
on the handling substrate. Two transfer routes exist: direct flip transfer (e1)–(f1) and
stamp-assisted transfer (e2)–(g2). (e1) Flexible substrate with adhesive coating is
attached to Si nanomembrane. (f1) Peel off the plastic substrate with NM transferred.
(e2) Si nanomembrane is first picked up by the elastomeric stamp. (f2) Bring the stamp
into contact with a (adhesive-coated) new host substrate. (g2) The stamp is slowly
peeled off, leaving the NM attached/transferred to the new host [14].
Figure 2.2.2 Schematic diagrams of a) the pickup and b) printing of thin film.
c) Schematic diagram of critical energy release rates for the film/substrate interface
and for the stamp/film interface. The intersection of the horizontal line in the middle
with the curve representing the critical peel velocity for kinetically controlled transfer
printing. The horizontal lines at the bottom and top represent very weak and very
strong film/substrate interfaces, respectively, corresponding to pickup only and
printing only [43].
the parasite capacitance. Hence, for the flexible substrate with a lower
dielectric constant can reduce the loss from the embedded electronics [40].
Different from the dielectric constant that represents the ability of
storing the energy under the applied electric field, the dissipation factor
characterizes of loss-rate of energy of a mode of oscillation electric field,
which is one of the critical parameters in designing high speed flexible RF
electronics. The dissipation constant can be interpreted by the phase angle
δ of the resistive (lossy) component and lossless (reactive) component of
an electromagnetic field in the complex plane, usually quantized by
tangent δ and named tangent loss of a material. If the tangent loss of a
substrate is large, the majority of the electromagnetic energy transport in
this material will dissipate as localized heat, thus significantly reducing the
efficiency of the RF devices. In the following paragraph, we will briefly
introduce the state-of-the-art methods of accurately measuring the
dielectric constant and tangent loss of a flexible substrate.
two connection points, such as an air gap between the substrate edge and
the side of the SMA connector.
Figure 2.4.2 a) Measured and simulated transmission coefficients (S21) of the PET
based microstrip transmission line. b) Extracted microwave dielectric properties
(dielectric constant and loss tangent) [45].
Figure 3.2. a) Cross-section illustration of the TFT on PET with the channel length and
the overlap distances between gate and source/drain shown. b) Microscope image a
two-gate-finger TFT. c) Zoomed-in view of accurate gate alignment realized with the
local gate alignment procedure. d) Image of a TFT array on a bent PET substrate.
e) Illustration of bending test for the TFT on PET. (f) Measured fT and fmax variations
under different bending radii [29].
Figure 3.3. Comparison of the device structures (cross-sectional view) and fabrication
processes between a) 3-D nano trench Si nanomembrane flexible RF TFTs, and
b) conventional 2-D TFTs. The effective channel lengths (Lch) are marked in red in
(a3, b3). The smallest Lch of the nano trench TFT can reach down to 50 nm via NIL
and that of the conventional TFT can only reach down to about 1.5 µm. (a1) Blanket
phosphorous ion implantation and thermal anneal. (a2) Nano trench formation via
nanoimprint. (a3) Final structure of nano trench TFT where the channel length Lch is
defined by nanoimprint. (b1) Photolithography to define S/D regions for ion
implantation. (b2) Selective ion implantation and thermal anneal. (b3) Final structure
of conventional TFT where Lch is limited by gate electrode and dopant out-diffusion
during ion implantation and thermal anneal [7].
Figure 3.4. a) Optical image of arrays of the bent TFTs on a PET substrate. b) Defining
a nano trench on a phosphorus implanted p- SOI substrate using NIL. c) Simulated
current density with the 250 nm deep trench (70 nm of the trench depth extends into
the p- layer: 20 nm p- layer remains as the active channel) forms a very strong field-
effected channel without a leakage current. d) Drain current versus drain voltage.
e) Drain current versus gate voltage. f) Measured (solid lines) and simulated (dashed
lines) RF characteristics of the trench TFT [7].
Figure 3.6. Illustration of the fabrication process for integrated flexible spiral inductors
and MIM capacitors. a) M1 was evaporated on a PET substrate to form the bottom
electrode of MIM capacitors and the center lead metal of inductors. b) A 200 nm SiO
layer was evaporated on top of the bottom electrode as the capacitor high-k dielectric.
M2 was evaporated on top of SiO to form the top electrode for capacitors. The two
layers were lifted together to form a self-aligned structure. c) A layer of SU-8 was spun
on to act as the intermetal low-k isolation layer. Via holes were opened with
lithography and SU-8 was cured to cross link. d) M3 was evaporated to form the spiral
metals of inductors and interconnects. An optical-microscope image of e) a 4.5-turn
spiral inductor, f) an MIM capacitor, and g) the finished inductor and capacitor arrays
on a bent PET substrate. Measured (h) L values and (f) Q values of a 4.5-turn spiral
inductor as a function of frequency under flat and bending conditions. The spiral metal
line width is 15 µm and the metal line spacing is 4 µm. The inset of (h) shows the
zoomed-in graph of L values in the low frequency range. The fres is indicated by the
zero L and zero Q values. The two figures have the same X-axis scale [29].
Figure 3.7. (a) Photograph of screen-printed RLC circuit using a series combination of
8 μ H inductor and 0.8 nF capacitor, in parallel with a 25 kΩ resistor. (b) Model of the
circuit including inductor and capacitor series resistances. (c), (d) Impedance
magnitude (c) and phase (d) of the circuit [55].
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
Tzu-Hsuan Chang
Education:
B.S. in Computer and Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan
University
M.S. in Computer and Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan
University
Ph.D. in Computer and Electrical Engineering, University of
Wisconsin-Madison
Business Address:
1415 Engineering Dr., B640
Madison, WI 53706
Professional Appointments:
Post-Doctoral Fellow, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Honors:
Harold A. Peterson Best Dissertation Award 2016.
*
Equal contribution.
Education:
B.S. in electrical engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign
M.S. in electrical engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Business Address:
1415 Engineering Dr., B642
Madison, WI 53706
Professional Appointments:
HHMI Predoctoral Fellow, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Honors:
Jung was a recipient of the 2015 HHMI International Student Research
Fellowship and the 2012 Wisconsin Chancellor’s Opportunity Award and
has won numerous innovation competitions including the Grand First Prize
of the 2014 Qualcomm Innovation Prize and Runner-Up Prize of the 2014
G. Steven Burill Business Plan Competition.
Dong Liu
Education:
B.S. in electrical engineering, University of Electronics Science and
Technology of China
Ph. D in electrical engineering, Tsinghua University
Business Address:
1415 Engineering Dr., B640
Madison, WI 53706
Honors:
Dong was a recipient of the 2014 Best Doctoral Thesis upon Ph.D
graduation in Tsinghua University.
Dong Liu, Changzheng Sun, Bing Xiong, and Yi Luo, Nonlinear dynamics
in integrated coupled DFB lasers with ultra-short delay, Optics
Express, 2014, 22(5): 5614-5622.
Dong Liu, Changzheng Sun, Bing Xiong, and Yi Luo. Suppression of
chaos in integrated twin DFB lasers for millimeter-wave generation,
Optics Express, 2013, 21(2): 2444-2451.
Changzheng Sun, Dong Liu, Bing Xiong, and Yi Luo, Modulation
Characteristics Enhancement of Monolithically Integrated Laser
Diodes under Mutual Injection Locking. IEEE Journal of Selected
Topics in Quantum Electronics, 2015, 21(6): 1802008.
Cho Minkyu, Jung-Hun, Munho Jaeseong, Dong Liu, Weidong Zhou,and
Zongfu Yu,and Zhenqiang Ma,, Resonant cavity germanium
photodetector via stacked single-crystalline nanomembranes, Journal
of Vacuum Science & Technology B, 2016, 34: 040604.
Hongyi Mi
Juhwan Lee
Education:
B.S. in electrical engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign
Business Address:
1415 Engineering Dr., B642
Madison, WI 53706
Professional Appointments:
Research Assistant, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Honors:
Juhwan has been selected as one of the finalists in the 2016 Wisconsin
Alumni Research Foundation Innovation Awards
Jiarui Gong
Education:
B.S. Physics, Peking University, Beijing, China, 2015
Business Address:
B640
1415 Engineering Drive
Madison, WI 53706
Professional Appointments:
Teaching Assistant, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Zhenqiang (Jack) Ma
Affiliation:
Department of Nuclear Engineering and Engineering Physics
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Madison, WI, USA
Education:
Ph.D. Electrical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 2001
Business Address:
3445 EH
1415 Engineering Drive
Madison, WI 53706
Professional Appointments:
Professor
Lynn H. Matthias Professor in Engineering and Vilas Distinguished
Achievement Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Honors:
H. I. Romnes Fellowship, 2012.
Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
(PECASE) 2007
DARPA Young Faculty Award, 2008.
23) G. Qin, K. Zuo, J.-H. Seo, Y. Xu, H.-C. Yuan, H. Liu, Z. Huang, J.
Ma, and Z. Ma, “On the bending characterization of flexible radio-
frequency single-crystalline germanium diodes on a plastic substrate,”
Applied Physics Letters 106, 043504 (2015).
24) G. Gui, D. Morgan, J. Booske, J. Zhong, and Z. Ma, “Local strain
effect on the band gap engineering of graphene by a first-principles
study,” Applied Physics Letters 106, 053113 (2015).
25) L. Menon, H. Yang, S. J. Cho, S. Mikael, Z. Ma, W. Zhou,
“Transferred flexible three-color silicon membrane photodetector
arrays,” IEEE Photonics Journal, Vol.7, No.1, 6800106 (2015).
26) Y. Liu, A. Chadha, D. Zhao, J. R. Piper, Y. Jia, Y. Shuai, L. Menon, H.
Yang, Z. Ma, S. Fan, F. Xia, W. Zhou, “Approaching total absorption
at near infrared in a large area monolayer graphene by critical
coupling,” Applied Physics Letters, 105, 181105 (2014).
27) D.-W. Park, A. A. Schendel, S. Mikael, S. K. Brodnick, T. J. Richner,
J. P. Ness, M. R. Hayat, Farid Atry, S. T. Frye, R. Pashaie, S.
Thongpang, Z. Ma, J. C. Williams, Graphene-based carbon-layered
electrode array technology for neural imaging and optogenetic
applications. Nature Communications, 5:5258 (2014).
28) D. Zhao, H. Yang, J.H. Seo, Z. Ma, W. Zhou, “Design and
Characterization of Photonic Crystal Membrane Reflector Based
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers on Silicon,” Reviews in
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 3 (2), 77-87 (2014).
29) G. Qin, T. Cai, H. C. Yuan, J. H. Seo, J. Ma, Z. Ma, “Flexible radio-
frequency single-crystal germanium switch on plastic substrates,”
Applied Physics Letters, 104, 163501 (2014).
Chapter 3
PROGRESS IN POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE RECYCLING
ABSTRACT
*
Corresponding Author address: Email:[email protected].
1. INTRODUCTION
2. VIRGIN PET
material for many applications and is widely used for making liquid
containers (bottles). It has excellent thermomechanical and chemical
properties [1]. Many companies produce virgin PET giving it different
trade names [2]. Some of the common trade names of commercially
available PET are summarized in Table 1.
Commercial PET has a wide range of intrinsic viscosity [η] that varies
from 0.45 to 1.2 dL.g-1 with a polydispersity index generally equal to 2.
The PET repeating unit is shown in Figure 1.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. (Continued).
(c)
Figure 2. PET synthesis reactions (a) esterification of TPA with EG (b) trans-
esterificationof DMT with EG and (c) polymerization.
3. RECYCLED PET
Property Value
Intrinsic viscosity [η] >0.7 dL.g-1
Melting temperature Tm >240 °C
Water content <0.02 wt.%
Dye content <10 ppm
Yellowing index <20
Metal content <3 ppm
PVC content <50 ppm
Polyolefin content <10 ppm
3.1.2. Water
Water reduces Mw during POSTC-PET recycling through a hydrolysis
reaction. Moisture contamination should be below 0.02% to avoid the Mw
reduction. Most water content comes from the flake washing process but
can be reduced substantially by proper drying.
3.1.4. Acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde is present in virgin PET and POSTC-PET. It is a by-
product of PET degradation reactions. The migration of acetaldehyde into
food products from PET containers was a major concern in the early stages
of developing the POSTC-PET recycling process. The high volatility of
acetaldehyde means that it can be minimized by processing under vacuum
or by drying. Stabilizers such as (4-aminobenzoic acid, diphenylamine and
4,5dihydroxybenzoic acid) are added to PET in order to minimize the
amount of the generated acetaldehyde [20].
PET recycling has been one of the most successful and widespread
among polymer recycling. PET recycling methods can be categorized into
three groups namely primary, secondary and tertiary recycling. There is
also a so-called ‘zero-order’ recycling technique, which involves the direct
reuse of a PET waste material [22].
3.3.2. Stabilizers
PET processing stabilizers mainly have the function of reducing the
effect of PVC contamination and are also associated with thermal
stabilization. The majority of the PET process stabilizers are metal based
such as butyl tin mercaptide, antimony mercaptide and lead phthalate.
Torres et al. [27] reported that diisocyanates are more effective chain
extenders than BO and diepoxides; however, they reported product
discoloration when using diisocyanates.
PMDA has previously been reported as an effcient chain extender or
branching agent. It is thermally stable, produces no side products on
reaction with PET, is tetra functional, commercially available and
economical [35].
Using recycled polymer blends with virgin polymer of the same nature
is a common solution for upgrading post-consumer materials. Scarfato and
La Mantia [38], have studied blends of recycled PA6 and virgin PA. They
found that the blends prepared in specific conditions show rheological and
The moisture content of PET should not exceed 0.005%. So, recycled
chips and virgin pellets were dried under vacuum during 12H at 90°C in
order to eliminate the residual moisture. Then, blends of virgin/recycled
PET (PETV/R) were obtained using a Haake-Rheocard twin screw
extruder under the following conditions: die temperature 270°C, extrusion
speed 40 rpm and residence time of 5mn. The extrudate is cooled in water
then passed through a pelletizing unit. We considered the following
compositions of blends: 90/10, 70/30, 50/50 and 25/75 (PETV/ PETR
w/w).
M w 6,58.10 4
__
1, 54
Eq. 1
M n 3,29.10 4
__
1, 54
Eq. 2
H m - Hc
%
c H0m
*100 Eq. 3
0
where ΔHm 32,5cal/g , is the heat of fusion of a 100% crystalline PET
[43].
Dynamic and steady shear rheological measurements were carried out
on a dynamic rheometer MCR500 from Physica. This operates at both
controlled stress and strain modes. The rheological properties of molten
materials were determined using parallel plate geometry: 25 mm diameter
and a constant gap of 1 mm. Steady shear viscosity measurements were
carried out in a shear rate range varying from 0,1 to 300 s-1. For very
higher shear rates the data obtained were inconsistent due to the fact that
molten polymer ejected outside of measurement gap because of the
important centrifuge force that develops at high rotation speed of superior
plate.
For dynamic tests, the strain () values are chosen in order to perform
the frequency sweeps in the linear viscoelastic range (LVR) i.e., the
limiting strain under which the rheological parameters (η*, G’, G"…)
remained constant. For this purpose, preliminary strain sweeps were made,
at constant frequency (1 Hz) and temperature (270°C), and the LVR was
determined for each polymer. The frequency range investigated was 0,1-
100 Hz with a constant shear strain of 10% (within the LVR of polymers).
DSC analysis of PET-V/R blend pellets was carried out following this
experimental protocol:
DSC curves obtained from the cooling run of PET-V/R samples are
plotted on Figure 7.
temperature 260°C. The flow curves obtained for different blends are
reported on Figure 8. We remark that the apparent viscosity increases with
the increase of PETR percentage for the two types of blends PET-C/A and
PET-C/B. Also the viscosities of all the blends lie between those of pure
PET materials.
.
Figure 8. Viscosity η vs shear rate for PET-C/B blends (at 260°C).
state shear viscosity, the complex melt viscosity increases with virgin PET
concentration.
CONCLUSION
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[41] Berkowitz, S., (1984), Viscosity–molecular weight relationships for
poly(ethylene terephthalate) in hexafluoroisopropanol–
atmosphere, 6, 35, 36, 38, 104, 105, 173 capillary, 114, 173
atmospheric pressure, 6, 13, 49, 50, 51 carbon black (CB), viii, 2, 75, 85
audio tapes, 81 carbon dioxide, 4, 22, 24, 61, 62, 82, 104
automotive application, 70 carbon nanotubes (CNTs), viii, 2, 73, 74, 85
awareness, 162, 164 carboxyl, 9, 27, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 64, 168,
169, 170
carboxylic acid, 10, 36, 74
B
Carothers, 3, 86
catalyst, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,
bacterium, 56
50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 80, 161, 168, 185
band gap, 153
catalytic effect, 38, 163
bandwidth, 105, 128
cationic surfactants, 72
base, 26, 52, 59, 60, 72, 73, 74, 80
Celanex, 3, 65
batch and continuous processes, 10
cellulose, 132, 136, 139
Beijing, 148, 149, 181
chain rigidity, 18
biaxial orientation, 24, 160
chain scission, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 45,
bicarbonate, 49, 50
163, 169
biocompatibility, viii, 2, 62, 77, 143
challenges, vii, ix, 104, 107, 183
biodegradability, 43, 162
chaos, 144
biodegradable materials, 62
chemical bonds, 77
biodegradation, 56, 62
chemical degradation, 45
biomaterials, 79, 83
chemical etching, 120
biomedical applications, 76, 77, 82
chemical functionalization, 73
birefringence, 12
chemical industry, 46
bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate (bis-HET),
chemical properties, 111, 157, 159, 163
6
Chemical Recycling, 91, 183
bisphenol, 67, 68
Chemical Stability, 29
Bisphenol A, 74
chemical treatment, viii, 2, 77, 79
blends, 2, 24, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 81,
chemicals, 4, 8, 69, 112, 120, 165
84, 86, 96, 97, 156, 171, 172, 173, 174,
China, 80, 139, 143, 148, 149, 181
175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184,
chromatography, 31, 36, 37, 48
185
clarity, vii, 2, 44, 84, 158
bonding, 74, 140
cleavage, 30, 32, 165
branching, 14, 170
CO2, 104, 105
breakdown, 31, 116
cobalt, 45, 49
butadiene, 64, 65, 68, 70, 97
collagen sponges, 83
butadiene-styrene, 64, 65, 68, 70, 97
commercial, vii, 1, 2, 3, 10, 15, 25, 40, 44,
46, 48, 58, 63, 65, 68, 84, 159
C Commercial Pocan® PBT grades, 65, 66
communication, 118, 122, 130
calorimetry, 12, 15, 21 compatibility, 63, 67, 72
candidates, viii, 62, 73, 103, 107, 129 composites, 68, 71, 74, 75, 182
DOI, 147, 148 engineering, 3, 57, 62, 64, 68, 81, 83, 140,
doping, 125, 151 143, 146, 149, 153, 156, 182, 185
drawing, 29, 41, 42, 68, 160 entanglement network, 32
drink bottles, 49, 52, 81, 183 entropy, 47
drug delivery systems, 62 environment, 5, 35, 54, 56, 133
drying, 17, 32, 35, 44, 45, 163, 164, 168 environmental awareness, 162
DSC, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 35, 37, 50, environmental conditions, 29, 31
51, 67, 73, 159, 174, 176 environments, 30
DSM, 157 enzyme, 55, 56, 57, 62
ductility, 158 epoxy resins, 49, 82, 84
dyeing, 56, 77 equilibrium, 7, 15, 22, 34, 47, 49, 51, 62
dynamic mechanical analysis, 70 equipment, 69, 156, 160
dynamic mechanical properties, 16 EST, 97
dynamic viscosity, 178 ester, 2, 6, 9, 29, 34, 35, 49, 57, 58, 59, 60,
61, 62, 64, 68, 79, 165
ester bonds, 79
E
ETA, 177
etching, 111, 112, 115, 120, 134, 135
Egypt, 93
ethanol, 37, 48
elastic behavior, 57
ethylene, vii, 2, 3, 6, 9, 22, 36, 43, 46, 49,
elastomer, 57, 73, 147
50, 51, 54, 67, 69, 83, 97, 157, 159, 182,
elastomers, viii, 2, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65,
183, 184, 185
84, 96, 182
ethylene glycol, vii, 2, 3, 6, 9, 46, 49, 51,
electric field, 116, 117
54, 157
electrical conductivity, 27
ethylene oxide, 50, 83
electrical properties, 3, 28, 73, 106, 128
extrusion, 4, 18, 25, 30, 42, 43, 44, 58, 61,
electrocardiogram, 146
68, 76, 82, 160, 165, 171, 173, 184
electrodes, 146
electromagnetic, 104, 105, 117
electromagnetic waves, 104 F
electron, 14, 58, 59, 77, 78, 132
electron microscopy, 58, 59, 132 fabrication, 11, 12, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111,
electrospinning, 83 115, 116, 118, 120, 123, 124, 125, 127,
elongation, 18, 19, 41, 65, 73, 80, 172 129, 130, 131, 135, 143, 150
encapsulation, 133 fibers, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 18, 30, 40, 41,
endothelial cells, 83 59, 65, 66, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84,
endothermic, 20, 161, 176 158, 160, 172, 182
endotherms, 13, 14 film thickness, 29
energy, 14, 35, 38, 39, 48, 52, 56, 57, 71, films, vii, ix, 2, 4, 11, 12, 16, 25, 26, 27, 30,
77, 78, 104, 108, 114, 115, 117, 127, 36, 42, 43, 44, 53, 56, 59, 75, 77, 78, 79,
138, 149, 167 80, 81, 82, 84, 104, 109, 118, 119, 120,
122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 138, glass transition, 10, 11, 15, 16, 18, 21, 31,
150 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 70, 107, 129, 159,
filtration, 55 173, 175
flame, 71, 72, 85 glass transition temperature, 11, 61, 62, 65,
flatness, 116 66, 68, 70, 107, 129, 159, 173, 175
flexibility, 58, 61, 78, 107, 108, 110, 129, glassy polymers, 23, 43
130 glow discharge, 78
flexible electronics, vii, viii, 103, 105, 107, glycol, vii, 2, 3, 6, 9, 36, 46, 49, 50, 52, 54,
108, 110, 114, 118, 119, 120, 122, 128, 157, 166
129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, glycolysis, 45, 48, 49, 50, 51
139, 149 GNP, 25
flexural rigidity, 67, 108 GPC, 48, 159
flow curves, 178 grades, 4, 10, 39, 65, 66, 68, 69, 84
food, 4, 5, 21, 22, 37, 42, 57, 72, 81, 82, 84, Grafting from approaches, 80
85, 160, 164 granules, 38, 165
food packaging, 72, 81, 85, 160 graph, 127
food products, 164 graphite, 25
force, 22, 24, 58, 114, 174, 180 growth, 5, 58, 60, 75, 81, 84, 136
formation, 19, 21, 30, 34, 35, 36, 40, 41, 46, growth mechanism, 136
49, 56, 58, 63, 65, 67, 79, 124, 165, 168,
183
H
fouling, 77
fracture toughness, 19
hard segments, 57, 58
free energy, 47, 78
hardness, 53
free volume, 21, 22, 23, 24
HDPE, 68, 91, 172, 184
freedom, 17, 68
health, 57, 164, 167
FTIR, 30, 50, 74, 75
health risks, 167
fuel cell, 75
heart valves, 82
functionalization, 73, 74, 77
heat capacity, 15, 20, 21
fusion, 13, 28, 174, 176, 185
heat transfer, 40
heating rate, 14, 38
G helium, 22
heterogeneity, 165
gallium, 135 high strength, 66, 71, 73, 82
gasification, 46 humidity, 4, 24, 29, 30, 31
gel, 48, 83, 140 hydrazine, 53, 79
gel permeation chromatography, 48 hydrocarbons, 29
genome, 83 hydrogen chloride, 163
geometry, 76, 174 hydrogenation, 46
germanium, 7, 126, 132, 135, 144, 150, 153 hydrolysis, 3, 29, 30, 31, 32, 45, 47, 49, 54,
glass fibers, 65, 66 55, 56, 163, 167, 183
PET/PP Blends, 69 110, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121,
petroleum, 2, 45, 156 122, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 155,
PETW, 37, 43, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,
photodegradation, 46 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171,
photodetector, 144, 151, 153 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179,
photodetectors, 132, 144 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185
photolithography, 115, 120 poly(propylene) (PP), 64, 69, 83, 91, 97,
photonics, 144, 145, 149 183
photons, 77 poly(tetramethylene oxide) (PTMO), 59, 60
physical and mechanical properties, 53, 58 poly(vinyl chloride), 18, 168
physical crosslinks, 57 poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), 61, 81
physical properties, 25, 29, 44, 50, 63, 72, PolyActive®, 62
107 polyamide (PA), 3, 24, 60, 64, 66, 68, 111,
physical treatments, 77 171, 184
physicochemical properties, vii, 1, 2 polyamide fiber, 3
physics, 149 polyamides, 4, 17, 24, 66
Plasma treatments, 77 polybutadiene, 70
plastic deformation, 18 polycarbonate, 64, 68
plastic products, 44 polycarbonate (PC), 4, 64, 68, 70, 91, 106,
plasticization, 31 107, 130
plasticizer, 40, 53, 56 polycondensation, viii, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12,
plastics, 3, 37, 44, 62, 107, 128, 167 60, 158, 165, 170, 183
platelets, 23, 24 polycondensation process, viii, 2, 158
PMDA, 170 polydimethylsiloxanes, 60
PMMA, 91 polydispersity, 31, 157
point defects, 17 polyesters, ix, 3, 6, 8, 10, 29, 31, 49, 60, 64,
Poisson ratio, 74 84, 155, 182, 184
polar, 56, 69, 78 polyether, 58, 60, 61
poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), vii, 1, 3, polyethylene terephthalate, ix, 155, 181,
4, 5, 17, 36, 58, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 182, 183
84, 96 polyhydroxyether, 67
poly(ester-ether)s (TPEEs), 57, 58, 59, 60, polyimide, 107, 108, 133, 152
61, 62, 64 polymer, vii, ix, 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 21,
poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), vii, viii, 22, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39,
ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 56, 57, 60,
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 62, 63, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 77, 80,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 83, 84, 85, 98, 136, 155, 158, 164, 165,
36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 171, 172, 174, 176, 178, 181, 182, 183,
47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 185
58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, polymer blends, 171, 176, 178, 181, 185
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, polymer chain, 4, 11, 12, 31, 45, 48, 57, 77,
81, 82, 84, 90, 91, 103, 106, 107, 109, 165
polymer composites, 75
polymer films, 36
R
polymer matrix, 21, 72, 73
radar, 104
polymer media, 30
radiation, 77, 105
polymer nanocomposites, 73, 98
radical polymerization, 80
polymer structure, 29
radicals, 36, 77, 78
polymeric chains, 53
radio, viii, 69, 103, 104, 153
polymerization, viii, 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 17, 25,
rate of change, 34
26, 40, 42, 72, 73, 77, 78, 80, 158, 159,
raw materials, 46, 82, 84, 165
161, 181
reactant, 8, 9, 47
polymers, viii, 2, 10, 15, 16, 18, 21, 23, 24,
reaction mechanism, 45
26, 27, 36, 40, 43, 49, 58, 63, 64, 71, 73,
reaction medium, 7
75, 76, 82, 84, 100, 131, 156, 159, 172,
reaction rate, 8, 33, 50
173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180, 181
reaction temperature, 7, 51, 55, 169
polyolefins, 43
reaction time, 7, 46, 47, 50, 55, 79
polypropylene, 83
reactions, 6, 9, 18, 29, 34, 36, 44, 47, 53, 54,
polyurethanes, 49, 53, 82, 84, 98
56, 64, 69, 73, 75, 79, 120, 157, 159,
polyvinylchloride, 182
163, 167, 168, 169, 170
population, 14, 47
reagents, 165
potassium, 52, 54
reality, 6
Power factor, 28
recovery, 47, 57, 58, 80, 167
preparation, iv, viii, 2, 17, 64, 72, 80, 82,
recrystallization, 16, 21
84, 116, 130, 178
recycling, v, vii, viii, ix, 2, 5, 18, 43, 44, 45,
principles, 46, 153, 165
46, 49, 51, 54, 55, 57, 70, 84, 91, 92,
processability, vii, 1, 64, 65, 70, 84, 85
155, 156, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167,
Processing, viii, 2, 38, 133, 173, 182, 184
168, 169, 180, 181, 182, 183
proliferation, 84
reform, 39
propagation, 114
regenerate, 45
propylene, 50, 64, 69, 83, 91, 97, 183
regeneration, 83
protection, 53, 112
reinforcement, 71, 72, 81, 85
purification, 9, 51, 54, 74
reinforcements, 65
PVC, 18, 44, 53, 91, 162, 163, 168, 172,
relaxation, 12, 19, 23, 26, 27
184
relaxation times, 12, 27
PVP, 38
reliability, 106
pyrolysis, 9, 45
renewable energy, 138
reprocessing, 18, 44, 84, 165, 168
Q requirements, viii, 12, 22, 104, 162
researchers, 46, 110, 114, 161, 162, 170,
quantitative estimation, 34 171
quaternary ammonium, 53, 72 residue, 6, 45, 53
resins, 32, 49, 81, 82, 84
resistance, vii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 29, 43, 53, 62, 64, signals, 15, 120, 122, 125, 127
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 81, 82, 84, 85, signal-to-noise ratio, 105
118, 123, 125, 129 silicon, 108, 111, 122, 130, 132, 133, 134,
resistive (lossy) component, 117 136, 137, 139, 141, 144, 145, 152, 153
resolution, 15, 115 simulation, 13, 119
resources, 2, 156 single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs),
response, 105, 110, 116, 133, 144 73, 74
RF applications, vii, ix, 104, 105 SiO2, 112, 113, 114
RF loss, 106, 128 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), 19, 75
rheological behavior, ix, 25, 156 smooth muscle, 83
rheology, 45, 184, 185 smooth muscle cells, 83
room temperature, 15, 19, 52, 53, 58, 62, society, 162
70, 108, 160 sodium, 24, 49, 50, 52, 74
roughness, 43, 78, 112 sodium dodecyl sulfate, 74
rubber, 40, 121 sodium hydroxide, 50
rubbery state, 11 soft segments, 57, 58, 59, 62
SOI, 112, 113, 114, 125, 130
solar cells, viii, 103, 135, 139, 149
S
solid phase, 17
solid state, 10, 60, 64, 72, 158, 183
sacrificial layer, 113, 114
Solid state post-polycondensation, 10
scanning calorimetry, 12, 16, 21
solid waste, 165
scattering, 12, 19, 75, 118
solubility, 3, 7, 22, 23, 24, 48, 62
scavengers, 25
solution, 37, 40, 54, 55, 73, 111, 112, 113,
science, 71, 149, 182
114, 131, 171, 173
SCP, 97
solvent casting, 72
segregation, 44
solvents, 4, 45, 107
selectivity, 51, 112
species, 35, 36, 75, 77
self-assembly, 138, 150
specific heat, 20
semiconductor, 28, 108, 110, 120, 122, 123,
specific surface, 28, 77
126, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 144,
specifications, 106
149, 150
spectroscopy, 24, 25, 26, 30, 74
semicrystalline polymer, 11, 14, 30, 175
spherulites, 14
sensitivity, 170
stability, vii, 2, 4, 5, 7, 16, 21, 25, 30, 32,
sensors, viii, 103, 112, 130, 131, 164
36, 37, 38, 53, 58, 64, 68, 84, 129, 168,
shape, 2, 18, 30, 39, 58, 108, 115, 116, 130
170, 171, 183
shear, 174, 177, 178, 179
stabilization, 64, 70, 168, 183
shear rates, 174, 177
stabilizers, 168
shock, 11, 62
state, vii, viii, ix, 2, 10, 11, 18, 23, 34, 40,
showing, 76, 119
58, 60, 64, 72, 114, 117, 156, 158, 177,
SIC, 12
179, 181, 183, 185
side chain, 27, 84
steel, 53
stress, 12, 41, 71, 74, 174, 178 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 60, 61, 62,
stretching, 11, 22, 38, 39, 160 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 79, 107, 108,
structural changes, 182 116, 125, 129, 130, 131, 157, 159, 160,
structural characteristics, 184 161, 162, 168, 169, 173, 174, 175, 177,
structure, 5, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 29, 178
30, 37, 41, 44, 55, 58, 68, 72, 75, 76, temperature dependence, 13, 27
117, 118, 123, 124, 127, 131, 159, 170, temperature-modulated calorimetry
176 (TMDSC), 15, 21
styrene, 64, 65, 69, 70, 80 tensile strength, 18, 29, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79
styrene copolymers, 65 tension, 63, 76, 160
substrate, vii, viii, 56, 104, 105, 107, 109, terephthalic acid, vii, 2, 3, 6, 7, 34, 54, 55,
110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 56, 60, 157
118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, Terylene, 3, 5, 81
128, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 152, 153 test procedure, 183
Sun, 132, 134, 135, 144, 145 tetrachloroethane, 173
surface area, 10, 28, 71, 75 textile industry, 3, 81
surface energy, 13, 71, 77 textiles, 3, 30, 72, 85, 131
surface modification, viii, 2, 72, 74, 76, 78, TGA, 37, 38, 51
79, 80, 83 thermal analysis, 12, 15, 19, 161, 173
surface properties, viii, 2, 77 thermal and rheological, ix, 156
surface tension, 75 thermal behavior, 181, 184
surface wettability, viii, 2, 77 thermal decomposition, 38
susceptibility, 62 thermal degradation, 7, 10, 34, 36, 38, 156,
sustainable development, 46, 165 168
synthesis, vii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 46, 49, 53, thermal energy, 167
59, 60, 62, 84, 156, 159, 181, 183 thermal oxidation, 112
synthesized copolymers, 25 thermal oxidative degradation, 37
synthetic fiber, 5 thermal properties, viii, 16, 18, 21, 37, 61,
69, 104
thermal stability, vii, 2, 7, 16, 21, 38, 84,
T
129, 168, 170
thermal treatment, 17, 175
target, 67, 111, 113, 114
thermodynamics, 181
techniques, 14, 17, 25, 41, 46, 57, 73, 77,
thermograms, 12, 173, 175
105, 120, 123, 128, 171
thermogravimetric analysis, 38
technology, 3, 18, 41, 56, 63, 128, 129, 133,
thermoplastic, vii, 1, 2, 3, 57, 58, 59, 64, 68,
136, 153, 162, 181
70, 84, 136, 182
telecommunications, 69
Thermoplastic copolyester elastomers, 57,
TEM, 58, 59
63
temperature, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15,
thermoplastic polyester, vii, 1, 2, 3, 64, 182
16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29,
thermoplastics, 58, 82
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,
thin films, 26, 118