Recent Developments in The Chemical Recycling of PET: March 2012
Recent Developments in The Chemical Recycling of PET: March 2012
Recent Developments in The Chemical Recycling of PET: March 2012
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Recent Developments in
the Chemical Recycling of PET
Leian Bartolome1, Muhammad Imran2, Bong Gyoo Cho3,
Waheed A. Al-Masry2 and Do Hyun Kim1
1Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
2King Saud University
3Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources
1,3Republic of Korea
2Saudi Arabia
1. Introduction
Poly(ethylene terephthalate), more commonly known as PET in the packaging industry and
generally referred to as ‘polyester‘ in the textile industry, is an indispensable material with
immense applications owing to its excellent physical and chemical properties. On the other
hand, due to its increasing consumption and non-biodegradability, PET waste disposal has
created serious environmental and economic concerns. Thus, management of PET waste has
become an important social issue. In view of the increasing environmental awareness in the
society, recycling remains the most viable option for the treatment of waste PET. Among the
various methods of PET recycling (primary or ‘in-plant’, secondary or mechanical, tertiary
or chemical, quaternary involving energy recovery), only chemical recycling conforms to the
principles of sustainable development because it leads to the formation of the raw materials
from which PET is originally made. Chemical recycling utilizes processes such as
hydrolysis, methanolysis, glycloysis, ammonolysis and aminolysis. In a large collection of
researches for the chemical recycling of PET, the primary objective is to increase the
monomer yield while reducing the reaction time and/or carrying out the reaction under
mild conditions. Continuous efforts of researchers have brought great improvements in the
chemical recycling processes. This paper reviews methods for the chemical recycling of PET
with special emphasis on glycolytic depolymerization with ethylene glycol. It covers the
researches, including the works by the authors, on various processes and introduces recent
developments to increase monomer yield. Processes including sub- and supercritical,
catalytic, and microwave-assisted depolymerization are discussed. This paper also presents
the impact of the new technologies such as nanotechnology on the future developments in
the chemical recycling of PET.
with EG. Synthesis of PET from either process involves two reaction steps as shown in Fig. 1.
The first step (Figs 1a, 1b) is the formation of an intermediate monomer bis(2-hydroxyethyl
terephthalate) (BHET) with the release of a small molecule, which is either water or
methanol. The second is the polycondensation of BHET to produce PET in melt phase with
the release of EG under high vacuum (Scheirs, 1998; Scheirs & Long, 2003).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1. Reaction scheme for PET synthesis. BHET is first formed from the reaction of either
(a) TPA and EG, or (b) DMT and EG, and (c) eventually polymerized to PET.
and 265 ⁰C, while more crystalline PET melts at 265 ⁰C. Virgin PET is capable of
morphological and structural reorganization, which is attributed to its multiple endothermic
transitions. This leads to better crystal structures as temperature increases (Awaja & Pavel,
2005).
From its main applications, PET is mainly classified as fiber-grade or bottle-grade. These
grades differ mainly in molecular weights, intrinsic viscosity, optical appearance, and
production recipes. Fiber-grade PET has a number-average molecular weight (MWn) of
15,000 to 20,000 g/mol and intrinsic viscosity (IV) of 0.40 to 0.70 dL/g. Bottle-grade PET
average molecular weight ranges from 24,000 to 36,000 g/mol and IV from 0.70 to 0.85
dL/g. (Awaja & Pavel, 2005; Gupta & Bashir, 2002).
PET‘s popularity has risen tremendously since it discovery in the early 1940s. In the year
2000, the global PET production capacity exceeded 33 million metric tons per year
(Rieckmann, 2003). The total global consumption has risen from 11.8 million metric tons in
1997 (Paszun & Spychaj, 1997) to 23.6 million in 2005 (Pohler, 2005, as cited in Karayannidis
& Achilias, 2007) and 54 million in 2010 (IHS, 2011). It is expected to grow by 4.5% per year
from 2010 to 2015. In Europe and America, the rise of PET consumption is mainly
68 Material Recycling – Trends and Perspectives
maintained by PET bottle production while in Asia, the expansion of PET use is related to
the higher production of fibers, due to the shift of fiber production from the industrialized
countries to low-wage countries.
Along with the widespread application of PET is the inevitable creation of large amounts of
PET waste. PET does not have any side effects on the human body, and does not create a
direct hazard to the environment. However, due to its substantial fraction by volume in the
waste stream and its high resistance to the atmospheric and biological agents, it is
considered as a noxious material (Paszun & Spychaj, 1997). With the increase in the amount
of PET wastes, its disposal began to pose serious economical and environmental problems.
In view of the increasing environmental awareness in the society, recycling remains the
most viable option for the treatment of waste PET. Environmental and economic
considerations as well as energy conservation issues pushed the wide-scale recycling of PET
(Nir et al., 1993); it was not simply a trend or a new marketing strategy to make a profit
(Grasso, 1995, as cited in Shukla & Kulkarni, 2002). The recycling of PET does not only serve
as a partial solution to the solid waste problem but also contributes to the conservation of
raw petrochemical products and energy. Products made from recycled plastics can result in
50-60% capital saving as compared to making the same product from virgin resin (Sinha et
al., 2008). Nevertheless, Welle noted that the main driving force in PET recycling is not cost
reduction, but the business sector’s embracing of sustainability ethics and the public’s
concern about the environment (Welle, 2011).
removal of contaminants, reduction of size by crushing and grinding, extrusion by heat, and
reforming (Aguado & Serrano, 1999). The more complex and contaminated the waste is, the
more difficult it is to recycle mechanically. Among the main issues of secondary recycling
are the heterogeneity of the solid waste, and the degradation of the product properties each
time it is recycled. Since the reactions in polymerization are all reversible in theory, the
employment of heat results to photo-oxidation and mechanical stresses, causing
deterioration of the product’s properties. Another problem is the undesirable gray colour
resulting from the wastes that have the same type of resin, but of different color.
2.3.1 Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis involves the depolymerization of PET to terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene
glycol by the addition of water in acidic, alkaline or neutral environment. The hydrolysis
products may be used to produce virgin PET, or may be converted to more expensive
chemicals like oxalic acid (Yoshioka et al., 2003). Concentrated sulfuric acid is usually used
for acid hydrolysis (Brown & O’Brien, 1976; Pusztaszeri, 1982; Sharma et al., 1985; Yoshioko
et al., 1994, 2001), caustic soda for alkaline hydrolysis (Alter, 1986), and water or steam for
neutral hydrolysis (Campanelli et al., 1993,1994a; Mandoki, 1986). Hydrolysis is slow
compared to methanolysis and glycolysis, because among the three depolymerizing agents
(i.e. water, methanol, ethylene glycol), water is the weakest nucleophile. It also uses high
temperatures and pressures. Another disadvantage of hydrolysis is the difficulty of recovery
of the TPA monomer, which requires numerous steps in order to reach the required purity.
2.3.2 Methanolysis
Methanolysis is the degradation of PET to dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and EG by
methanol. Disadvantages of this method include the high cost associated with the separation
and refining of the mixture of the reaction products. Also, if water perturbs the process, it
poisons the catalyst and forms various azeotropes. Before, methanolysis and glycolysis
were the methods applied on a commercial scale (Paszun, 1997), but today, it is not used for
PET production anymore, and the lack of usefulness of recovering DMT rendered the
methanolysis of PET to become obsolete (Patterson, 2007).
2.3.3 Glycolysis
As shown in Fig. 3, glycolysis is carried out using ethylene glycol to produce bis(2-
hydroxyethyl) terephthalate and other PET glycolyzates, which can be used to manufacture
unsaturated resins, polyurethane foams, copolyesters, acrylic coatings and hydrophobic
dystuffs. The BHET produced through glycolysis can be added with fresh BHET and the
mixture can be used in any of the two PET production (DMT-based or TPA-based) lines.
Recent Developments in the Chemical Recycling of PET 71
Diethylene glycol (Karayannidis et al., 2006), triethylene glycol (Öztürk & Güçlü, 2005),
propylene glycol (Güclü et al., 1998; Vaidya & Nadkarni, 1987), or dipropylene glycol
(Johnson & Teeters, 1991, as cited in Sinha et al., 2008) may also be used as solvent in PET
glycolysis.
Besides its flexibilty, glyclolysis is the simplest, oldest, and least capital-intensive process.
Because of these reasons, much attention has been devoted to the glycolysis of PET.
Numerous works have been published about PET glycolysis, wherein the reaction has been
conducted in a wide range of temperature and time. The works involving this process, from
1960, when Challa started to investigate the polycondensation equilibrium of melt glycolysis
(Challa, 1960; As cited in Patterson, 2007), up until now when researchers are focused on
developing more efficient glycolysis catalysts and investigating on the applications of the
glycolysis products, will be discussed in detail in the later part of this work.
O O
O C C OCH2CH2 HOCH2CH2OH
n EG
O O
HOCH2CH2OCH2CH2OH
DEG O C C O CH2CH2
m
Oligomers (2<m<n)
HOCH2CH2(OCH2CH2)2OH
TEG
O O O O
HOCH2CH2O C C OCH2CH2O C C OCH2CH2OH
BHET dimer
O O
HOCH2CH2O C C OCH2CH2OH
BHET
economically not viable, or the waste is toxic and hazardous to handle, the best waste
management option is incineration to recover the chemical energy stored in plastics waste in
the form of thermal energy. However, it is thought to be ecologically unacceptable due to
potential health risks from the air born toxic substances.
a b
Fig. 4. Reaction mechanism of uncatalyzed (a) and catalyzed (b) PET glycolysis.
weight ratio of 5, and catalyst/PET weight ratio of 0.01 can deliver 85.6% BHET yield (Xi et
al., 2005). Goje and Mishra also studied the optimum conditions of PET glycolytic
depolymerization at 197 °C, and they reported 98.66% PET conversion with the reaction
time of 90 minutes and PET particle size of 127.5 μm. The optimal PET particle size was the
size at which PET weight loss was maximum. They did not measure the BHET yield though,
because the reaction pathway they used produced DMT and EG instead of BHET (Goje &
Mishra, 2003).
Dayang et al. later used the products from PET glycolysis catalyzed by zinc acete to make
themally stable polyester resin via polyesterification with maleic anhydride and crosslinking
with styrene (Dayang et al., 2006). The synthesis of unsaturated polyester resin actually
dates back to 1964 (Ostrysz et al., 1964, as cited in Paszun & Spychaj, 1997). This unsaturated
polyester resin was later reinforced with natural fibers in the study made by Tan et al. to
produce a fiber composite with good mechanical properties (Tan et al., 2011).
Although metal salts are effective in increasing the PET glycolysis rate, it should be noted that
zinc salts, and presumably other metal salts, have a catalytic effect on glycolysis of PET only
below 245 °C, and apparently do not promote any further increase in the reaction rate above
that temperature due to mass transfer limitations (Campanelli et al., 1994b). Thus, a need to
develop new catalysts that can overcome this limitation. In 2003, Troev et al. introduced
titanium (IV) phosphate as a new catalyst. They reported that glycolysis in the presence of the
new catalyst was faster compared to that with zinc acetate. Their data showed that at 200°C,
150 minutes reaction time and 0.003 catalyst/PET weight ratio, the glycolyzed products from
titanium (IV) phosphate catalyzed reaction consisted of 97.5% BHET, which was significantly
higher than that of zinc acetate, which was 62.8 % (Troev et al., 2003).
Since lead and zinc are heavy metals known to have negative effects on the environment,
Shukla’s group started to develop milder catalysts that are comparatively less harmful to the
environment. They started with mild alkalies, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate,
and reported that the monomer yields (Refer to Table 2) were comparable with those of the
conventional zinc and lead acetate catalysts (Shukla & Kulkarni, 2002). They also reported
glacial acetic acid, lithium hydroxide, sodium sulfate, and potassium sulfate to have
comparable yields (Table 2) with those of the conventional heavy metal catalysts (Shukla &
Harad, 2005). They recently used the recovered BHET monomer to produce useful products
such as softeners and hydrophobic dyes for the textile industry (Shuka et al., 2008, 2009).
López-Fonseca et al. also used these eco-friendly catalysts in their study of catalyzed
glycolysis kinetics (López-Fonseca et al., 2010, 2011). The latest catalysts that Shukla’s group
developed are inexpensive and readily available metal chlorides, wherein zinc chloride
reportedly gave the highest BHET yield equal to 73.24% (Pingale et al., 2010).
Looking back to the number of catalysts previously discussed in this work, it is noticeable
that the BHET yield never reached the 90% mark. The restricted amount of BHET yield may
be because the reaction was not performed at temperatures above 245⁰C, since the
previously reported catalysts lose their effectiveness at increased temperatures anyway.
With the aim of increasing the BHET monomer yield at reduced reaction time, our group
developed catalysts that are highly selective and can work at elevated temperatures – metal
oxide catalysts. Metal oxides as glycolysis catalysts could provide a better alternative to
conventional catalysts in that they have high mechanical strength, are thermally stable, and
are cost effective. Metal oxides were used for other transesterification reactions before
(Helwani et al., 2009; Singh & Fernando, 2007), but they had not been applied in PET
glycolysis. In order to increase the metal oxide catalysts’ efficiency, we tried to increase the
surface area of active sites by fabricating them at nanoscale. Besides increasing the surface
area of the active sites, it is known that at nanoscale, the intrinsic properties of the catalysts
may change, leading to increased effectiveness compared to that of their bulk conterpart
(Heiz & Landman, 2007; Niederberger & Pinna, 2009). Fig. 5 (Imran et al., 2011; Wi et al,
2011) shows TEM images of the fabricated 60 nm (a) and 150 nm (b) silica nanoparticle used
as supports and the supports with the deposited metal oxide catalysts. The metal oxide
catalysts were deposited on the silica nanoparticle supports via a simple ultrasound assisted
precipitation method. Good deposition was observed especially for cerium oxide and
manganese oxide.
The oxides of zinc, manganese, and cerium deposited on silica nanoparticle support were
used as catalysts in a glycolytic reaction performed at 300 °C and 1.1 MPa with EG/PET
molar ratio of 11, and PET/catalyst weight ratio of 0.01. The reaction reached equilibrium
after 80 minutes, and the highest BHET yield reached more than 90%. Moreover, we found
out that the smaller the size of the support is, the better is the distribution of the catalysts on
the support. This could be due to the higher chances of contact between the catalyst and the
support because of the higher surface-area-to-volume ratio for smaller supports. The better
distribution of the catalysts resulted in higher catalytic activity.
solvents used in PET degradation (Wang et al., 2009b). Recently, they successfully applied Fe-
containing magnetic ionic liquid as a catalyst for PET glycolysis. They reported that this
catalyst has better catalytic activity than the conventional metal salts or the pure ionic liquid
with the amount of catalyst affecting the PET conversion and BHET selectivity (Wang et al.,
2010). Yue et al. followed this study by using basic ionic liquid, and reported that basic
[bmim]OH exhibits higher catalytic activity than [bmim] Br and [bmim] Cl.
Fig. 5. TEM images of the (a) 60 nm silica support fabricated via water-in-oil microemulsion
method, (b) 150 nm silica support from Stober method, (c) ZnO on 60 nm silica support,
(d) ZnO on 150 nm silica support, (e) CeO2 on 60 nm silica support, and (f) Mn3O4 on 150
nm silica support.
78 Material Recycling – Trends and Perspectives
They attained 100 % PET conversion with 71.2% BHET yield by performing the glycolysis at
190 ⁰C for 2 hours with EG/PET molar ratio of 10 and catalyst/PET weight ratio of 0.05 (Yue
et al., 2011). As can be deduced in this study, the recoverability and reusability of ionic
liquid catalyst permits the use of higher amount of catalyst.
back when zinc acetate was first used as catalyst to obtain about 60% BHET yield after 8
hours of reaction until when silica nanoparticle-supported metal oxide catalysts were
applied to obtain at least 90% yield after 80 minutes. Studies have already dealt with most of
the problems dealing with PET glycolysis, including unfeasibility of operation due to long
reaction times, low yields, severe conditions, and pollution problems. Researchers have
developed catalysts to increase the rate and BHET monomer yield, catalysts that are
environmentally friendly, catalysts that can be recovered and reused, a method that does
not require catalysts, and many others.
However, PET glycolysis is still far from its peak. Though researchers have found ways to
solve each problem separately, there is still no way to solve them all simultaneously. For
instance, eco-friendly catalysts deliver lower yields compared to the not-so-eco-friendly
ones (e.g. metal oxides). The main challenge that stands now is to deliver an efficient,
sustainable, environment friendly, and less energy demanding way to chemically recycle
PET. This may be an opportunity for researchers try to develop efficient and highly selective
catalysts that can be recovered and reused. There may be many other ways to break the
boundaries, and with the rapid advancement of technologies like nanotechnology, solutions
may be discovered in the near future. We believe that by exploring the possibilities of
technologies that have not yet been applied, great advancements on PET glycolysis can be
made. For instance, it has been reported that ultrasound can induce the scission of polymer
chains (Kuijpers et al., 2004). Ultrasound assisted depolymerization has been applied to
other depolymerization processes before (Sayata & Isayev, 2002; Sayata et al., 2004; Shim et
al., 2002), but it has not been explored in PET glycolysis yet. Nanotechnology, which is
growing by leaps and bounds may also be exploited to develop more highly efficient
glycolytic depolymerization of PET.
5. Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Resource Recyling R&D Center sponsored by 21C Frontier
R&D Program, the Center for Ultramicrochemical Process Systems sponsored by KOSEF,
the Basic Science Research Program through a National Research Foundation of Korea
(NRF) grant funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2010-0025671).
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