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Brain Development and the Role of Experience in the Early Years

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Brain Development and the Role

of Experience in the Early Years
ADRIENNE L. TIERNEY
Harvard Graduate School of Education

CHARLES A. NELSON III

Children’s Hospital Boston
Harvard Medical School

T
he past 30 years of research have provided a new and deeper ment can play a role; for example, it
understanding of the brain and its role in psychological is well known that the lack of nutrition
functions. In particular, researchers now have a better sense of (e.g., folic acid) and the presence of toxins
how brain development affects the development of behavior. (e.g., alcohol) can both deleteriously influ-
Measurement techniques such as electroencephalogram (EEG) ence the developing brain. In contrast, much
of brain development that occurs postna-
and event related potentials (ERP) can be used to study infants,
tally is experience-dependent and defined by
children, and adults, and this flexibility has allowed researchers gene–environment interactions. Below we
to investigate a variety of developmental processes. provide brief descriptions of the anatomical
changes that characterize the early stages of
Research using these measures on the on experience has helped refine researchers’ brain development.
developing brain has clarified several argu- understanding of how developmental pro-
ments about the nature of child development cesses are fueled. Neurulation
and informed debates such as those sur- In the following paragraphs, we will exam- About 2 weeks after conception, the devel-
rounding the state of the infant’s brain at ine some of the essential ideas that have oping embryo has organized itself into a
birth (whether it is a “blank slate” or not), the helped researchers understand the develop- three-layered, spherical structure. In one area
identification of critical periods of develop- ment of the human brain in the early years of
ment, and the relative importance of genes life. We begin with an overview of the stages
versus environment. involved in the anatomical development of
It is important to note that, although the brain. Subsequently, we examine three
much of the research has been conducted topics that research in brain development Abstract
on infants, it is a collaborative effort has uncovered, clarified, and elaborated: how Research over the past several
between infant and animal research that development is hierarchically structured, decades has provided insight into the
has uncovered the neurobiological princi- such that later development depends on early processes that govern early brain
ples that govern development in humans. development; how experience in the first year development and how those processes
Researchers have made use of the homology of life modulates the plasticity of the brain; contribute to behavior. In the following
that exists among developing nervous sys- and how early deprivation has strong and last- article, we provide an overview of early
tems of different species, and many of the ing effects on the brain. brain development beginning with a
cutting-edge ideas discussed in the develop- summary of the prenatal period. We
mental literature have their origins in animal Early Stages of Brain Development then turn to postnatal development
research—but they have been tested and
clarified in neurobehavioral experiments
with infants and young children. In humans,
researchers can investigate the neural corre-
lates of behavior whereas in animals they can
A n account of brain development in
the early years of childhood is only
complete if we first examine the ori-
gins of this process during the prenatal
months. Brain development is a protracted
and examine how brain functions are
built and how experience mediates
this process. Specifically, we discuss
findings from research on speech and
on face processing. The results of
dig deeper into the mechanisms that drive the process that begins about 2 weeks after con- this research highlight how the first
processes that these neural correlates reflect. ception and continues into young adulthood few years of life are a particularly
To this end, much of human brain research 20 years later. Brain development that occurs important period of development of the
in the past three decades has focused on the during the prenatal months is largely under brain.
brain basis of behavior. A more recent a focus genetic control, although clearly the environ-

No ve mbe r 2009 Z e ro to Three 9

 the marginal zone, which will contain axons driven by genes controlling calcium-
and dendrites. This proliferative stage con- regulated transcription factors (Aizawa
tinues for some time, with the consequence et al., 2004). Early dendrites appear as thick
that the newborn brain will have many more strands with few spines (small protuber-
neurons than the adult brain. The overpro- ances) that extend from the cell body. As
duction of neurons is eventually balanced by dendrites mature, the number and density
a process of apoptosis, or programmed cell of spines increases, which in turn increases
death. Apoptosis is responsible for a decrease the chances that a dendrite will make con-
in the cell numbers to adult levels and is com- tact with a neighboring axon. Connections
pletely under genetic control. between dendrites and axons are the basis
for synaptic connections between neurons,
Cell Migration which, as we will describe below, is essential
Photo: © iStockphoto.com/Andrey Prokhorov

After the cells are born, they travel to their for brain function.
final destinations. The cerebral cortex is
composed of multilayered tissue several mil- Synaptogenesis
limeters thick. It is formed by the movement A synapse is a point of contact between
of cells in an inside-out direction, begin- two brain cells, often two neurons and fre-
ning in the ventricular zone and migrating quently a dendrite and an axon. The first
through the intermediate zone, with the cells synapses are generally observed by about the
eventually reaching their final destination 23rd week of gestation (Molliver, Kostovic,
on the outside of the developing brain. The & Van der Loos, 1973), although the peak of
earliest migrating cells occupy the deepest production does not occur until some time
cortical layer, whereas the subsequent migra- in the first year of life. As is the case with
Synapse reduction, or pruning, is highly tions pass through previously formed layers neurons, massive overproduction of syn-
dependent on experience and serves as to form the outer layers. About 25 weeks after apses is followed by a gradual reduction.
the basis of much of the learning that conception, all six layers of the cortex will This process of synapse reduction, or prun-
occurs during the early years of life. have formed. ing, is highly dependent on experience and
The inside-out pattern of migration serves as the basis of much of the learning
described here is that of radial migration, that occurs during the early years of life. It
of this sphere, the cells thicken to form what which applies to about 70%–80% of migrating is important to note that the various struc-
is called the neural plate. This plate then folds neurons, most of which are pyramidal tures of the brain reach their peak of synapse
over onto itself, forming a tube that gradu- neurons and glia. Pyramidal neurons are production at different points. In the visual
ally closes first at the bottom and then at the the large neurons in the cortex that are cortex, for example, the peak is reached
top, much like a zipper. This creates the neu- responsible for sending signals to different somewhere between the 4th and 8th postna-
ral tube, the inner cells of which will lead to layers of the cortex and other parts of the tal month, but areas of the prefrontal cortex
the formation of the central nervous sys- brain. Glia are nonneuronal brain cells that do not reach their peak until the 15th postna-
tem (brain and spinal cord) while the outer are involved in the support of neuronal tal month. The difference in timing in peak
cells will give rise to the autonomic nervous processes (such as producing myelin or synapse production is important because it
system (nerves outside the brain and spinal removing debris, including dead brain cells). affects the timing of the plasticity of these
cord). In contrast, interneurons—relatively smaller regions; the later the peak synapse produc-
Once the neural tube is closed, it neurons that are involved in communication tion, the longer the region remains plastic.
becomes a three-vesicle structure and between pyramidal cells within a particular
shortly thereafter a five-vesicle structure. layer of the cortex—follow a pattern of Synapse Pruning
The different regions of tissue around tangential migration. The overproduction of synapses is fol-
the ventricles will become distinct brain lowed by a pruning back of the unused and
structures. The anterior portion of the tube Differentiation overabundance of synapses. Until the stage
will become the forebrain, which includes Once a neuron has migrated to its target of synaptogenesis, the stages of brain devel-
the cerebral hemispheres; the diencephalon destination, it generally proceeds along one opment are largely gene driven. However,
(the thalamus and the hypothalamus); of two roads: It can differentiate into a mature once the brain reaches the point where syn-
and the basal ganglia. The cells around the neuron, complete with an axon and dendrites, apses are eliminated, the balance shifts;
middle vesicle will become the midbrain, a or it can be retracted through apoptosis. the process of pruning is largely experience
structure that connects the diencephalon to Current estimates suggest that the number driven. As with synapse production, the tim-
the hindbrain. The rear-most portion of the of neurons that are retracted is between 40% ing of synapse pruning is dependent on the
tube will give rise to the hindbrain, which will and 60% (Oppenheim & Johnson, 2003). The area of the brain in which it occurs. In the
consist of the medulla oblongata, the pons, development of axons is facilitated by growth parts of the cortex involved in visual and
and the cerebellum. Finally, the cells that cones, small structures that form at the edge auditory perception, for example, pruning
remain will give rise to the spinal cord. of an axon. The cellular processes that occur is complete between the 4th and 6th year of
at the growth cone promote growth toward life. In contrast, pruning in areas involved in
Proliferation certain targets and away from others. Such higher cognitive functions (such as inhibitory
Once the general structure of the neural processes are driven by molecular guidance control and emotion regulation) contin-
tube has been laid out, the cells that line the cues as well as by anatomic structures at the ues through adolescence (Huttenlocher &
innermost part of the tube, called the ventric- tip of the growth cone. Dabholkar, 1997). The processes of overpro-
ular zone, proliferate at a logarithmic rate. As Dendrite formation occurs by a slightly duction of synapses and subsequent synaptic
these cells multiply, they form a second zone, different process, one that is thought to be reduction are essential for the flexibility

1 0 Z e ro to Three No ve mbe r 2009

required for the adaptive capabilities of the Although development continues into Sensitive Period: Plasticity Is
developing mind. It allows the individual to early adult years, early childhood represents Affected by Experience

T
respond to the unique environment in which a period particularly important to develop- he brain is much more sensitive to
he or she is born. Those pathways that are ment of a healthy brain. The foundations of experience in the first few years of
activated by the environment are strength- sensory and perceptual systems that are crit- life than in later years. The plasticity
ened while the ones that go unused are ical to language, social behavior, and emotion of the brain underlies much of the learning
eliminated. In this way, the networks of neu- are formed in the early years and are strongly that occurs during this period. In the lan-
rons involved in the development of behavior influenced by experiences during this time. guage example in the previous section, we
are fine-tuned and modified as needed. This is not to say that later development can- noted that infants are sensitive to most lan-
not affect these behaviors—on the contrary, guage sounds in the first half-year of life but
Myelination experiences later in life are also very impor- during the second half they begin to special-
The final process involved in the develop- tant to the function of the brain. However, ize in their native tongue at the expense of
ment of the brain is called myelination. In this experiences in the early years of childhood the broad sensitivity to nonnative language
process the axons of neurons are wrapped in affect the development of brain architec- sounds. The period of heightened sensitivity
fatty cells, which ultimately facilitates neu- ture in a way that later experiences do not. In to language exposure is not, however, a crit-
ronal activity and communication because the following pages we will elaborate on how ical period in the sense that infants can no
this insulation allows myelinated axons to experience affects development between longer learn the sounds of another language
transmit electrical signals faster than unmy- birth and 3 years of age. once it is over. In fact, 12-month-old infants
elinated axons. The timing of myelination given additional experience with speech
is dependent on the region of the brain in Brain Beginnings: Constructing a sounds from a nonnative language continue
which it occurs. Regions of the brain in cer- Foundation for the Future to be able to discriminate among sounds
tain sensory and motor areas are myelinated
earlier in a process that is complete around
the preschool period. In contrast, in regions
involved in higher cognitive abilities, such as
the prefrontal cortex, the process is not com-
T he development of the brain is a life-
long process. Indeed, recent research
suggests that the brain is capable of
changing throughout the lifespan (Crawford,
Pesch, & von Noorden, 1996; Jones, 2000;
(Kuhl et al., 2003).
Similarly, in the domain of face pro-
cessing, an index of development of visual
perception important to social behavior,
6-month-olds, 9-month-olds, and adults are
plete until adolescence or early adulthood Keuroghlian & Knudsen, 2007), although all equally capable of discriminating between
(for recent reviews see Nelson, de Haan, & perhaps not in all ways (e.g., humans do not two human faces, whereas 6-month-olds
Thomas, 2006; Nelson & Jeste, 2008). “learn” to see or hear better as they age). alone can discriminate between two mon-
However, the changes that take place dur- key faces (Pascalis, de Haan, & Nelson, 2002).
Summary ing the early years are particularly important However, 6-month-olds given 3 months of
In general, brain development begins a because they are the bedrock of what comes experience viewing a range of monkey faces
few weeks after conception and is thought to after. Higher level functions are dependent retain the recognition ability at 9 months
be complete by early adulthood. The basic on lower level functions, the evidence for (Pascalis et al., 2005). Thus, the plasticity
structure of the brain is laid down primarily which is primarily in the basic cognitive pro-
during the prenatal period and early child- cesses and sensory perceptual systems. When
hood, and the formation and refinement of infants are born, their brains are prepared for
neural networks continues over the long certain types of experience. For example, as
term. The brains’ many functions do not discussed below, infants’ brains are tuned to
develop at the same time nor do their devel- the sounds of virtually all languages, but with
opmental patterns follow the same time experience, their brains become most tuned
frame. Although basic sensation and per- to their native language (see Kuhl, 2004, for
ception systems are fully developed by the discussion). This perceptual bias is the basis
time children reach kindergarten age, other for learning language; the brain is partially
systems such as those involved in memory, tuned to be sensitive to language sounds but
decision making, and emotion continue to not so broadly tuned as to be sensitive to all
develop well into childhood. The founda- possible sounds.
tions of many of these abilities, however, are Subsequent language development builds
constructed during the early years. on this initial sensitivity. Within the first year
The principles of anatomical change of life, infants learn to discriminate among
described above are essential to the matu- sounds that are specific to the language they
Photo: © iStockphoto.com/Jelani Memory

ration and development of the brain. These are exposed to in their particular environ-
processes are in turn responsible for the ment. Before the time they are 6 months
development of a vast repertoire of behav- old, infants can discriminate among sounds
iors that characterizes the early years of life. of almost any language. Between 6 and 12
In terms of motor development, both synap- months, the brain begins to specialize in dis-
tic pruning and myelination are responsible criminating sounds of the native language
for the improved precision and speed of coor- and loses the ability to discriminate sounds
dinated movement. In addition, they are in nonnative languages (Kuhl, Tsao, & Liu,
important in the development of cognitive 2003). This narrowing of perceptual sensitiv-
skills. Improved perception of speech sounds ity is important because it is related to later
Early childhood represents a period par-
and face recognition, for example, are likely language ability in that better discrimination
ticularly important to development of a
the result of synaptic reorganization, a pro- of native language sounds predicts better lan-
healthy brain.
cess that is dependent on experience. guage skills later in life (Kuhl, 2004).

No ve mbe r 2009 Z e ro to Three 1 1

 study has found that institutionalization at a
young age leads to severe consequences in the
development of both brain and behavior. The
study is following three groups of children: an
Photo: Courtesy of the Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Children’s Hospital Boston

Institutionalized group, children who have

lived virtually all their lives in an institutional
setting in Bucharest, Romania; a Foster Care
group, which includes children who were
institutionalized at birth and then placed
in foster care (at a mean age of placement
of 22 months); and a Never Institutional-
ized group, which includes children living
with their biological families in the Bucharest
region (for details see Zeanah et al., 2003).
As discussed above, for healthy development
of brain circuits, the individual needs to have
healthy experiences; the lack of these may
lead to the underspecification and miswiring
of brain circuits. Children raised in institu-
tional settings in Romania lack experiences
that stimulate healthy growth and thus we
would expect to see consequent “errors” in
brain development giving rise to a range of
problems. Indeed this is the case; the institu-
tionalized children show patterns of physical
and cognitive growth that are stunted and
Measurement techniques such as EEG allow researchers to investigate a variety of delayed, and they have very different patterns
developmental processes. of brain activity when compared to children
who have never been institutionalized (Mar-
that characterizes brain processes during this A similar phenomenon exists in visual shall, Fox, & the BEIP Core Group, 2004). In
time suggests that although the brain is par- acuity, which is demonstrated by the natu- addition, the effect of timing of experience is
ticularly sensitive to experiences that occur, ral occurrence of cataracts, rather than the also important in preventing and amelioriat-
experience-dependent change is not limited laboratory manipulations discussed above. ing the effects of deprivation: children who
to this short window. The sensitive period is Maurer, Lewis, Brent, and Levin (1999) were placed in foster care before they were 2
effectively extended by specific experience. reported that for infants who are born with years old show patterns of brain activity that
cataracts, a few moments of visual experience are more similar to never-institutionalized
after the cataracts have been removed and children than do those placed in foster care
replaced with new lenses leads to substantial after they turn 2 (Marshall, Reeb, Fox, & the
Learn More improvements in visual acuity. This effect is BEIP Core Group, 2008). The same general
stronger the sooner after birth this corrective trends are also observed for IQ (Nelson et al.,
Web Sites procedure takes place. The longer the cata- 2007) and language (Windsor, Glaze, Koga,
National Scientific Council on the racts are left untreated, however, the lower & the BEIP Core Group, 2007). These results
Developing Child the effect of experience on the outcome. support the idea that the lack of good quality
www.developingchild.net/pubs/wp.html As demonstrated above, both speech and experience has detrimental effects on brain
faces are initially processed by a broadly function and that once the child is older than
Center on the Developing Child at
tuned window that then narrows with expe- 2 years these effects tend to be worse.
Harvard University
rience, yet the window can remain broader if An important distinction that must be
www.developingchild.harvard.edu/
experience includes a wide range of inputs. made here is between deprivation and enrich-
Laboratories of Cognitive These studies suggest that the early period ment. The studies described earlier took
Neuroscience at Children’s Hospital of life is characterized by sensitive periods place in the context of deprivation, in com-
Boston that are dependent on the pattern of input parison to a baseline norm in which certain
www.childrenshospital.org/research/brainworks from the environment. In response to cer- needs of the child are met, not enrichment
tain input, the networks become biased, and beyond the norm, and they clearly showed
Articles future modifications become more difficult. that a child deprived of a certain quality of
A Neurobiological Perspective on Early experience will have abnormal brain devel-
Human Deprivation Deprivation: Environmental opment. These findings do not indicate,
C. A. Nelson (2007). Child Development Effects on Brain Structure and however, whether environments that provide
Perspectives, 1, pp. 13–18. Function more than the baseline norm will produce

T
How the Timing and Quality of Early he effects of experience go beyond brain development that is in some way supe-
Experiences Influence the Development the simple modulation of plasticity. In rior. So although the BEIP studies do suggest
of Brain Architecture fact, experience shapes the structure that a lack of good quality experience is detri-
S. E. Fox, P. Levitt, & C. A. Nelson (in press). Child of the brain, a finding that has been demon- mental, they do not provide evidence for the
Development. strated by the Bucharest Early Intervention effects of enriched experience.
Project (BEIP). This ongoing longitudinal

1 2 Z e ro to Three No ve mbe r 2009

Conclusions essential to later development—that is, the that adversely affect infants and young chil-
building blocks upon which development dren need to be remedied before they have

I n this article we have attempted to

illustrate how the developmental neu-
rosciences can shed light on early
childhood development. Prenatal develop-
ment is largely driven by genetic processes,
depends—leads to severe consequences in
both brain structure and function. Studies of
institutionalized children suggest that qual-
ity psychosocial experiences are necessary for
long lasting consequences on both brain and
behavior. Intervening in adverse circum-
stances is more successful if it occurs before
brain processes become entrenched and in
many of which are sensitive to the biochem- the development of a healthy brain. turn harder to rewire. A
ical makeup of the mother’s body but are It is important to emphasize that the indi-
under genetic regulation. In postnatal devel- vidual does not play a passive role in this
opment, however, the environment plays a process. By experience we do not mean events Adrienne L. Tierney, MSc, EdM, is a doctoral
crucial role in fostering development, and and circumstances that simply happen in an student in human development at the Harvard
the interactions between genetics and expe- individual’s life; rather, we define experience as Graduate School of Education. She has a back-
riences account for most developmental the interaction between the individual and her ground in neuroscience and is currently involved
outcomes. Brain research suggests that devel- environment. The individual is an agent that in the Mind, Brain, and Education program. Her
opment is a hierarchical process of wiring can shape her experience (Scarr & McCartney, dissertation research is on brain development in
the brain, in that higher level processes build 1983). For example, a child who appears happy children with autism.
on a foundation of lower level processes. For in response to a caregiver singing a song may
elicit more singing. This child consequently Charles A. Nelson III, PhD, is a professor of
example, language development depends pediatrics and neuroscience at Harvard Medical
critically on sensory and perceptual develop- may have more experience with songs, which
could affect her language development and the School and the Richard David Scott Chair in
ment (e.g., discrimination of speech sounds). Pediatric Developmental Medicine Research at
The types of stimuli infants and children are brain processes that underlie it.
Much of brain research is descriptive and Children’s Hospital Boston. A developmental cog-
exposed to help shape the brain and behav- nitive neuroscientist, Nelson’s interests lie broadly
ior. Although the brain may come equipped simply tells us how the brain contributes to
the development of behavior that is typical of with how experience influences brain develop-
with biases for certain perceptual informa- ment, with a particular interest in the processing
tion, such as for speech, language, or faces, young children (e.g., language and face pro-
cessing). However, some of this research has of faces and facial expressions. He has conducted
it is the specific speech, language, and range research on typically developing infants and chil-
of faces they are exposed to that drives sub- implications on the decisions we make for
young children. Research on deprivation can dren and children who have experienced early
sequent development. Depriving young biological and psychosocial adversity.
children of the kinds of experiences that are be used to make the case that environments

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