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Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread incorporated

with raw and boiled African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) root flours

Article · August 2016

DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560

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 International Journal of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences
ISSN: 2467-8708
Volume 2 No. 3: 125-136, (2016)
www.ijavs.org

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Chemical composition, physical and sensory

properties of bread incorporated with raw and boiled
African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) root flours.
*Akubor P.I
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria.
[email protected]

ABSTRACT:
This study assessed the chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of breads
supplemented with raw and boiled African palm root flours. Flours were prepared from raw
and boiled African fan palm roots and were used to substitute 10, 15,20,25,30,35,40,45 and
50% wheat flour, respectively in breads. The breads were assessed for chemical composition,
physical and sensory properties. The height, length, width and loaf volume as well as scores
for sensory attributes decreased with increased levels of raw and boiled root flours in the
breads. The bread containing 15% raw root flour had higher weight but occupied less volume
than the other breads. The bread produced with 15% raw and 20% boiled African fan palm
root flours were not significantly different (p>0.05) from 100% wheat flour bread in all the
sensory attributes evaluated. Raw and boiled African fan palm root flours could be used to
substitute up to 10 and 15 %, respectively wheat flour in bread without adversely affecting the
quality of the bread.

Keywords: African fan palm, Chemical composition, Bread, Sensory quality, Phytochemical
composition.

INTRODUCTION is also used to treat sore throat, bronchitis,

breathing disorder, loss of voice etc.
African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) (Barhet al., 2005). The chemical
also known as Borassus palm or elephant composition of various parts of African fan
palm grows wildly in the North central palm has been assessed (Gernah, 2012).
region of Nigeria. It is locally known as The root is rich in protein, fiber, vitamin C,
akuh in Tiv land of Benue state and odo carotenoids and phenols (Hynes and
among the Igalas of Kogi state of Nigeria. Lauglin, 2002). Anti-nutritional substances
The fruit pulp, seed and young seedling such as phytates (14.42mg/100g),
(root) are edible (Alli et al., 2010). The saponnins (3.37 mg/100 g), oxalates (2.3
cooked root is a regular snack food in areas mg/100g) and hydrocyanic acid
where African fan palm is grown. The root (0.55mg/100g) in the fan root were

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 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
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identified and quantified (Gernal,2012). Nigeria has been concentrated only on

The root is rich in bioactive compounds local carbohydrate rich resources such as
including vitamin C, carotenoids and cassava, corn and sorghum and protein
phenols which exert positive effects on rich resources from legumes and oil seeds
human health (Onimawo and Akubor, (Ayo and Nkama, 2004, Akubor and Eze,
2012). This further enhances the role of 2012). Bread containing African fan palm
African fan palm root as a functional food. root which is rich in phytochemicals would
The utilization of African fan palm root in offer great potential to improve health and
Nigeria is, however, not widely spread due prevent certain diseases. However, there is
to limited information on its nutritive value the need to determine the quality of such
and its poor storage properties. The root bread. The quality of bread depends on the
can be processed into flour to provide a properties of the raw materials and the
more stable form as well as enhancing the baking process. The most frequently
versatility of the root for other uses. Such assessed physical parameters of bread are
flour could be used in preparing products weight, volume and specific volume
in similar manner other flours are used. (Okpala and Akpu, 2014). Differences in
This would, however, depend on the the physical qualities of bread may be due
knowledge of its functional properties as to differences in flour protein contents,
quality attributes of developed foods are dough extensibility and strength of the
affected by functional properties of the flour (Okpala and Akpu, 2014). The sensory
flour (Badifu and Akubor, 2001). However, quality of food products plays a key factor
functional properties of foods are in the selection of food. The data obtained
influenced by processing conditions. from sensory evaluation would help to
Boiling is employed in the processing of identify potential buyers of the product
African fan root for human consumption. and the way in which the product can be
This process influences the physical, introduced into the food market. Thus, the
chemical and functional properties of objective of this study was to evaluate the
crops. Information on changes in boiled fan qualities of breads prepared from raw and
palm root would be useful in formulating boiled African fan palm root.
commercial products based on the flour.
Among ready-to-eat snacks, bread
MATERIALS AND METHODS
possesses attractive features which
include wide consumption, convenience Fresh African fan palm (Borassus
and good eating quality (Ayo and Nkama, aethiopium) roots were harvested from a
2004). These attributes make bread the local farm in Idah Township, Kogi state,
second most widely consumed non- Nigeria. Wheat flour (Golden penny
indigenous food product after rice in brand), sugar (Dangote brand), salt
Nigeria. However, consumers’ awareness (Dangote brand), margarine, dried yeast
of the need to eat high quality and healthy and powdered milk were purchased from a
foods is increasing. Therefore, the current local market in Idah Township, Nigeria. All
trend is to produce specialty breads from samples were stored in a refrigerator (6±
whole grain flour and other functional 2°C) prior to use. The study was carried out
ingredients. In this regard, the use of
composite flour for bread making in

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 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
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in the Food Chemistry Laboratory, Federal stored in a refrigerator at 10±2°C prior to

Polytechnic, Idah, Kogi State, Nigeria. use.

Preparation of raw African fan palm root Preparation of bread

flour
The bread samples were prepared as
The roots were washed in enough tap described by Akubor and Obiegbuna
water contained in a basin and peeled (2014). The recipe used for the preparation
manually with a sharp kitchen knife. The of the breads was composed of flour (50g),
roots were cut into thin slices (1 cm thick), sugar (4g), salt (2g), margarine (8g), water
soaked in sodium metabisulphite solution (25ml), yeast (1g) and powdered milk
(0.1%, w/v) for 20 min, sun dried (30±2°C) (10g). The rubbing method was used for
to constant weight, milled in a hammer mill the dry ingredients. The ingredients were
and sieved through 60 mesh weighed and yeast was creamed in a basin
sieve(0.01mm) (British standard). The flour with the milk-water mixture. A hole was
was packed in high density polyethylene made in the center of the flour blend and
bags HDPE bags and stored in a refrigerator the dissolved yeast was added. This was
prior to use. covered with cheese cloth and fermented
at 35°C. The remaining milk-water mixture,
Preparation of boiled African fan palm butter, sugar and salt were added and
root flour kneaded manually until smooth dough free
from stickiness was obtained. The
The washed roots were peeled manually remaining dough was returned to the
with sharp kitchen knife and then cooked basin, covered with cheese cloth and
to doneness in hot water containing 0.1% proofed at 35oC. The proofed doughs were
(w/v) sodium metabisulphite in aluminum then carefully brushed with egg and
pot with a lid over stove fire. The cooked transferred into fat greased pans and
roots were cut into thin slices with sharp baked at 220°C for 10 min in a baking oven.
knife, sun dried (30±2°C) to constant
weight, milled in hammer mill and sieved Physical evaluation of bread
through 6o mesh sieve (0.01mm) (British
standard). The flour was packed in HDPE Weight of bread was determined with
bags and stored in a refrigerator prior to weighing balance. Height, length and width
use. of bread were measured using meter rule.
Loaf volume was determined by seed
Flour blending displacement method (Akubor and
Obiegbuna, 2014). Loaf density was
Each of the raw and boiled root flours was calculated as weight/volume. Specific
used to substitute 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 35, 40, volume was calculated as loaf
45, 50 and 100% wheat flour in a Kenwood volume/sample weight.
food processor which was operated at full
speed (1200 rpm) for 10 min. The flour Chemical analyses
blends were packed in HDPE bags and

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Moisture content of samples was evaluation was carried out in a sensory

determined by hot air oven drying method evaluation laboratory under controlled
at 105°C to constant weight (AOAC, 2010). conditions of lighting and ventilation.
Ash, protein (micro-kjeldahl, N x 6.25),
crude fiber and fat (solvent extraction) Statistical analysis
contents were determined by the AOAC
(2010) methods. Calorie was calculated The experiments were laid out based on
using Atwater factors of 4 x % completely randomized design. Data were
carbohydrate, 4 x % protein, 9 x % fat and analyzed by analysis of variance using
then taking the sum. Sodium and statistical package for social sciences
potassium were determined by flame (SPSS) software version 17. Means where
photometry (AOAC, 2010). Phosphorous significantly different were separated by
was determined by the molybdovanadate least significant difference (LSD) test (Steel
method (AOAC, 2010). Lead, calcium iron, and Torrie, 1980). Significance was
magnesium, manganese and zinc were accepted at p<0.05.
determined using atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS model 707, IITA)
as described by the AOAC (2010) methods. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phytate was extracted with trichloroacetic
acid (TCA) and precipitated as ferric salt Physical properties of breads
using the procedures outlined by the AOAC The physical properties of breads prepared
(2010) methods. Oxalate was determined from raw and boiled African fan palm root
by the alkaline titration method (AOAC, flours are presented in Tables 1 and 2,
2010). Total phenol was determined as respectively. The height, length and width
described by Onimawo and Akubor (2012) of breads decreased steadily with the level
of raw or boiled African fan palm root flour.
Sensory evaluation of breads
However, at any level of addition, boiled
All the baked loaves were assessed using a African fan palm root flour produced bread
panel of 20 trained panelists who were with higher height. The weight increased
randomly selected from students and staff while the loaf volume decreased with the
of The Federal polytechnic, Idah based on level of raw and boiled fan root flours in
their familiarity with quality attributes of the breads. The breads containing raw
bread. A 5-point Hedonic scale where I flour had more weight but occupied less
represented dislike extremely and 5 like volume than that containing boiled African
extremely was used to evaluate the color, fan palm root flour. The density of the
texture, taste, flavor and overall breads increased with the level of raw and
acceptability of the loaves as described by boiled African fan palm root flours. The
Adeboye et al. (2013). The sliced loaves decrease in loaf volume may be due to low
were presented to the panelists in 3-digit protein contents of the flours due to
coded white plates. The order of dilution of wheat flour which resulted in
presentation of the samples to the low gluten content (Adeboye et al., 2013).
panelists was randomized. Clean tap water Flours with high gluten content have ability
was provided for the panelists to rinse to extend and trap CO2 produced during
their mouths in between evaluations. The

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fermentation (Onimawo and Akubor, as well as proofing time (Shittu et al.,

2012). 2007). The loaf weight is determined by
the amount of moisture and carbon
This process beneficially increases loaf
dioxide diffused out of the loaf during
volume of bread. The decrease in height
baking (Shittu et al., 2007).
and length of the breads may be due to
high water absorption capacity of African
fan palm root flour (Akubor and Eze, 2012),
Sensory properties of breads
which probably increased with the level of
the flours in the breads. Ingredient which The sensory properties of breads prepared
absorbs water during mixing reduces from raw and boiled African fan palm root
height of the product after baking. Another flours are given in Tables 3 and 4,
reason for the reduced height could be due respectively. The 100% wheat flour bread
to the reduced gluten contents of the was rated higher in all the sensory
blends following African fan palm root attributes assessed. The scores for all
flour addition. African fan palm root flour attributes decreased with the level of
could be considered a good source of African fan palm root flours. The breads
dietary fiber (3.3 %) (Akubor and containing up to 15% raw African fan palm
Eze,2012). The use of high dietary fiber root flour and 20% boiled African fan palm
flours in baking produces dough with high root flour were not significantly
water absorption capacity, mixing different(p>0.05) from the 100% wheat
tolerance and tenacity, and smaller flour bread in the sensory attributes. The
extensibility in comparison with those color of the most preferred African fan
obtained without fiber addition (Shittu et palm root based bread was inferior to that
al., 2007). The deleterious effects of of the 100% wheat flour bread due to the
addition of fiber on dough structure and yellow color of the bread. African fan palm
loaf volume are due to the dilution of root contains high level of carotenoids
gluten which in affects gas retention (Gernah, 2012), which imparted yellow
(Shittu et al., 2007). The low specific color to the breads. Breads containing
volume of the 100% fan root bread may be boiled fan root flour received higher
attributed to its lack of gluten that is ratings for all the sensory attributes than
responsible for enhanced dough rise in the raw root for every level of flour
leavened wheat flour bread (Amandikwa addition. The score for texture (softness
et al., 2015). and chewiness) decreased with the level of
root flour. The baking conditions
However, dough improvers can be used to
(temperature and time), state of the bread
improve specific volume of bread
components such as fibers, protein
containing fan root flour. Chemical
(gluten), starch (whether damaged or
improvers and mucilaginous plant
undamaged) and the amount of water
materials are increasingly being used to
absorbed during dough mixing, contribute
increase specific volume of non-wheat
to final texture of bread (Amandikwa et al.,
breads (Ndife et al., 2007). Specific volume,
2015).
a ratio of weight to volume is affected by
quantity and quality of protein in the flour

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Most of the panelists complained of the The chemical compositions of the breads
African fan palm root flavor in the bread are shown in Table 5. The 100% wheat
containing raw root or high levels of boiled flour bread contained slightly higher
root flour additions. Boiling may have moisture than the African fan palm root
reduced slightly the volatile components of based breads. The ash contents which
the root flour. The decrease in the scores varied from 1.0 to 1.7 % were similar for
for taste with increasing level of African fan the breads, with slightly higher values in
palm root flour may be due to the presence the African fan palm root breads. The fat
of saponins in the African fan palm root and protein contents were also not
flour that probably caused bitter taste of significantly different (p>0.05), though,
the breads. Boiling reduced the saponins wheat flour bread had slightly higher
(Kamaljit et al., 2011) and improved the value. The crude fiber content of the bread
taste of the boiled root flour based bread. containing raw fan root flour (3%) was
The overall acceptability scores were slightly higher than those of the breads
higher for the breads containing boiled containing boiled African fan palm root
than raw flour at any level of addition. This flour (2.2%) and wheat flour (1.5%).
suggests that African fan palm root should Studies have suggested relationship
be boiled if it is to be used for preparing between decrease in fiber consumption
bread. The 100% wheat flour bread was and increase in certain disease such as
rated higher for overall acceptability than diverticulosis and colonic cancer (Kamaljit
the fan root flour based breads. Ndife et al. et al., 2011).
(2011) documented that baking properties
Dietary fiber acts as bulking agent,
of composite flours are impaired as well as
increasing intestinal motility and wet
the organoleptic attributes of their
faecal mass of feaces (Kamaljit et al.,
products due to dilution of gluten content.
2011). These effects are important in
Thus, Ndife et al. (2011) suggested the use
reducing diseases of the colon. Some
of synthetic and organic improvers such as
reports showed that some plant fibers can
malt flavor, vital wheat gluten and ascorbic
lower serum cholesterol (Kamaljit et al.,
acid in dough formulation to improve
2011). The breads containing raw African
baking and sensory qualities. Ascorbic acid
fan palm root flour had higher content of
is a slow acting oxidant agent that works at
carbohydrate (68.3%) than that of wheat
the proofing and early oven stage.
bread (66.8%) and the bread containing
It has been used to enhance the strength boiled African fan palm root flour (66.0 %)
of gluten, handling and baking properties The energy value of the 100% wheat flour
of dough and gas retention by oxidation of bread was 349.1kcal/100g and decreased
–SH groups of gluten protein to –SS groups. to 344.2kcal/100g and 343.2kcal/100g in
The disulphide bonds formed within and breads containing raw and boiled fan root
between protein chains lead to firmer flours, respectively. The decrease in energy
gluten structure (Onimawo and akubor, content may be linked to the higher fats
2012) and protein contents of wheat flour. The
energy contents of food are related more
to the fats, protein and carbohydrate
Proximate composition of breads contents (Onimawo and Akubor, 2012).

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 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
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Mineral composition of breads (Olusegun, 2011). Zinc is needed by over

300 enzymes, some of which are involved
The mineral composition of the breads is
with metabolism of blood sugars
presented in Table 6. The levels of Ca in the
(Onimawo and Akubor, 2012). Zinc is so
raw and boiled African fan palm root based
important that lack of it causes Types 1 and
breads which were 25.5 and 24 mg/100g,
Type ll diabetes (Wardlaw and HampI,
respectively were not significantly
2007). Meals rich in zinc protect the body
different (p>0.05) but differed significantly
from inflammatory signals that damage
(p<0.05) from 27mg/100g for 100% wheat
beta cells (Wardlaw and Hampi, 2007). The
flour bread. The iron and sodium contents
RDA for zinc for all groups is 15mg, thus,
of African fan palm root based breads were
consuming 200g of fan root flour breads
not significantly different (p>0.05) from
would provide the RDA for zinc (Wardlaw
those of wheat flour breads. However,
and Hampi, 2007).
wheat flour bread contained higher
amounts of potassium, magnesium and
phosphorus but lower level of zinc
Phytochemical composition of breads
contents than the African fan palm root
based breads. The US RDA for iron is 10- The phytochemical contents of the breads
15mg per day (Wardlaw and Hampi, 2007). shown in Table 7 were affected by baking.
Hydrogen cyanide was not detected in all
The level of iron lends African fan palm
the baked bread samples. The saponins
palm root bread as a good source of iron.
reduced from 3.0 mg/100m in the flour to
Iron is very important in blood building.
a range of 1.0-1.5mg/100g in the breads.
Deficiency of iron is the most common
The breads containing raw and boiled
nutritional disorder in the world, causing
African fan palm root flours contained 150
anaemia that affects more than 3.5 million
and 140mg/100g phenols, respectively
people in the developing world (Olusegun,
when compared to 195 and 186mg/100g
2011). Potassium is the major mineral in
for the raw and boiled flours, respectively.
most root crops while sodium tends to be
The carotenoids decreased from
low (Olusegun, 2011). Magnesium is an
2200mg/100gin the raw root flour to a
essential constituent of all cells necessary
range of 1500-1950 mg/100g in the
for the functioning of enzymes involved in
breads.
energy utilization and it is present in the
bone (Wardlaw and Hampi, 2007). Phenols such as tannins form insoluble
Deficiency of Mg is rare and results from complexes with proteins and reduce their
excessive losses in diarrhea rather than digestibility and palatability (Shahidi and
from low intakes. Phosphorus is the Naczk, 2004). However, phenolic
second most abundant mineral in the body compounds possess significant antioxidant
after calcium. In form of various activity (Shahidi and Naczk, 2004) due to
phosphates, phosphorus performs a wide their ability to adsorb, neutralize and
variety of essential functions including quench free radicals (Shahidi and Naczk,
liberation and utilization of energy from 2004). This ability is attributed to their
food. Dietary deficiency of P is unknown in redox properties, the presence of
man because P is present in nearly all foods conjugated ring structures and carboxylic

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DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560 OPEN ACCESS 131
 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560

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Table 1: Physical properties of breads supplemented with African fan palm root
flour
RFRF:WF Height Length Width Volume Weight Density
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (g) (g/cm3)
0:100 5.3a 15.7a 4.0a 334a 60.63c 0.18b
10:90 4.8b 15.5a 4.0a 299b 60.90c 0.20b
20:80 3.3c 15.4a 3.6a 181c 76.8b 0.42b
30:70 2.7c 14.8a 3.4a 142d 90.53a 0.64b
40:60 2.8c 14.2a 3.2ab 110e 90.75a 0.83b
50:50 1.9d 12.5c 2.9b 67f 90.77a 1.35a
Means of 3 replications. Means within a column with the same superscript were not significantly
different (p>0.05). RFRF= Raw fan root flour, WF= wheat flour

Table 2. Physical properties of breads supplemented with boiled African fan palm
root flour
BFRF:WF Height Length Width Volume Weight Density
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (g) (g/cm3)
0:100 5.3a 15.7a 4.0a 60.24d 331a 5.4a
10:90 5.1a 15.9a 4.0a 60.57d 304b 5.0a
20:80 5.0a 15.4a 3.7a 60.57d 239c 3.9b
30:70 5.3a 14.8a 3.6a 75.0c 238d 3.2b
40:60 5.1a 14.2a 3.5a 78.0b 211e 2.7c
50:50 3.8b 12.5c 3.2a 80.1a 137f 1.7d
Means of three replications. Means within a column with the same superscript were not significantly
different (P>0.05). BFRF = Boiled fan root flour, WF = Wheat flour.

Table 3: Sensory properties of breads supplemented with raw African fan root flour
RFRF:WF Color Texture Flavor Taste Overall
acceptability
0:100 4.9a 4.3a 4.1a 4.4a 4.5a
10:90 3.9b 4.1a 3.7b 3.8a 4.0a
20:80 3.4b 4.0a 3.7b 3.8a 4.0a
30:70 3.0b 3.0b 3.4b 3.0b 3.2b
40:60 2.6b 3.0b 3.2b 3.4b 3.4b
50:50 2.0bc 2.8c 3.0b 3.0b 3.0b
Means (n=20) within a column with the same superscript were not significantly different (P>0.05).
Breads were evaluated on a 5-point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely and 5= like extremely).
Abbreviations as in Table 1.

Akubor (2016) Int. J. Agric. Vet. Sci. 2(3):125-136

DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560 OPEN ACCESS 134
 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560

Table 4: Sensory properties of breads supplemented with boiled African fan palm
root flour
BRF:WF Color Texture Flavor Taste Overall
acceptability
0:100 4.9a 4.3a 4.1a 4.5a 4.5a
10:90 4.4a 4.2a 3.9a 4.2a 4.2a
20:80 3.7a 4.5a 3.8a 3.9ab 4.1a
30:70 3.4a 3.4b 3.8a 3.6b 3.2b
40:60 3.0b 3.2b 3.7a 3.0b 3.7b
50:50 2.0c 2.5b 3.3ab 2.0c 2.6c
Means (n=20) within a column with the same superscript were not significantly different (P>0.05).
Breads were evaluated on a 5-point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely and 5= like extremely).
Abbreviations as in Table 1.

Table 5: Proximate composition of bread supplemented with African fan palm root
flour
Composition (%) 20 %RF + 80%WF 20 % BF + 80%WF 100 %WF
Moisture 13 ± 0.1c 14 ± 0.2b 15.0 ± 0.3a
Ash 1.7 ± 0.2a 1.5 ± 0.1a 1.0 ± 0.2a
Fat 3.0 ± 0.3a 2.8 ± 0.1a 3.7 ± 0.2a
Protein 11.0 ± 0.1b 11.2 ± 0.1b 12.0 ± 0.3a
Crude fiber 3.3 ± 0.4a 2.2 ± 0.7b 1.8 ± 0.3c
Cabohydrate 68.3 ± 0.1a 66.0 ± 0.4a 66.8 ± 0.4a
Means (n=20) within a row with the same superscript were not significantly different (P>0.05). Breads
were evaluated on a 5-point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely and 5= like extremely). Abbreviations
as in Table 1.

Table 6: Mineral composition of breads supplemented with African fan palm root
flour
Minerals (mg/100g) 20% RF+80 % WF 20%RF+80% 100% WF
Ca 25.5 ± 0.3b 24.0 ± 0.1c 27.0 ± 0 .4a
Fe 4.0 ± 0.3a 3.8 ± 0.1a 4.0 ± 0.2a
Na 2.8 ± 0.2a 2.6 ± 0.2a 3.0 ± 0.1a
K 27.0 ± 0.1b 26.0± 0.3c 300.0 ± 0.3a
Mg 118 ± 0.1c 122.0 ± 0.2b 140.0 ± 0.2a
Zn 3.6 ± 0.1a 4.0 ± 0.2a 3.0 ± 0.1b
P 39.5 ± 0.2c 286.0 ± 0.1b 351.0 ± 0.2a
Means ± SD of three replications. Means within a row with the same superscript were not significantly
different (p>0.05). Abbreviations as in Table 5.

Akubor (2016) Int. J. Agric. Vet. Sci. 2(3): 125-136

DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560 OPEN ACCESS 135
 Chemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread...
DOI: 10.18819/ijavs.2016.1560

Table 7: Phytochemical composition(mg/100g) of bread supplemented with African

fan palm roof flour
Root flour bread Saponins Phenols Carotenoids HCN
20% RF + 80 %WF 1.5 ± 0.4a 150 ± 0.1a 1980 ± 0.4a 0.0
20% BF + 80% WF 1.0 ± 0.9a 140 ± 0.2b 1500 ± 0.5b 0.0
100 % WF 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Means ± SD of three replications. Means within a column with the same superscript were not
significantly different (p>0.05). Abbreviations as in Table 5. HCN= Hydrogen cyanide

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