Municipal-Wastewater Treatment

Using Upflow-Anaerobic Filters

Ioannis D. Manariotis, Sotirios G. Grigoropoulos

ABSTRACT: Three 12.5-L upflow-anaerobic filters (AF), with ceramic- conducted using municipal wastewater supplemented with synthetic
saddle, plastic-ring, and crushed-stone packing, were used to evaluate the substrate (Bodik et al., 2002), settled municipal wastewater
sustained treatment of municipal wastewater. The reactors were initially fed (Matsushige et al., 1990; Viraraghavan and Dickenson, 1991),
dogfood-fortified wastewater and then raw municipal wastewater, and and low-strength synthetic wastewater (Frostell, 1979; Hines and
operated at 25.48C (32 months) and 15.58C (2 months). During 23 months, Reed, 1984; Lindgren, 1982; Manariotis and Grigoropoulos, 2003;
the AF units treated municipal wastewater (mean chemical oxygen demand
Miyahara et al., 1995); hybrid configurations have also been in-
[COD] 442 mg/L and total suspended solids [TSS] 247 mg/L), the hydraulic
retention time (HRT) ranged from 3.1 to 0.30 d (empty bed), and the organic vestigated, including a multiple-stage upflow–downflow AF system
loading rate ranged from 0.115 to 1.82 kg COD/m3
d. At the higher treating piggery-based, low-strength wastewater (Reyes et al., 1999)
temperature and an HRT (void volume) of 1.0 d, COD and TSS removals and a two step AF-anaerobic hybrid-reactor system treating
ranged from 74 to 79% and 95 to 96%, respectively; however, efficiencies domestic wastewater (Elmitwalli et al., 2002).
declined substantially at HRT values less than 0.4 d. Reactor performance, The role of the packing material in controlling the upflow AF
under the same hydraulic and organic loadings, deteriorated with time and performance has received attention, but findings are not conclusive.
was adversely affected by lower temperature. Water Environ. Res., 78, 233 Specific surface area, porosity (void volume), microporosity, and
(2006). media pore size are considered to be important factors that exert
KEYWORDS: biological treatment, anaerobic processes, biofilm reac- a favorable effect; however, there is no agreement on their relative
tors, anaerobic filters, municipal wastewater, efficiency. significance. Early studies indicated that high-porosity lightweight
doi:10.2175/106143005X90029
packing had an advantage over rock media, allowing greater
accumulation of biomass (Mueller and Mancini, 1975), while
material with high porosity and specific surface area resulted in
Introduction greater organic-removal efficiency (Hudson et al., 1978). Micropo-
The anaerobic process is gaining increased acceptance for the rosity was considered decisive for the accumulation of micro-
direct treatment of municipal wastewater, especially in areas with organisms (Murray and Van Den Berg, 1981), and the ability of the
high ambient temperatures. Anaerobic treatment has been reported media to retain biomass was thought to be more important than
to offer lower capital and operational costs than conventional specific surface area, indicating the significance of pore size (Young
aerobic systems, even if combined with low-tech aerobic post- and Dahab, 1983). Media pore size and porosity were also reported
treatment to improve effluent quality, and to be well-suited for small to be more crucial than specific surface area in determining upflow
treatment facilities, including organically overloaded units (Alder- AF performance (Tay et al., 1996). Use of porous packing (such as
man et al., 1998; Verstraete and Vandevivere, 1999). sintered glass) has been found to result in improved stability and
Use of a high hydraulic-loading rate is required with low-strength efficiency at high organic-loading rates (OLR) compared to nonporous
wastewater, and a system capable of retaining biomass is needed. material (such as PVC rings), while surface roughness increased
The anaerobic filter (AF) is one of the technologies that can serve biomass attachment and accumulation (Anderson et al., 1994).
this purpose and was first used after an anaerobic-contact unit This paper presents findings of a three-year laboratory study,
(Witherow et al., 1958). Direct application followed in the late which investigated the direct treatment of raw municipal wastewater
1960s, with medium-strength wastewater (Plummer et al., 1968), by upflow AF units containing commonly available packing
and the concept of biomass retention independent of hydraulic materials. Reactor performance was ascertained under a wide range
retention time (HRT) was introduced (Young and McCarty, 1969). of hydraulic and organic loadings at two temperature levels, while
The AF consists of a column filled with packing material and can be the units were subjected to a variety of operational effects (change
operated at upflow, downflow, or horizontal modes. in substrate, prolonged nonfeeding, draining of liquid content, and
Studies reported in the literature on the treatment of raw removal and repositioning of packing), and the effect of packing
municipal wastewater using the upflow AF have examined the height was evaluated by frequent profile-sampling runs. Emphasis is
effect of HRT and temperature (Genung et al., 1981 and 1985; placed, in this paper, on the efficacy and sustainability of the
Kobayashi et al., 1983; Raman and Khan, 1978), evaluated the process over the long period of operation. The AF represents
removal of coliforms to enable wastewater reuse (Sanchez et al., a promising low-tech process, alone or in combination with a low-
1997), and endeavored to develop appropriate mathematical models cost polishing aerobic system, for the direct treatment of low-
to predict process performance (Abramson, 1986–87; Cakir and strength municipal wastewater, and additional systematic research
Stenstrom, 2003; Wilson et al., 1998). Studies have also been findings should facilitate field application.

March 2006 233

Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

solids (TSS and VSS) were determined by the gravimetric method.

Ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) was measured by the titrimetric
method after a preliminary distillation step, and total Kjeldahl
nitrogen (TKN) by the macro-Kjeldahl procedure. Total phosphorus
(Total-P) was determined using the persulfate digestion method and
ascorbic-acid-colorimetric technique, and sulfate (SO4) by the
turbidimetric method. Alkalinity was measured titrimetrically and
pH electrometrically. Biogas composition was determined by a gas
chromatograph (GC-TCD, Gow Mac Instrument Co., Bridgewater,
New Jersey) using a Porapack N column. Finally, volatile acids
were measured by a modified distillation procedure in a sample
pretreated to expel inorganic carbon.
Wastewater Characteristics. Domestic wastewater collected
at the student housing complex of the University of Patras (Greece)
campus was initially used, and, because it was weak, it was
Figure 1—Experimental arrangement. supplemented by the addition of 90 to 120 mg/L commercial
dogfood in blended suspension; the dry material had COD, SCOD,
Materials and Methods TKN, and Total-P values of 1200, 197, 40, and 12.5 mg/g, re-
Experimental Arrangement. Three large laboratory-scale AF spectively. After the first year of study, municipal wastewater was
units made of plexiglas were used in parallel during the study, using collected from a City of Patras central sewer (the municipal
the arrangement shown in Figure 1; column and packing material treatment facility was then under construction) and was used raw
characteristics are given in Table 1. The empty-bed volume of the without supplementation. Toward the end of the study period
three columns was 12.5 L; however, unit 3 had an additional 10-cm (beginning February 8, 1995), unit 2 was fed a complex synthetic
high unpacked zone. A perforated bottom plate served to support wastewater, which consisted of an 80-fold dilution with tapwater of
packing and distribute influent wastewater, and effluent was taken at a stock solution, whose composition was reported earlier (Mana-
the top via a U-shaped water trap; released biogas was collected in riotis and Grigoropoulos, 2002). Statistical-quality characteristic
a two-bottle arrangement and measured by displacing a saturated data for the three substrates used in this investigation are given in
sodium chloride solution with 15% v/v sulfuric acid. Three sam- Table 2. Municipal wastewater had a greater content of organics and
pling ports placed at 20-cm intervals enabled profile sampling of solids; fortified domestic wastewater exhibited a higher VSS/TSS
the reactors. Packing consisted of low-cost materials, selected to ratio, and both wastes had a low SCOD/COD value.
give different levels of void volume and specific surface area (Table Reactor Startup. In late May 1992, the AF units were filled
1). Variable speed (1 to 10-L/h) peristaltic pumps (model ER, Seko, and then fed with effluent from conventional batch-anaerobic
Rieti, Italy) activated by a timer for appropriate periods, were used reactors, which treated domestic wastewater fortified with dogfood;
to feed the units. The filters were housed in a constant temperature gradually, over a period of 50 d, the effluent was replaced with
room maintained at an average temperature 25.48C for most of the domestic wastewater and, beginning on July 14, 1992, feeding
study (32 months) and 15.58C for a small period (the last 2 months). continued with dogfood-supplemented wastewater. This procedure
Analytical Methods. Reactor performance was evaluated by was followed to minimize loading the filters with external seed
the systematic characterization of influent and effluent average material because solids buildup and its effect on filter performance
samples taken from the corresponding vessels (Figure 1) and were important study objectives; as a result, startup was slow.
analyzed according to Standard Methods (APHA et al., 1992); the Test Conditions. Operating characteristics for each unit and
influent and effluent vessels were capable of holding the total daily period of operation are given in Table 3. Following startup, the
volume and were kept at ambient and reactor operating temper- HRT (on an empty-bed basis) was gradually and uniformly
atures, respectively. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and soluble decreased in all units from 12.5 to 0.83 d (July 14, 1992 to
COD (SCOD) were measured by the open reflux method (the September 6, 1994). It was further decreased until values of 0.30
alternate low COD procedure was used when appropriate) using d and 0.50 d were reached in unit 1 and units 2 and 3, respectively;
a sample passed through a membrane filter for SCOD. Biochemical thereafter, the HRTs varied depending on other actions imposed to
oxygen demand (BOD) was measured by the five-day BOD (BOD5) each AF, and, to facilitate recovery from these effects, increased for
test using the azide modification of the iodometric method for a short time. Operation periods are repeated in Table 3 and vary to
dissolved oxygen (DO) determination. Total and volatile suspended reflect operating conditions for each reactor; HRT values are also

Table 1—Anaerobic-filter characteristics.

Column Packing material

Diameter Height Volume* No. of Specific surface Void

Unit (cm) (cm) (L) Type Dimensions (cm) pieces area (m2/m3) ratio

1 14.3 82 12.5 Ceramic saddles 1.6 3 1.6 3 2.0 (L3W3H) 2667 308 0.59
2 14.1 82 12.5 Smooth plastic rings 2.5 3 2.6 (L3D) 547 186 0.67
3 14.1 91 12.5 Crushed stone 1.9 to 2.5 (sieve opening) 882 186 0.46

* Empty-bed volume of packed zone.

234 Water Environment Research, Volume 78, Number 3

 Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Table 2—Wastewater characteristics.

Domestic wastewater with dogfood Municipal wastewater Synthetic wastewater

Standard Standard Standard

Characteristic Mean Range deviation* Mean Range deviation Mean Range deviation

COD (mg/L) 367 88 to 1388 156 442 148 to 986 132 350 261 to 531 50
SCOD (mg/L) 86 25 to 260 40 130 32 to 356 60 288 211 to 320 30
BOD5 (mg/L) — — — 204 78 to 436 80 223 133 to 262 40
TSS (mg/L) 181 39 to 585 75 247 58 to 672 91 65 28 to 112 25
VSS (mg/L) 157 32 to 539 67 166 54 to 412 51 58 20 to 106 25
NH4-N (mg/L) 43 16 to 64 12 57 24 to 100 20 16 14 to 17 1.3
TKN (mg/L) 61 28 to 85 15 74 34 to 129 24 32 29 to 35 2.4
Total-P (mg/L) 3.0 2.3 to 3.7 0.5 10.0 3.3 to 20 4.0 3.2 2.8 to 3.5 0.3
COD/BOD5 — — — 2.17 1.68 to 3.00 0.35 1.64 1.33 to 2.35 0.32
SCOD/COD 0.24 0.08 to 0.52 0.08 0.29 0.16 to 0.57 0.09 0.84 0.66 to 0.94 0.07
VSS/TSS 0.86 0.41 to 0.98 0.06 0.69 0.31 to 0.88 0.10 0.86 0.71 to 0.95 0.07
VSS/SCOD 2.06 0.47 to 5.74 0.90 1.48 0.47 to 5.73 0.67 0.20 0.07 to 0.35 0.09

* The s value (APHA et al., 1992) is given.

given for each unit on a void-volume basis to account for measured in the collection systems; this was attributed to slow
differences in packing-material characteristics. development of methanogenic biomass. After operation week 30,
It should be reported that, during the course of study, unit 1 was effluent SCOD values reached similar or lower levels than the cor-
subjected to a one-month (December 24, 1994 to January 22, 1995) responding influent concentration, and, by week 35, the units
scheduled period, without feeding, to test process reactivation; short were considered to be fully operational. It should be recalled that the
unscheduled nonfeeding episodes were also experienced by all units filters were seeded only with effluent from conventional anaerobic
as a result of pump failure, and loss of reactor content occurred reactors, and no exogenous seed biomass was used.
because of mishaps with the filter intakes. During the last 2 months Municipal Wastewater. At the end of week 47, the substrate
(beginning on February 28, 1995) the reactors operated at a lower was changed to stronger municipal wastewater fed at a HRT of
(by 108C) temperature, and, to prepare for this change, the HRT was 3.1 d, which was gradually reduced to 2.0 d, where it remained until
raised to 1.0 d for a short time in all units. Other actions, which may week 64 (Table 3). Effluent COD increased slightly, averaging for
have affected reactor operation and performance, involved column the period 82, 77, and 86 mg/L in units 1, 2, and 3, while effluent
draining and biomass-evaluation tests; these affected the selection TSS average values remained at approximately 10 mg/L (Figure 3).
of the HRT used (Table 3), but their findings are not specifically Effluent quality in the three units continued to deteriorate up to
discussed in this paper. Liquid (including suspended biomass) was week 97, as loading increased (HRT 1.9 to 1.0 d), yielding mean
drained by gravity once from unit 1 (April 14, 1995) and twice from effluent COD and TSS values of 116, 118, and 130 mg/L and 17,
unit 3 (October 22, 1994 and February 2, 1995); unit 1 was also 17, and 20 mg/L, respectively. A subsequent reduction in HRT
opened (April 14, 1995), its packing was removed, sampled (to to 0.83 d (weeks 98 to 112) resulted in lower effluent COD
determine attached and occluded biomass), and replaced, and the concentrations, giving mean values of 98, 93, and 96 mg/L, while
filter was again put in operation. effluent TSS remained unchanged, 19, 17, and 22 mg/L, in the three
filters. The reactors operated at HRT of 1.0 d (weeks 83 to 97) and
Results and Discussion 0.83 d (weeks 98 to 112) for over 100 d at each loading. Filter
Anaerobic-Filter Performance. Influent and effluent concen- performance, in terms of COD, was better at the lower HRT
trations of organic and suspended materials for the three filters are (effluent values approximately 95 mg/L compared to 130 mg/L at
given in Figure 2 (in terms of COD, SCOD, and TSS) for the period the higher loading), and effluent TSS remained at a similar level (20
in which the units treated domestic wastewater with dogfood and in mg/L) in both periods. It should be noted, however, that the units
Figure 3 (in terms of COD, BOD5, and TSS) for the period in which operated at a higher temperature at the 0.83-d HRT loading (27.98C
they treated raw municipal wastewater; because of the length of instead of 25.28C, Table 3).
study, data are presented as weekly mean values of the daily Varying Reactor-Operating Conditions. Beginning with week
samples collected during the week. In addition, the average OLR 113, operating conditions were differentiated in each unit (Table 3) to
applied to each unit during different operation periods is given in evaluate reactor performance at increased loadings and control the
Table 3 (in terms of COD and BOD5). Although raw wastewater effect of stress conditions imposed to assess operational resilience.
was fed, no signs of clogging were observed in any of the three Unit 1 operated at a HRT that progressively dropped from 0.67 d
reactors during the 34-month operation. (week 113) to 0.30 d (weeks 123 to 128) and then, after one month
Fortified Domestic Wastewater. During the initial 8 months without feeding, increased to 1.0 d (weeks 133 to 137), where it
following startup, the behavior of the filters was not very remained while the reactor functioned at the lower temperature
satisfactory (Figure 2), even though they operated under high (weeks 138 to 144); the HRT was finally raised to 3.0 d after the unit
HRT conditions. Effluent COD values were substantially decreased, had been drained and opened (April 14, 1995). Unit 2, run at HRT of
and TSS remained at a very low level; however, SCOD values were 0.67 d (week 113) and 0.50 d (weeks 114 to 134) and then fed
higher in the effluents than the influent, and biogas was not synthetic wastewater, operating mostly at the reduced temperature;

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Table 3—Operating characteristics.

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3

HRT HRT OLR OLR HRT OLR

Operation empty void HRT void void
Duration bed volume COD BOD5 volume COD BOD5 volume COD BOD5
3 3
Interval Week (d) T (8C) (d) (d) (kg/m ?d) (kg/m ?d) (d) (kg/m3?d) (kg/m3?d) (d) (kg/m3?d) (kg/m3?d)

Domestic wastewater with dogfood

July 14 to September
15, 1992 1 to 9 64 26.8 12.5 7.38 0.022 8.38 0.022 5.75 0.022
September 16 to
October 14, 1992 10 to 13 29 26.8 6.20 3.66 0.054 4.15 0.054 2.85 0.054
October 15 to
22, 1992 14 8 25.9 5.7 to 4.5 — — — — — —
October 23, 1992 to
March 14, 1993 15 to 35 143 24.6 4.20 2.48 0.090 2.81 0.090 1.93 0.090
March 15 to
April 25, 1993 36 to 41 42 24.9 3.60 2.12 0.132 2.41 0.132 1.66 0.132
April 26 to June 7, 1993 42 to 47 43 26.0 3.10 1.83 0.114 2.08 0.114 1.43 0.114
Municipal wastewater
June 8 to 23, 1993 48 to 49 16 26.5 3.10 1.83 0.130 0.049 2.08 0.130 0.049 1.43 0.130 0.049
June 24 to
July 25, 1993 50 to 54 32 27.3 2.80 1.65 0.115 0.040 1.88 0.115 0.040 1.29 0.115 0.040
July 26 to
August 25, 1993 55 to 58 31 29.0 2.50 1.48 0.154 0.061 1.68 0.154 0.061 1.15 0.154 0.061
August 26 to
October 3, 1993 59 to 64 39 26.5 2.00 1.18 0.231 0.107 1.34 0.231 0.107 0.92 0.231 0.107
October 4 to 22, 1993 65 to 67 19 25.5 1.9 to 1.6 — — — — — — — — —
October 23, 1993 to
January 13, 1994 68 to 78 83 23.8 1.50 0.88 0.338 0.163 1.00 0.338 0.163 0.69 0.338 0.163
January 14 to
February 8, 1994 79 to 82 26 22.8 1.25 0.74 0.372 — 0.84 0.372 — 0.58 0.372 —
February 9 to
May 22, 1994 83 to 97 103 25.2 1.00 0.59 0.434 0.225 0.67 0.434 0.225 0.46 0.434 0.225
May 23 to
September 6, 1994 98 to 112 107 27.9 0.83 0.49 0.494 0.261 0.56 0.494 0.261 0.38 0.494 0.261
September 7 to 11,
1994 113 5 28.0 0.67 0.40 0.649 — 0.45 0.649 —
September 7 to
October 22, 1994a 113 to 119 46 25.4 0.50 0.23 0.961 0.455
September 12 to
October 24, 1994 114 to 119 43 24.8 0.50 0.30 0.974 0.454
September 12, 1994 to
February 7, 1995b 114 to 134 149 23.6 0.50 0.34 0.948 0.460
October 25 to
November 8, 1994a 120 to 121 15 24.4 3.00 1.38 0.129 0.051
October 25 to
November 16, 1994 120 to 122 23 24.1 0.42 0.25 1.052 0.448
November 9 to
December 5, 1994 122 to 125 27 23.4 2.00 0.92 0.267 0.138
November 17 to
December 23, 1994c 123 to 128 37 23.1 0.30 0.18 1.820 0.86
December 6 to
23, 1994 126 to 128 18 22.9 1.00 0.46 0.521 0.256
December 28, 1994 to
February 2, 1995a 129 to 133 37 22.6 0.50 0.23 0.917 0.464
January 23 to February
27, 1995c 133 to 137 36 23.2 1.00 0.59 0.468 0.250
February 5 to
27, 1995a 134 to 137 23 23.3 1.00 0.46 0.520 0.288
February 8 to
27, 1995b 135 to 137 20 23.3 1.00 0.67 0.336 0.218
February 28 to
March 15, 1995 138 to 139 16 14.6 1.00 0.67 0.331 0.209 0.46 0.379 0.152

236 Water Environment Research, Volume 78, Number 3

 Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Table 3—(Continued).

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3

HRT HRT OLR OLR HRT OLR

Operation empty void HRT void void
Duration bed volume COD BOD5 volume COD BOD5 volume COD BOD5
Interval Week (d) T (8C) (d) (d) (kg/m3?d) (kg/m3?d) (d) (kg/m3?d) (kg/m3?d) (d) (kg/m3?d) (kg/m3?d)

February 28 to
April 14, 1995d 138 to 144 46 14.8 1.00 0.59 0.488 0.244
March 16 to
May 2, 1995 140 to 146 48 15.9 0.50 0.34 0.730 0.458
March 16 to
May 2, 1995 140 to 146 48 15.9 1.00 0.46 0.548 0.269
April 18 to
May 2, 1995d 145 to 146 15 18.3 3.00 1.77 0.182 0.087

a
Unit 3 was drained on October 22, 1994, and February 2, 1995, and, in each occasion, was not fed for the following 2 days.
b
Unit 2 was fed synthetic wastewater beginning on February 8, 1995.
c
Unit 1 was not fed during the December 24, 1994 to January 22, 1995 period.
d
Unit 1 was drained and opened on April 14, 1995, packing material was sampled, and the reactor was reformed and not fed for 3 days.

although effluent values determined during this period are presented presented in Figure 4. Data for the period from March 15, 1993,
in Figure 3, synthetic substrate testing of this filter is not discussed when the reactors were considered fully operational, to February 27,
further in the paper. Unit 3 first operated at a HRT of 0.50 d (weeks 1995, when temperature was decreased, are reflected and, for
113 to 119); however, after a liquid draining (October 22, 1994), the the most part, represent treatment of municipal wastewater at
HRT was raised to 3.0 d, then decreased to 2.0 and 1.0 d (weeks 120 approximately 258C. During this period, the HRT ranged from
to 128); it was returned to 0.50 d (weeks 129 to 133) and, after 0.18 to 2.41 d (void volume) and the OLR from 0.114 to 1.82 kg
a second draining (February 2, 1995), was back to 1.0 d (weeks 134 COD/m3
d; the HRT is given on this basis to reflect differences in
to 137) and held at this level, as the reactor operated at the lower the reactor packing materials and enable comparison between the
temperature (weeks 138 to 146). The decrease in HRT, combined filters. The three units showed generally similar behavior, and the
with the other actions applied to the filters, affected reactor increase in OLR or decrease in HRT caused a reduction in COD
performance and effluent COD and TSS values during the period removal, which was more intense at a HRT lower than 0.4 d and an
before the temperature drop (weeks 113 to 137 [134 for unit 2]) OLR greater than 0.5 kg COD/m3
d.
averaged 201, 205, and 195 mg/L and 69, 72, and 58 mg/L in units 1, Findings at HRT (void-volume) levels of 0.5 d or less and near
2, and 3, respectively. Temperature also affected treatment, and the 1.0 d and a temperature of 258C are also summarized in Table 4 to
effluent COD and TSS concentrations in units 1 and 3 during further evaluate the permissible loading before reactor performance
operation at the lower temperature (weeks 138 to 146) were 264 and started to deteriorate. Using the void-volume basis to express HRT
222 mg/L and 100 and 64 mg/L. The one-month nonfeeding period minimized removal efficiency variations caused by packing, and the
did not significantly affect unit 1, and organic material continued to three units performed adequately at a HRT 0.5 d or higher, essen-
be stabilized during this time; effluent COD and TSS values averaged tially satisfying the European Union (EU) minimum-percentage-
262 and 109 mg/L and 215 and 49 mg/L before feeding stopped and reduction requirements for secondary treatment (75% for COD, 70
after it started again (weeks 123 to 128 and 133 to 137); however, the to 90% for BOD5, and 90% for TSS) (Commission of the European
unit was run at a much higher hydraulic loading in the earlier period Communities, 1992). A second-stage, low-tech aerobic system will
(HRT 0.30 d rather than 1.0 d). need to be provided to assure compliance with EU effluent-
Nutrients, Alkalinity, and Volatile Acids. Other characteristics,
discharge limits (125 mg/L for COD, 25 mg/L for BOD5, and
which were monitored at less frequent intervals, indicated that the
35 mg/L for TSS), especially if the AF reactors were to operate at
NH4-N concentration increased in the filter effluents by an average
HRT levels less than 0.5 d.
of 17 to 19% because of the hydrolysis of organic nitrogen (Org-N),
Temperature reduction by 108C resulted in lower removal
while TKN was reduced by 5 to 6%. Total-P was also lower in the
efficiencies for organics and solids. Characteristically, at a 1.0-d
effluents, with the average reduction ranging from 21 to 23% in the
three units. Alkalinity was 19 to 21% higher in the filter effluents HRT (empty bed), COD and TSS removals decreased in unit 1,
compared to the corresponding influent level, reflecting the from 52.8 to 40.6% and 72.3 to 42.1% (weeks 133 to 137 and 138
formation of ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3). The pH ranged to 144, respectively) and, in unit 3, from 56.8 to 53.1% and 72.7 to
from 6.9 to 9.4 in the raw wastewater and from 6.8 to 8.7 in the 68.4% (weeks 134 to 137 and 138 to 146, respectively); operation
treated effluents. Volatile acids in the effluents of the three reactors periods were selected to reflect conditions immediately before and
remained lower than 45 mg/L (as CH3COOH) and ranged from 6 after the temperature change. Unit 3, which had been drained at the
to 35 mg/L, 5 to 44 mg/L, and 4 to 45 mg/L in units 1, 2 and 3, end of week 133 (Table 3), reacted better to the change; the longer
respectively. test period (additionally weeks 145 to 146), at a higher operational
Average Performance. The effect of the HRT and OLR on the temperature (approximately 168C), may have contributed to this
performance of the AF units (in terms of COD, BOD5, and TSS) is response.

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Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Se ¼ 0:7390 S0:824
i h0:374
e e0:213 R2 ¼ 0:862 ð2Þ
Where
he 5 HRT based on empty bed volume, and
e 5 void ratio.
It is interesting to note that the application of eq 2 to data given
by Kobayashi et al. (1983) (influent and effluent COD 288 and 78
mg/L, void ratio 0.97), for a reactor treating domestic wastewater
at a 1.0-d HRT (void volume) and 20 to 358C temperature, would
yield a COD removal efficiency of 72.6%; under these conditions,
Kobayashi et al. (1983) found COD, BOD5, and TSS removals of
73, 75, and 73%, respectively. Other investigators have not reported
all information needed to apply eq 2; however, Genung et al. (1981)
obtained average BOD5 and TSS removals of 55 and 75%, with an
AF operating at a 0.10-d design HRT (basis was not stated) and 10
to 258C, and Wilson et al. (1998) found COD removals ranging
from 52 to 76% at a HRT (empty bed) of 0.21 to 0.42 d and a 248C
average temperature.
Biogas Production. The biogas released from the three units
showed significant rate variation and was associated with a high
nitrogen (N2) fraction. The maximum release rates for units 1, 2,
and 3 were 59, 59, and 64 mL/L of influent wastewater and were
observed at HRT values (empty bed) of 1.25, 1.25, and 2.0 d,
respectively.
The apparent conversion of COD removed to biogas, when the
filters were fed with municipal wastewater, is presented in Figure 5.
The rate generally increased as the HRT was reduced to the 1.25-
d (empty bed) level, reaching values of 0.174 to 0.180 m3/kg COD
removed, and thereafter decreased. An exception was a value of
0.235 m3/kg COD removed, which was measured in unit 3 at a 3.0-d
HRT; however, a reactor draining before that time (October 22,
1994) probably affected this value. A higher rate of daily COD
uptake did not always correspond to larger daily biogas release, and,
at the same HRT levels, different conversion rates were recorded
during different operation periods resulting from delayed stabiliza-
tion of accumulated organic material, which was more evident when
the units operated at a higher HRT than in the preceding period. The
Figure 2—Anaerobic filter performance treating domestic average methane (CH4) content of the gas ranged from 69 to 70%,
wastewater with dogfood. and the average apparent COD conversion varied from 0.062 to
0.087 m3 CH4/kg COD removed.
Operation of units 1 and 3 at a lower (by 108C) temperature
Application of regression analysis to periods of filter operation reduced the biogas release rate and apparent COD conversion to
when the units treated municipal wastewater at a temperature of CH4; at a HRT of 1.0 d, biogas release decreased to 53.0 and 60.0%
and apparent COD conversion to CH4 to 34.5 and 52.0% of the
258C and before stress actions, such as stop of feeding or liquid
corresponding levels in the two units at the higher temperature
draining (weeks 48 to 128, 48 to 134, and 48 to 119, respectively, (258C). The lower temperature reduced organic removal and
for units 1, 2, and 3), resulted in the following equation: increased CH4 escape in the effluent.
The biogas-release rates recorded were generally low, as a result
Se ¼ a Sxi hyv ð1Þ
of the substantial loss of soluble CH4 in the liquid effluent, which
Where was greater at the lower temperature. The escape of CH4 dissolved
Se 5 effluent COD concentration (mg/L); in the effluent and release of N2 to the gaseous phase by dissolution
Si 5 influent COD concentration (mg/L); from the influent are controlled by Henry’s law and the related
hv 5 HRT based on void volume (d); and partial pressures of the gases. As has been discussed in detail in an
a, x, y 5 regression analysis constants; numerical values for earlier paper (Manariotis and Grigoropoulos, 2002), these factors
these constants are given in Table 5. significantly affect the biogas-release rate and composition when
low-strength wastewater is treated, which requires passing of large
To account for packing media characteristics and reflect the effect volumes of waste daily through the anaerobic reactor. Considerable
of void ratio, eq 1 was written in a more general form, which fitted variation in related values has been noted in studies concerning
the experimental data well: treatment of domestic or municipal wastewater with an AF;

238 Water Environment Research, Volume 78, Number 3

 Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Figure 3—Anaerobic filter performance treating municipal wastewater.

Kobayashi et al. (1983) reported a biogas value of 0.16 m3/kg COD Reactor performance and biogas release at the same level of
removed at 20 to 358C, and Genung et al. (1985) gave values of 0.05 hydraulic loading generally deteriorated with time in each unit,
to 0.16 m3/kg COD removed and 3 to 76% CH4 content at 12 to especially at the 1.0-d HRT, where the time span examined was
258C. The low release rate and the composition of biogas make its longer, and long-term operation seemed to adversely affect filter
use as an energy resource problematic, except for heating the AF behavior. This could be an indication that short-term findings may
reactors; however, this may not be practiced in small installations. not be duplicated in actual field application, and emphasizes the
Long-Term Behavior. During the course of the study, units 1 need for additional large-scale, long-term work to demonstrate the
and 3 operated for two or three periods at a 1.0-d HRT (empty bed) sustainability of the AF process and encourage its use.
and unit 3 for two periods at a 0.5-d HRT at a similar temperature Organics Mass Balance. A mass balance depicting the fate of
level treating raw municipal wastewater. The mean COD and TSS- the influent organic matter (in terms of COD) in the three AF
removal efficiencies and corresponding standard-deviation values reactors is presented in Table 7 and reflects the periods in which the
and the biogas-release rates for these periods are given in Table 6. It units treated municipal wastewater. The balance considers the COD
should be noted that, in the interim times, the HRT (and OLR) in the influent and effluent of each reactor, CH4 released in biogas,
applied to the reactors varied (Table 3); in addition, the duration of and CH4 lost in liquid effluent, and is based on average data for each
the periods differed substantially; however, all provided numerous operation period and filter. Approximately 50.0% (49.3 to 51.2%)
turnovers of reactor content (especially when void volume is of the total CH4 produced was dissolved in the treated effluent. The
considered). Standard deviation values were relatively low at the COD remaining in the effluent (33.8 to 35.7%) and the COD that
1.0-d HRT but increased at the 0.5-d level, as unit 3 was stressed had been converted to CH4 (23.5 to 25.0%) totaled 59.2, 58.5, and
under the increased loading. 58.9% of the COD fed to units 1, 2, and 3, respectively, leaving

March 2006 239

Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Figure 4—Effect of HRT and OLR on anaerobic filter performance.

unaccounted for approximately 41.0% (40.8 to 41.5%) of the matter retained in the filters could be obtained for unit 1, which
influent COD to the reactors. This amount could be attributed to was drained, opened, and sampled at the end of the study (April
organic matter retained in the filters in the form of solids or used by 14, 1995). The total solids (TS) retained in this reactor over the
sulfate-reducing bacteria and to CH4 escaping in the liquid effluent entire operation period (including solids attached and occluded in
above the theoretical saturation level. Leakage in the gas-collection the filter and suspended in the drained liquid) were estimated to be
systems could also have been a contributing factor; however, no 278 g, with an average COD value of 0.8 g COD/g TS and
significant gas leaks were detected during the study. a volatile solids content of 52%; on this basis, 222 g of COD
Noyola et al. (1988), using a fixed-film reactor to treat domestic would have been retained in unit 1, or approximately 6.1% of the
wastewater, reported that the liquid effluent could be oversaturated amount fed.
with CH4, and estimated that more than 50% of the CH4 yield left The COD mass balance was made in an effort to illustrate what
their system with the effluent. Limited SO4 data collected early was happening to the influent-organic matter. Although it was not
in 1994 (weeks 79 to 82), when the filters treated municipal possible to account fully for the organics fed, the balance provides
wastewater (SO4 levels in the raw wastewater and AF effluents interesting and useful information on the fate of total COD in an
72 to 75 mg/L and 12 to 20 mg/L, respectively), would show that anaerobic biofilm reactor treating raw municipal wastewater.
a reduction of approximately 59 mg SO4/L was occurring in the
units at that time. Assuming use of 0.67 g COD/g SO4 reduced
Summary and Conclusions
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003), this would correspond to 40 mg/L COD
This paper reports findings of a long-term experimental study,
used by the sulfate-reducing bacteria or approximately 8.6% of the
which used three upflow AF reactors for the treatment of raw
corresponding raw wastewater COD. An indication of the organic
municipal wastewater (mean COD 442 mg/L, BOD5 204 mg/L, and
TSS 247 mg/L), under a wide range of hydraulic (HRT 3.1 to 0.30
Table 4—Removal efficiency. d, empty-bed basis) and organic (OLR 0.115 to 1.82 kg COD/m3
d)
loadings and operating conditions. The large (12.5-L) filter units
Removal*
HRT void Table 5—Regression analysis constants for eq 1.
Unit volume (d) COD (%) BOD5 (%) TSS (%)
Packing material Constant Correlation
1 0.88 to 1.18 75.2 to 76.0 81.2 to 85.0 95.5 to 96.0
coefficient
1 0.18 to 0.49 51.8 to 74.8 55.4 to 81.8 54.9 to 91.7 Type Void ratio a x y
Unit R2
2 1.00 76.1 80.0 95.7
2 0.34 55.2 56.5 68.8 1 Ceramic saddles 0.59 0.9296 0.770 20.376 0.924
3 0.92 to 1.15 74.4 to 78.8 81.7 to 82.2 95.1 to 95.2 2 Smooth plastic 0.67 1.3005 0.721 20.432 0.830
3 0.23 to 0.46 50.0 to 75.3 50.3 to 82.4 74.0 to 90.9 rings
3 Crashed stone 0.46 0.2458 0.988 20.327 0.809
* Operating temperature approximately 258C.

240 Water Environment Research, Volume 78, Number 3

 Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Table 7—Chemical-oxygen demand mass balance.

Parameter Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3

Operation period June 8, 1993 June 8, 1993 June 8, 1993

to May 2, to February to May
1995 7, 1995 2, 1995
Municipal wastewater
fed, L 7772 6979 6896
COD in wastewater
fed, g 3640 3162 3161
COD in treated
effluent, g 1299 1069 1072
COD removed, % 64.3 66.2 66.1
Biogas released, L 230 217 218
CH4 released in
biogas, NL 146 138 140
CH4 dissolved in
effluent, NL 153 135 136
Figure 5—Effect of HRT on apparent conversion of Total CH4
organic matter to biogas. produced, NL 299 273 276
COD converted to
CH4, g* 854 780 789
were packed with low-porosity materials (ceramic saddles, smooth Total COD in
plastic rings, and crushed stone; void ratios 0.59, 0.67, and 0.46 in effluent and
units 1, 2, and 3, respectively). Reactor startup was accomplished converted to
with low-solids-anaerobic effluent and was slow because of lagging CH4, g 2153 1849 1861
development of methanogenic biomass. COD unaccounted
The AF reactors performed effectively and responded to changes for, g 1487 1313 1300
in operating conditions adequately. Treatment efficiency depended
* Basis: 0.35 NL CH4/g COD converted (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
on the applied loading, the packing used, and the temperature
maintained; at the same HRT (empty bed) value, unit 3 (crushed
deteriorated with time. Plugging of the reactors was not experienced
stone) was less effective; however, expressing HRT on a void-
during the extended period of operation, although periodic draining
volume basis minimized efficiency variation. At 258C and a HRT
was only practiced in units 1 and 3. Solids production is limited
(void volume) of approximately 1.0 d, removal efficiencies reached
levels of 74 to 79% for COD, 80 to 85% for BOD5, and 95 to 96% with low-strength wastewater; however, accumulation of solids
for TSS; reactor performance decreased at lower HRT values and (both physically trapped and biologically formed) may eventually
deteriorated substantially at a level less than 0.4 d. The apparent necessitate cleaning the AF to effect solids removal and restore
organic-matter conversion to biogas reached a maximum rate of hydraulic-loading capacity. These are important considerations,
0.17 to 0.18 m3/kg COD removed at a HRT of 1.25 d (empty bed), which need to be further examined. Nonetheless, the AF process is
and the biogas contained 69 to 70% CH4; approximately 50% of the a promising system for the direct treatment of raw municipal
total CH4 produced left the reactors with the treated effluent. A 108C wastewater in smaller communities, especially if coupled with
drop in temperature resulted in lower removal efficiencies for both a low-tech polishing system to improve effluent quality. Hopefully,
organics and solids. the work presented in this paper and the issues raised will help
The length of operation seemed to adversely affect the AF encourage field testing, whose absence is a major deterrent to the
reactors, and, at the same level of hydraulic-loading performance, application of the AF technology.

Table 6—Effect of length of operation on anaerobic-filter performance.

Unit 1 Unit 3
Municipal wastewater
Operation HRT Removal Biogas Removal Biogas
empty COD TSS release release
Week Duration (d) bed (d) T (8C) (mg/L) (mg/L) COD (%) TSS (%) (mL/L) COD (%) TSS (%) (mL/L)

83 to 97 103 1.0 25.2 434 254 70.5 (10.1)a 91.4 (2.9) 45 67.9 (7.2) 89.7 (3.9) 38
126 to 128 18 1.0 22.9 521 257 65.3 (5.1) 80.6 (7.1) 42
133 to 137b 36 1.0 23.2 468 190 52.8 (9.5) 72.3 (8.5) 38
134 to 137 23 1.0 23.3 520 171 56.8 (9.8) 72.7 (3.2) 33
113 to 119 46 0.5 25.4 528 322 56.4 (20.1) 74.0 (12.4) 24
129 to 133 37 0.5 22.6 458 206 54.1 (12.4) 70.4 (12.8) 10

a
Standard deviation, the s value (APHA et al., 1992) is given.
b
Unit 1 was not fed during weeks 129 to 132.

March 2006 241

Manariotis and Grigoropoulos

Acknowledgments of the 33rd Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University:

Credits. This work was supported in part by a University of West Lafayette, Indiana, May 9–11, 560.
Patras, Greece, predoctoral fellowship. Kobayashi, H. A.; Stenstrom, M. K.; Mah, R. A. (1983) Treatment of Low
Authors. At the time this work was conducted, Ioannis D. Strength Domestic Wastewater Using the Anaerobic Filter. Water Res.,
17, 903.
Manariotis was a Ph.D. candidate and Sotirios G. Grigoropoulos
Lindgren, M. (1982) Mathematical Modeling of the Anaerobic Filter
was a professor at the Environmental Engineering Laboratory,
Process. International Association on Water Pollution Research and
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Patras, Greece. Control-Specialized Seminar on Anaerobic Treatment, Copenhagen,
Ioannis D. Manariotis is currently an environmental engineer in the Denmark, June 16–18; International Association on Water Pollution
Directory of Environment and Planning, Region of Western Greece, Research and Control: London, 267.
Patras, and Sotirios G. Grigoropoulos is a professor emeritus of Manariotis, I. D.; Grigoropoulos, S. G. (2002) Low-Strength Wastewater
Civil Engineering, University of Patras. Correspondence should be Treatment Using an Anaerobic Baffled Reactor. Water Environ. Res.,
addressed to Sotirios Grigoropoulos, Department of Civil Engi- 74, 170.
neering, University of Patras, GR-265 00 Patras, Greece, e-mail: Manariotis, I. D.; Grigoropoulos, S. G. (2003) Anaerobic Treatment of Low-
[email protected]. Strength Wastewater in a Biofilm Reactor. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part
Submitted for publication January 16, 2004; revised manuscript A: Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng., 38, 2057.
Matsushige, K.; Inamori, Y.; Mizuochi, M.; Hosomi, M.; Sudo, R. (1990)
submitted August 7, 2004; accepted for publication January 18,
The Effects of Temperature on Anaerobic Filter Treatment for Low-
2005. Strength Organic Wastewater. Environ. Technol., 11, 899.
The deadline to submit Discussions of this paper is June 15, 2006. Miyahara, T.; Takano, M.; Noike, T. (1995) Role of Filter Media in an
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242 Water Environment Research, Volume 78, Number 3