TragedyofCommons ExperienceofRiverLinkinginKerala

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Tragedy of Commons: The Kerala Experience in River Linking
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Tragedy of Commons
The Kerala Experience in

River Linking
S.P. Ravi
C.G. Madhusoodhanan
Dr. A. Latha
S. Unnikrishnan
K.H. Amita Bachan
RRC & SANDRP

“When culture disintegrates …… River dies.
Only,
a culture rooted in Nature…
a life perspective that respects the divine ways of Nature........
a civilization where mountains, forests and rivers are integral
elements..............
can help dying rivers take birth again.”
c 2004 River Research Centre .................words, which could only flow from him
who had spent a lifetime trying to preserve a river and its culture…
Materials from this publication maybe used without prior permission only if
the source is properly acknowledged. In loving memory of our soulmate B.C. Sreedharan-
an Irula tribal who lived on the banks of the dying Bhavani River....
Cover Design : Amita Bachan
Layout : Mac World, Thrissur
Published by : River Research Centre,Kerala, South Asia

Network on Dams River and People
(SANDRP), Delhi.
Distributors : Alter Media, Thrissur.
Address : River Research Centre

C/o Chalakudy Puzha Samrakshana Samithi
Karthika, Manalattil, Ollur.P.O.
Thrissur-680306.Kerala, India
Ph: 0487-2353021
E mail:[email protected]
Printed at : Kairali Offset Printers,

Thrissur, Kerala
Price : Rs.120/-
ISBN-81-87612-10-x
Preface
Four years back, when we started our search on the problems faced
by Chalakudy River among the people, the various departments
and local bodies we never imagined that our search would bring us
to such a turning point. Our travels through the river basin over
the past years through the monsoons and summers enabled us to
observe the various ups and downs of the river at close quarters.
Our journey like that of a meandering river took us to different
people, different perceptions, stories, myths and personal
experiences. The peers among the Kadar tribals gave us an insight
into their displacement due to the Parambikulam group of dams.
Vijayan a Kadar tribal from Parambikulam guided us in this
endeavor. We also had our source of constant correction, inspiration
and insights in this journey in Dr.Sathis Chandran Nair.
River Research Centre
We have been constantly documenting the newspaper clippings
Through campaigns and interactions with the people in the and other study reports on issues relating to rivers including river
Chalakudy river basin the Chalakudy River Protection Council diversions. Two years back, the newspaper reports on the move to
(Chalakudy Puzha Samrakshana Samithi) is trying to convey implement the River Linking Plan made us sit back and think of
the reality that a river should flow to sustain life. The Samithi the parallels especially against the background of the Task Force
has taken up actions against projects which otherwise would stating that the famous Parambikulam Aliyar Project and the
affect the river flow and health adversely. The threats are Mullaperiyar Project is a success story in river water sharing between
two states.
continuing. While critically analysing our river related
development projects, we realise that they have not been The National Workshop on Interlinking that was born out of this
planned based on the hydrological, geographical and
stream of thought brought together many like-minded individuals,
farmers and voluntary organizations concerned about the plight of
ecological characteristics and peculiarities of the river basin.
our rivers. The trip to Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) area
Hence the present dismal state of all our rivers.
through the forests of the Indira Gandhi Wild Life Sanctuary and
In fact this thought process led to the evolution of the River the Parambikulam WLS was a natural culmination of the workshop.
Research Centre- of like minded people - to generate the basic To visualize and understand what happens to a river and its ecology
details of the river basin as a first step towards the participatory when it is diverted was the major objective of the visit. Discussions
restoration of Chalakudy River basin by the people, the local and debates overnight, suddenly the suggestion came forward from
bodies and the Government. Himanshu Thakkar and Dr.Sudhirendar Sharma that it was necessary
to document the entire story of the historically famous Parambikulam
Aliyar Project and other diversions involving Kerala to forecast what
The field visits to Chittur became a pleasurable experience especially
was in store for the proposed Inter Linking of Rivers project based on
due to Shri. Chentamarakhshan and his familys warm presence,
the experiences of PAP.
food, accommodation and precious insights on the issue. All our
The decision led to field trips in the entire river basin and collection family members especially Unnis mother are fondly acknowledged
of relevant documents from August 2003. We thought that we here for their unlimited patience in bearing with our often-long
could complete the process in three to four months. But new stories periods of absence during this study.
and insights started pouring in. We came across the life story of a
This book is mainly divided into three sections, the first section
one-man crusader, Kunjukuttan, a retd. KSEB engineer who had
intends to address the river water diversions in general while the
spent a lifetime trying to collect all the available documents on the
second section highlights the experience of Kerala through the
issue. He had filed a vigilance case on corruption charges of the
existing links focusing in detail on PAP. The final section focuses
PAP officials in Kerala. Unfortunately death took him away a day
mainly on the issues involved in the grandiose Inter linking project
before the final hearing of the case. We had long discussions with
and the Kerala Link involved.
Sreedharan, a tribal and our soul mate living in Attappady, on the
plight of the Bhavani River and its links to the deterioration and The sketches by Radha R, our friend, and a professional artist
desiccation of Attappady. He knew the Bhavani and the Nilgiris made the book more graphic. The work of the entire team, at times
like the palm of his hand. Sreedharan too left us on the 16th of arguing, at times debating but always proceeding one step forward
February 2004.The entire account on Bhavani and Siruvani rivers afterwards was the real source of strength in the entire process. Suresh
is his inputs. and his team at Mac World DTP centre need special thanks for
meeting our impossible deadlines. We take the responsibility for any
The library and faculty of the Madras Institute of Development
errors or omissions that have crept into the book.
Studies, Chennai indeed became the starting point of our literature
review. Without the voluminous data that was made available to We are obliged to our Rivers The final but constant source of
us by them, this study would have remained incomplete. Several inspiration, strength, peace and hope
media persons helped us unearth several hidden and confidential
documents. We utilized the accommodation facilities provided by
the Kerala Forest Department in Vazhachal Forest Division and
Parambikulam Wild Life Sanctuary.
Though when we kept on extending the dead line for publication
of the report Himanshu Thakkar, from SANDRP was so patient
with us and supported our efforts unconditionally. We thank Global
Greengrants Fund and Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
for their generous financial support. YUVA, a large network based
in Mumbai working on various social issues, was also kind enough
to route the project assistance. We are indebted to them for their
willingness to support us. A lot of friends and well wishers like Dr.
Sudhirendar Sharma and Dr. Elizabeth Joseph helped us in many
stages of this document.
Contents
Preface
1. Introduction 1
2. Addressing River Water Diversions 5
What is a river?
Whats happening to our rivers?
What are the issues to be addressed?
3. Tragedy of Commons- Kerala Experience 16
Parambikulam - Aliyar Project: An Analysis 19
History of the Project
The Project
Engineering the River flow
The Agreement
Apportioning of waters
Daylight robbery legitimised
The Unquenched thirst
Violations in the agreement
Benefits of the Project- Hidden Impacts
Field Diary
The Periyar Project 78
Bhavani River Diversions 84
Neyyar Irrigation Scheme 89
Pandiyar - Punnampuzha Project 89
4. Linking Rivers De-linking India 92
Interlinking of Rivers
The Project- Promises and Realities
Unsaid Impacts
The Kerala Link: Pamba Achankoil Vaippar Project
Resolution of Kerala Legislative Assembly
5. Implications 121
6. Beyond Links, Dams and Conflicts 126
Appendix- PAP Agreement 131
References 142

Introduction
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
River basin development has been increasingly viewed and implemented

based on the assumption that rivers can be dammed, diverted and
exploited to any extent for human welfare. Even the concept of
international or inter state river has emerged from the socio-political
outlook of extent of river waters that can be utilized by each co-riparian
state or country. In the literature of International Water Law, rivers are
usually classified into national, international and internationalised
rivers. According to this classification, a national river is one, the entire
course of which flows within the territory of a single country. An
international river is one, which flows through the territory of one or
more countries or forms an international boundary. An internationalised
river is a river, whether originally national or international which has
been subjected to special conventional regime between countries.
An inter state river is one which flows through more than one state, or
one which separates the territories of two states from one another.
Technically the former is referred to as a successive river and the latter
as a boundary or contiguous river. A large number of doctrines like the
doctrine of riparian rights, of equitable apportionment, of prior
appropriation etc.have been put forward by different nations in relation
to water disputes on the question of the rights of co-riparians to use the
waters of an inter state or international river.
In India it has been well recognised that no state can be given an entirely
free hand in respect of a common source of water such as an inter-state
river. Under the Constitution of India also, a co-riparian state is not free
to develop an inter state river regardless of the injury to other co-riparian
states. The dominant principle employed in the resolution of inter state
water disputes in the pre and post independent India has been the
equitable allocation of water among the coriparian states-each state
getting a fair share of the water of the common river. The famous never-
ending Cauvery river dispute involving the states of Tamil Nadu,
Tragedy of Commons Introduction
Karnataka, Kerala and Pondicherry is an inter state river water issue. droughts, the plunging reservoir levels in the various hydroelectric and
Kerala and Pondicherry have not been major contenders in this dispute irrigation projects, the lowering water table, reduced stream flows of all
so far though the three tributaries of Cauvery namely Bhavani, Pambar the rivers, saline ingress etc. have brought about a shift in this myth of
and Kabani originating in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats contribute surplus. The changes in monsoon patterns have added to the scenario of
atleast 15 per cent of Cauvery waters. recurring drought. The burgeoning need for water with the increase in
consumers and consumption per person along with the changes in land
As different from inter state river water sharing where the issue is of
use, shift to intensive irrigation requiring crops, change in agricultural
allocation of water between the upstream and downstream river sharing
practises, massive reclamation of rice fields, heavy and indiscriminate
states, river water diversions involve transferring the water from one river
sand mining from the rivers, etc. has further accentuated the circumstances
basin to another maybe within state or inter state for various uses. This
leading to drought.
in turn is based on the concept that the river that is diverted has surplus
water in its basin and the river basin that receives water has deficit Though the myth of surplus has been shattered, the underlying so far
water. The recent decision of the Central Government to link up 37 rivers unaddressed aspects that emerge are what is the basis for the classification
in India from Ganga to Cauvery through 30 links with a colossal investment of some river basins as surplus and some as deficit based on which such
of Rs. 5,60,000 crores is based on this concept. Here again the primary river diversions have been decided and carried out? River diversions are
objective of river linking has been claimed as the transfer of water from visualized and planned based on the assumption that those rivers that
surplus river basins to deficit river basins for expanding irrigation, carry surplus water are going waste into the sea and that water can be
meeting drinking water needs and providing drought relief and flood relief. stored for human use in reservoirs or diverted into deficit river basins.
The raging debate over inter linking of rivers is also based on the very
Kerala has been projected as a water surplus state by the Government
same concept. Were the so-called deficit basins naturally so? How did
and water resources development departments both at the State and
they reach the status of deficit? What are the different factors that
Central Government level, - all these years. In fact starting from the
decide how much water a river basin can carry? Can a river be ever
British era, one of the first Inter State Inter Basin river water transfer in
classified as surplus or deficit? Finally, do rivers actually flow waste to
India- The Periyar Project-has taken place in Kerala-a testimony to this
the sea?
projection. The impression of abundance was allowed to grow without
understanding the actual changes occurring to the catchments of these Apart from this, several issues like the equitability of apportioning water,
rivers that later paved the way towards more such inter state river water the riparian rights, resource use by the recipient state, the social,
transfers from Kerala influenced by political pressure. The Siruvani Drinking environmental and economic impacts of diversion, the impact on the
Water Agreement, the famous Parambikulam-Aliyar Inter State Inter Basin river itself, the various political and social undercurrents involved and the
water transfers Agreement etc. followed later on. In all the cases Tamil implications for future water resources development are to be analysed
Nadu is the recipient deficit state and Kerala is the surplus donor for a comprehensive understanding of the situation. Whether such inter
basin state. state and inter basin water diversions are the best options available,
whether such diversions really improve or decrease the water use efficiency,
Perhaps the forest clad Western Ghats which give birth to the rivers of
whether these diversions actually solve water problems or create new
Kerala coupled with the heavy rainfall of more than 3000 mm per annum
problems for the society and the river basin that gives water in the form
and the presence of numerous ponds, open wells and valley swamps
of unending disputes, ecological and social problems etc. are questions
created by the peculiar geography and climate of Kerala gave this
to which answers will be sought through this study.
impression of abundance. Not any more. Over years, the annually recurring
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Tragedy of Commons
The famous Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) is considered as one of
the best models of Inter State Cooperation in water sharing in India. In
fact the Task Force on River Linking has cited the success of PAP along
with the historic Periyar Project (The Mullaperiyar Project) as examples
Addressing River Water
of successful inter linking projects. It is a well-known fact that state
boundaries often do not follow river basin boundaries. Hence inter state
Diversions
or inter national river water sharing and diversions is always bound to WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
lead to disputes. The objective here is not to analyse the inter state disputes Diverting rivers seems an easy and simple solution to solve all our water
over such treaties. It has been attempted in many forums and even books related problems if one views it from an engineering point of view. What
have been written on that. Rather an in depth analysis of the is a river? Is it a mere drainage channel that carries water to the sea?
Parambikulam-Aliyar Project in terms of its background and history, Perhaps the fundamentals of river water diversion have to be addressed
various socio-political dimensions involved, the type of river diversions in by trying to answer these simple but profound questions.
the project, the inherent flaws in the Agreement, the impacts of diversion
on the two states and the river basins involved and the wider implications What is a river?
is attempted. It is also intended here to try to understand the changes A river is one of the most dynamic and beautiful waterscapes on the
that take place at river basin levels due to such diversions, the far-reaching earth, which connects all the different ecosystems and lives, and
impacts and the lessons learnt. livelihoods in a never-ending cycle of energy transfer and flow.
An attempt has also been made to address other river diversions involving A river is much more than mere water flowing and wasted into the sea,
Kerala rivers like the Mullaperiyar and Siruvani projects. A brief overview as many believe.
and analysis of the proposed Inter Linking of Rivers project along with
Landscape writes a rivers course. Gravity decides the downward flow.
the proposed Peninsular link involving Kerala viz, the Pamba Achankoil
The valleys and mountains, the slope and gradient, the soil, in turn
Vaippar link is also carried out. It is hoped that the lessons learnt from
designs the flow. The rains or snowmelt nourishes and maintains the
the existing river links involving Kerala can be used as an eye opener for
flow.
a better understanding of the wider and deeper ramifications involved in
the proposals to transfer water from surplus to deficit river basins as in One can either have several entries into the magic, into the mystery, into
Inter Linking of Rivers Project. the enigma, into the dynamic entity that is a river or else one can just
describe it directly. Enter the rainforests of the western side of the Western
Ghats; one can start from the rain falling on the rich humus on the
tropical shola and rainforest floor - every leaf, tree trunk, lianas, the
moss and the lichen, the forest floor and the thin but humus rich top
soil, along with millions of creatures, big and small, the canopy of the
forest, the slope of the hills, the rock type, the shape of the trees and
their architecture among the thousands of interrelated integral components
receive the rains, decide how much water will percolate, be stored and
be allowed to flow through a hill slope when rain falls- thousands of
such hill streams, their downward flow designed by the gradient of the
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Tragedy of Commons Addressing River Water Diversions
land and its forest cover, merge to form tributaries and many such diversity of the river basins or their watersheds has in turn moulded the
tributaries merge to form the river. In other words, every forested hill diverse culture of human populations who have adapted to the peculiar
slope has the potential to create a perennial stream. characteristics of the river basins to which they belong knowingly or
unknowingly.
The river flows down along the line of maximum gradient. Water flowing
downward sketches and etches the landscape through which it flows. Human communities have learnt to thrive all along the journey of a
Water- rain, mist and dew dissolves, transports and deposits, chips, flowing river, adapting themselves to the rhythms of the diversity of
scrapes and chisels, corrodes, erodes and erases, sieves and shifts, ecosystems within the river basin like forests, riparian ecosystems,
compacts all substances within its reach, whether lover of water or a backwater ecosystems, wetlands, flood plains, mangrove ecosystems etc.
hater, keeping the distance. Running water picks up grains of sand and
Over centuries, there has been a gradual shift in the way different human
silt in this dance forward, this in turn increases its mass and slows down
communities view their rivers. We have at one extreme, tribal cultures
the flow. As it slows down, the river leaves behind sediments. If too that still consider river as goddess or the giver of life. For them a river
much of sediment is shed, then it speeds up again, and the entire sequence personifies more than a source of livelihood. At the other extreme we
is repeated. This process of balancing energy, discharge, sediment load, have the river being viewed as a service by engineers and bureaucrats
and gradient operates all along the course to the sea. And it is the effects who tame the rivers for development of an anthropocentric society; in
of these that we see as erosion or deposition all along the rivers profile. other words, the maximum dams and diversions that can be built to
These are the processes that cause problems of eroding banks and flooded utilise river waters for human benefit alone. We also have the industrial
back swamps and siltation. But they are inseparable components of river and sand mining lobbies and agencies that view the river as a commodity
behaviour and have produced scenic valleys, fertile alluvial plains and that can be extracted indefinitely. We have also reached the stage wherein
deltas.32 river waters are increasingly viewed as a private property that can be
Rivers carry downhill not only water but also sediments, dissolved minerals sold rather than a common resource to the extent of virtual water trade.
and nutrient rich detritus of plants and animals, both dead and alive. Rivers have also been routes for inland navigation and trade through
The ever- shifting beds and banks and the groundwater below are all their civilisations. Towns and cities have also been using (and misusing) rivers
integral parts. By soaking the rain like a wet sponge, communities of to discharge their wastes. The major cities of the world have evolved and
plants manage to staunch some rain, encouraging it to seep through developed along riverbanks. Parallel to this, misuse, mismanagement,
crevices into underground aquifers. From here, it continues to flow over extraction and alteration of the river basins through human
downstream; even long after monsoon is over. It is these aquifers that interventions for various reasons over centuries has led to flowing rivers
supply our wells and feed our rivers.29 losing their dynamic quality and character. Many rivers all over the world
have been either fragmented, lost their way to the sea, stopped flowing
The diversity of a river lies not only in the variety of terrain it flows through.
or simply disappeared into the depths.
Seasonal and annual variations in the quantity of water, sediment and
nutrients drained by a watershed can be substantial, especially in dry Whats happening to our rivers?
areas where most of a years rain may fall in just a few individual storms. Fresh water environments are deeply vulnerable to mankinds exploitation,
All land is part of a watershed or river basin and the water, which flows with the worlds rivers and wetlands heading for calamitous and permanent
over it and through it, shapes all land. The characteristic of a watershed ecological degradation. Diminished flow in river deltas and estuaries is a
is decided by the flow of the stream or river. Conversely, flowing water is singular phenomenon in almost all the major rivers in the world. And the
capable of changing the characteristics of a watershed over years. The reasons are many.
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Most of the larger rivers like the Nile, the Ganges, the Amu Darya and regulate its seasonal pattern of floods and low flows.24 Increasing salt
Syr Darye, the Huang He are each now so dammed, diverted or over water ingress in the downstream areas due to reduced downstream flow,
tapped that for parts of the year, little or none of their fresh water reaches the degradation of flood plains, the erosion of species diversity in the
the sea. Worldwide, dams collectively store on the order of 6000 cu. km. river, estuary and deltaic systems due to reduced freshwater flow, the
of water- equal to 15 per cent of the earths annual renewable water reduction in nutrient flow into the sea etc. can be traced to the impact
supply. Thousands of kilometres of diversion canals siphon water out of of dams and other interventions in the upstream.
rivers and reservoirs and deliver it to where and when needed to expanding
Studies world over show the disastrous impacts of blocking fresh water
cities and farming regions. Many rivers now resemble elaborate plumbing
flows into the sea. In Pakistan and India, diversions on the mighty Indus
works, with the timing and amount of flow completely controlled by
river and its tributaries have reduced water outflows into the Arabian
planners and engineers so as to maximize the rivers benefit to human
sea by 80 per cent, destroying deltaic mangroves, which once stretched
activity.30
over 2,50,000 ha and were spawning grounds for coastal and mangrove
Heavy deforestation of the river catchments through human interventions fisheries. Dams in the US have reduced the sediment outflow along the
along with the pressure of rising populations on water resources, increasing Californian coast by four fifths, destroying beaches, causing cliff collapses
water pollution, heavy sand mining, human encroachments into flood and resulting in damage worth millions of dollars. Drying up of the mighty
plains, rapid urbanisation, tourism, polluting industries and dumping of Aral Sea in the erstwhile Soviet Union is a classic instance of what
waste, are among the other important growing threats to the ecological tampering with rivers that drained into it has done to the sea and its
integrity of the worlds rivers. Dams are the main physical threat, ecosystem. Already, the Yalu and Colorado rivers do not reach the ocean.
fragmenting and transforming rivers. Dams have been built across the Only ten per cent of the Nile River reaches the Mediterranean.38 In the so
worlds rivers since thousands of years. called water surplus state of Kerala, the construction of so many dams
The last century witnessed the largest dam building activity. To date we across the small rivers has resulted in increasing saline ingress upstream
have more than 45,000 large dams over most of the major rivers of the over years due to the drastic reduction in the summer flow. Addressing
world. By building more than 4000 large dams, India is the third largest river water diversions also means trying to assess the ecological functions
dam builder on earth after China and the USA. At present India tops of a river system that humans can never substitute by any technology
the list of countries for dams under construction. As per the World as the examples indicate.
Commission on Dams findings the most important impact of dams is The evolutionary purpose of a flowing river, that includes delivering
the physical transformation of rivers. World Resources Institute estimates nutrients to the sea, with their complex food webs; sustaining
that atleast one large dam modifies 46 per cent of worlds 106 primary economically and culturally important fisheries; protecting wetlands, with
watersheds.45 their capacity to filter out pollutants; providing habitat for a rich diversity
The damming of rivers has brought a profound change to watersheds. of aquatic life; safeguarding fertile deltas; protecting water quality;
A wild river is dynamic, forever changing- eroding its bed, depositing silt, maintaining salt and sediment balances; and offering some of the most
seeking a new course, bursting its banks, drying up. It is the most active inspirational beauty of the planet seems to have been almost always
element in a landscape, being the dominant factor shaping the landforms overlooked.30 The upstream downstream linkages of a river are also always
and livelihoods. The domain of a river is effectively the same as its ignored. Probably, it will be too late when we as a race realize that a
catchment and any engineering changes in the regime affect the whole river has to flow in its natural course for our own survival.
catchment. A dam is static- it tries to bring a river under control, to
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What are the issues to be addressed? The present dependence on the river basin is an important aspect often
overlooked while deciding that water from that river can be diverted to
Against the above backdrop of the need for a holistic understanding of
another. In other words, the quantum of water that is already used for
river systems, addressing river water diversions becomes a challenging
various needs by the downstream population, the minimum stream flow
task. Challenging because, on one side, it raises the larger question of a
required for the river to perform its ecological functions etc. When rivers
need for a mind shift in the perception about our rivers and their functions.
course their way through forests, cultivated and settled lands, they carry
On the other side, it demands an honest assessment of the complex
and deposit huge amounts of silt. They also gather more and more water
issues involved in river diversions. What has not been looked into so far
through the many tributaries finally discharging enormous quantities of
in the existing river diversions? What is the actual gain and actual loss in
fresh water into the deltas and river mouths. In doing so, they perform
these negotiations over water? Some of the important issues are discussed
atleast three critical functions: deposition of silt and sediments along the
here.
course, and finally in very large quantities into the river mouth and coastal
Accurate and adequate database on the hydrology of the river basin is or marine areas beyond the river mouth. The silt helps to form the coast,
the minimum prerequisite to plan any water resource project. Do we stave off sea coast-induced erosion, strengthen riverbanks, and enrich
have an accurate hydrological database of the river basins in India? The the water with nutrients critical for coastal life survival; continuous pushing
answer would be a big no! Most often, past experiences indicate that the out of the sea, which would otherwise invade deep into the land; infusion
hydrological database has been created to fit in the already planned of freshwater into the saline waters of the coast, helping to maintain a
and designed projects. The database is usually a far cry from the actual delicate balance of pH and other factors that are critical for marine
field level situations. The hydrological changes and factors influencing life.38 On the other side, an assessment of whether the existing water use
hydrology are never taken into consideration while planning and designing in the so called deficit river basin is judicious and optimum and not
a project. Since there are no actual or accurate data available, clearances wasteful or Polluting is seldom attempted while planning river diversions.
for many hydro or irrigation projects in the country are granted on the
Are river diversions decided more on the basis of a hidden political agenda
basis of false or fabricated database. The case of the Sardar Sarovar
than on the actual need of the receiving state? It is a well-known fact
Project across the river Narmada and the proposed Athirappilly Hydro
that assured water supply is the basis for assured votes in many states.
electric project in Chalakudy River in Kerala are classic examples of the
So making water available by any means often becomes the means for
same. In the case of Narmada, it was revealed after several years that
gaining political leverage. While so much hue and cry is raised by the so
the actual flow in the river is atleast 27 percent less than what was
called water deficit states, there is seldom any political attempt to make
projected. As for the proposed Athirappilly HEP, the project authorities
a realistic assessment of the existing local and regional water resources
fabricated the entire data base to show that sufficient water is available
that can be developed, utilized or managed more efficiently. There is no
for the project that is planned after six dams upstream out of which four
honest attempt to assess why and how these states have attained such a
are inter state and inter basin diversions. The reduction in flow after
dismal status of water scarcity. Given the increasing ecological degradation
diversion is not reflected in the database. To top it all, maximum stream
of the catchments that give birth to the rivers, will the diversions made
flow has been recorded in 1987-88 a drought year in India! Hence the
possible by such massive investments serve any purpose? In other words
larger issue that arises in this context is whether the inferences on surplus
is any attempt made to link up the degradation with the change in the
and deficit river basins can be accepted based on such data base
hydrological regime? Existing river diversions and their performance may
provided by the authorities?
serve as an indicator to this change.
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Any Inter basin transfer has associated with it three classes of costs.
individual riparian owners is the same as in England. But this doctrine
These include the direct construction costs, operating and maintenance
does not apply in the allocation of waters of an inter state river between
costs and the opportunity costs of both land involved at the project site
the different coriparian states. Under the Constitution of India also, a
or sites and the water in the area of origin, and the external costs imposed
coriparian state is not free to develop an inter state river regardless of
on parties removed from the project site. External costs may stem from
the injury to the other coriparian states. Though the Parliament has
water quality degradation, or they may take the form of a loss of income
provided the adjudicatory machinery in the Inter State Water Disputes
to immobile resources in regions, which lose out competitively to those
Act, the statute is silent as to the principles to be followed in the settlement
receiving new water. Such methods of applying forward and backward
of inter state water disputes.17
linkages of water related activities are never estimated while planning
the cost of huge river water transfers. Many a times a river development project by one riparian state on an
interstate river may submerge the territory of another riparian state. So
The costs of irrigation or hydropower projects are mostly estimated based
it is reasonable that the state that uses the territory of another state for
on the direct cost of construction, operation and maintenance alone.
storage purposes pays compensation to the latter. Many international
The benefits are estimated based on either the area and production
treaties carry provisions for payment of compensation in such cases.
increase due to irrigation or the hydropower generated from the projects.
The treaty concluded in 1964 between the USA and Canada over
Irrigation water and hydropower cost being subsidized in the Indian
Columbia River, provides for payment of compensation to Canada.
scenario, the actual cost benefit estimation becomes further skewed.
Initially the USA did not want to pay compensation beyond the value of
Hence while addressing gigantic water transfers like the Inter Linking of
land and cost of resettling people dislocated owing to submergence of
Rivers as planned in India, the estimation of the actual costs of water
Canadian land. However Canada insisted on the sharing of downstream
lost to the livelihoods of downstream areas of the links and the actual
benefits and the principle of compensation was embodied in the treaty.
benefits remain to be visualized let alone worked out. The cost of
In India, the principle is well accepted that the coriparian state, whose
displacement of communities and livelihoods due to the dams and
river project floods the area of another coriparian state, should pay
diversion structures, reservoirs and canals is another aspect that goes
compensation to the latter. In addition to the monetary compensation
unaccounted for in the real cost of river diversions.
for the acquisition of land required for the project, and resettlement of
Another serious issue that arises in the case of Inter state or Inter basin oustees, certain benefits by way of irrigation or power maybe given to
diversions is whether a river/tributary can be completely diverted from the state whose lands are submerged by the river project. For instance,
the point of diversion without allowing a minimum flow below the point the construction of the Bajaj Sagar dam by Rajasthan and Gujarat on
of diversion? Or whether a river can be diverted into another river basin the Mahe River, in the territory of Rajasthan would flood some areas in
without ensuring minimum flow to fulfill the downstream needs? There Madhya Pradesh. Therefore it was agreed that Madhya Pradesh should
are several doctrines in relation to the rights of coriparians to use the be compensated by giving it a share of project benefits.6
waters of an inter state river. As per the doctrine of riparian rights, each
To what extent are these issues addressed and the various rights honored
coriparian has the right to have waters flow pass his lands undiminished
in the various cases of existing river water diversions involving Kerala?
in quantity and unimpaired in quality. In practice this amounts to denial
The ensuing analyses and discussions are intended to throw light on
of right to divert streams beyond the riparian lands or to consume water
such issues as well.
beyond the natural uses of human requirements and domestic needs.
Strict natural flow theory of riparian rights is followed in England with
regard to private proprietary rights of water. Law in India as between
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Tragedy of Commons
Tragedy of Commons Kerala Experience
encroachments etc. In the downstream areas, massive sand mining in
! the rivers, urban and industrial pollution has taken its toll as well. Rivers
like Bharathapuzha are breathing their last and Periyar, Pamba,
Kerala Experience Chalakudypuzha etc. are following suit.

The history of dams in Kerala began with the Mullaperiyar dam in the
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
Periyar commissioned in 1895.This dam constructed by the erstwhile
Madras State in Travancore State diverts the west flowing river to the
It is often stated that surplus water is available in Kerala
east. The first dam in the State before state formation was Kundala
and this can be diverted to prevent water from joining
dam again in Periyar as a part of Pallivassal HEP built in the 1940s.
the sea and to feed the scarcity areas in Tamil Nadu. In
The first irrigation project in the Kerala State, the Peechi Irrigation Project,
view of the fact that the rivers are very small and required
was built in the 1950s in the tributary of the Karuvannur River. Since
by Kerala, diversion is not possible.
50 years of independence, Kerala has already built about 60 large and
K.L. Rao, 198427 medium dams for irrigation and electricity concentrated on just 10 rivers
The State of Kerala is endowed with 44 short rivers originating from the of the State. The four rivers namely, Periyar, Bharathapuzha,
Western Ghats, out of which 41 flow to the west to drain into the Chalakudypuzha and Pamba have the maximum number of dams built
Lakshadweep Sea. Out of the total area of 38,600 sq.km, atleast 20,000 across them. The first three rivers are already part of Inter state- Inter
sq.km falls within the Western Ghats. The State receives highly intense basin water transfer treaties. Presently, plans to divert the Pamba and
seasonal rainfall of more than 3000 mm, from the southwest (June Achankoil Rivers are also afoot as a part of the Peninsular Link.
September) and northeast (October - December) monsoons. Karnataka Kerala also has a long history in endeavors to transfer water from one
and Tamil Nadu share the border in the east and Lakshadweep Sea in river basin to another for irrigation, power generation and drinking water.
the west. Three rivers viz. Bhavani, Kabani and Pambar flowing towards One of the earliest instances of inter-basin transfers in the peninsular
the east form the tributaries of Cauvery River that finally drains into the region was from the upper reaches of the Periyar to another river basin
Bay of Bengal. All the 44 rivers were once perennial and sustained in Tamil Nadu across the Western Ghats. This was made possible by
livelihoods and agriculture in the midlands and plains. The rivers of constructing a dam on the Mullaperiyar River the tributary of Periyar
Kerala are infact cradle of life, and 92.9 per cent of its population depends (The Periyar Project) more than a century ago. Two other major projects
on the rivers for its existence. About 11.5 per cent of Keralas labour is that stand out in Kerala are the Parambikulam- Aliyar Project and the
employed in river navigation activities and river exploiting enterprises, Siruvani Drinking Water Project. The Parambikulam-Aliyar Project diverts
and 46.5 per cent of inland goods movement is through its rivers and water from the upper reaches of the three major west flowing rivers-
interconnected backwaters and canals which also account for 42.26 per Periyar, Chalakudypuzha and Bharathapuzha to the eastern state of
cent of the states total transport facilities and 97.34 per cent of Keralites Tamil Nadu. The Siruvani Drinking Water Scheme in the Bhavani basin
are fish eaters who get 37.7 per cent of their supplies from their diverts water from the upper reaches of the Siruvani River (tributary) in
rivers(Times of India, 1962). the Bhavani basin to meet the drinking water needs of Coimbatore district
The upper catchments of all these rivers, the Western Ghats has been in Tamil Nadu. Water from Neyyar reservoir in South Kerala is utilised
subjected to massive deforestation over the past one hundred and fifty by Tamil Nadu for irrigating parts of Kanyakumari District without any
years in the name of industrial and agricultural plantations, dams, human formal agreements. Upper Bhavani, East and West Varahappallam in
the Bhavani River were also diverted to Tamil Nadu minus any agreement.
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If one briefly glances through the current status of all the three existing
Agreements involving river diversions in Kerala, viz; Mullaperiyar,
Parambikulam Aliyar and Siruvani, it is revealed that there has been
consistent demand for increase of the quantum of water diverted in all
the cases. There has also been consistent increase in either the ayacut or
Parambikulam- Aliyar Project:
drinking water needs of the state receiving the water. There has been
significant shifts in the cropping pattern in the ayacut of the receiving
An Analysis
state after the river diversions came into existence. Similarly the diversity WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
of water use has multiplied resulting in conflicts between new and old The Parambikulam - Aliyar Project (PAP), which is often wrongly quoted
consumers. The conflicts between the water giver and receiver state has by many as a shining example of inter state co-operation in river water
also been erupting time and again especially during summer and drought. sharing, is a multi basin inter-state project. Three important west flowing
Drought has in turn become a recurrent phenomenon in both the states. rivers in the peninsula, the Periyar, the Bharathapuzha and the
The disagreement over the allocation or release of due share of water to Chalakudypuzha are involved in this project. Water from Nirar- tributary
the donor state to meet its riparian rights has become another burning of Periyar, the Sholayar, Parambikulam Aar, Thunacadavu Aar and
issue of contention in two of these cases. New schemes are being planned Peruvarippallam Aar- tributaries of Chalakudypuzha, and Aliyar and
for river valley development and to meet the ever-increasing demand for Palar- tributaries of Bharathapuzha are diverted in the Parambikulam -
irrigation and drinking water needs on both sides that will put further Aliyar Project. Series of dams and related structures were constructed
pressure on water. In a nutshell, the above scenario presents the multitudes across these three rivers. The project was conceived by the Government
of conflicts that are released as from a Pandoras box once a river is of Tamil Nadu for its benefit and proposed to the state of Kerala. Even
diverted. Conflicts within conflicts and conflicts leading to further conflicts though the project was, is and will be mainly to serve the interests of
over water sharing and allocation assumes the nature of a never ending Tamil Nadu, documents and official literature on the project claims this
political and legal imbroglio that neither is easy to solve nor intended to to be mutually beneficial. One has to look at only a single aspect to find
be solved easily. out that this was not in the interest of the lower riparian state; Kerala.
Three direct experiences of Kerala are presented here. Out of these an The Government of Tamil Nadu, the upper riparian state does not have
indepth analysis of the Parambikulam Aliyar Project is carried out basin needs in Periyar and Chalakudypuzha and they could have utilised
explicitly because it is one of the most complex and complicated river the water from these basins by trans-basin diversion only and the most
water diversions in India involving eight tributaries of three west flowing viable route for the same was through Kerala territories, whereas Kerala
peninsular rivers. The Mullaperiyar and Siruvani river diversion experiences already was utilising water from these rivers and had scope for further
are also presented followed by Neyyar diversion to Tamil Nadu (with out utilisation. In this context if Kerala had refused permission for the project
a formal agrement) and the proposed Pandiyar - Punnampuzha diversions and opted for apportioning of water in each basin separately, the state
both tributaries of Chaliyar River. would have gained more. But this was not to be and Kerala, it is said,
was forced to give its consent to the project. Before entering into the
details of the project, a brief overview of the river basins involved will
assist in better understanding. As already stated, the Parambikulam-
Aliyar project involves three river basins namely, Periyar, Chalakudypuzha
and the Bharathapuzha.
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tributaries, heavy sand mining in midlands and pollution from industries
Periyar River
has severely reduced the river flow and quality.
Periyar River originating from the Sivagiri Hills of Tamil Nadu is the
Nirar, a tributary of Periyar is involved in the PAP Treaty. It flows through
longest river in Kerala. The total catchment of the river is 5398 sq.km
the northeastern catchment of the river basin through Kallar Estate and
out of which 114-sq.km lies in Tamil Nadu. The river originates at an
joins Idamalayar, a major tributary of Periyar. The Idamalayar River has
elevation of about 1830 m above mean sea level (MSL) and traverses
a multipurpose dam with 75 MW generation capacity and has an irrigation
through rock cliffs in a northerly direction. 5
component. Water from the Upper Nirar Weir and Lower Nirar dam of
The major tributaries of the river are: Mullayar, which joins the river at the Nirar is diverted towards north into the Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam in
an elevation of 854 m above MSL, Perumthurai Aar, Kattapanayar which the Chalakudypuzha basin. (Map 1)
joins at an elevation of 640 m above MSL, Cheruthoni Aar, Chittar,
Chalakudypuzha
Perinjankutty Aar, Muthirapuzha, Thottiyar and Idamalayar. From
Bhoothathankettu the river flows through the plains along the historically The 144 km long Chalakudypuzha, the fifth largest river in Kerala, having
famous Kalady, the birthplace of Sri.Shankaracharya upto Aluva, where a catchment area of 1704 sq.km flows north of Periyar. The major
it bifurcates into Mangalampuzha and Marthandavarma branches. The tributaries of the river include the Kuriarkutty Aar originating from the
Mangalampuzha branch, flowing in a north westerly direction is joined Chamannampathy hills, which has two sub-tributaries namely Veetiaar
by the Chalakudypuzha at Elanthikkara and then flows together into the and Thekkadiaar. South of Kuriarkutty valley is the Parambikulam plateau
Lakshadweep Sea at Azhikode, the famous fishing township. The other located at an elevation of about 500m MSL. The Parambikulam Aar
branch taking a southerly direction flows through the Industrial Belt of (rivulet), Thunacadavu Aar and Peruvarippallam Aar originate from the
Eloor, one of the Global Toxic Hotspots. Parambikulam Plateau. The Sholayar River, one of the main tributaries
originating from the Anamalai Hills in the east joins the Parambikulam
As per the Water Resources of Kerala, (1974), the total utilisable yield
Aar about two kms upstream of Orukombankooty. The Karappara River
of Periyar is estimated at 8230 Mcum (290.6 tmc ft) out of which 226
originating from the Nelliampathy hills at an elevation of about 1400 m
Mcum (8 tmc ft) is from Tamil Nadu. Atleast 30 lakh people depend on
MSL, in the northern part of the catchment, joins the main river at
the Periyar for their daily needs. Kochi, the largest metropolitan in Kerala,
Orukombankooty. From here the river is known as Chalakudypuzha. Out
almost entirely depends on this river for its water requirement. The Periyar
of the total catchment of 1704 sq.km, 300-sq.km lies in Tamil Nadu.
River has a total of 17 dams built across its various tributaries and the
Total utilisable yield of the river basin is estimated at 2033 Mcum (71.8
main river in its 244 km long and precipitous journey to the Lakshadweep
tmc ft) out of which 494Mcum (17.4 tmc ft) is expected from Tamil Nadu
Sea. The Mullaperiyar Project, one of the oldest Inter State River Water
(Water Resources of Kerala, 1974).
Diversion Project in India is situated in this river basin. The largest Hydro
Electric Project (HEP) in Kerala the Idukki HEP with 780 MW installed Chalakudypuzha is famous for its rich fish diversity; atleast 104 fish species
capacity, is situated downstream of Mullaperiyar project. The Eloor have been located from this river. The National Bureau of Fish Genetic
industrial belt contains atleast 240 odd large and small industries that Resources has recommended the upstream areas of the river to be declared
directly depend on the river. Forming numerous deltas, the river finally as a fish sanctuary. The beautiful waterfalls at Vazhachal and Athirappilly
drains into the Vembanad Lake. make this river a major tourist attraction.
Massive deforestation for agricultural plantations in the High Ranges Five dams constructed in this river namely Parambikulam, Thunacadavu,
starting from the British regime, dams across almost all the major Peruvarippallam, Tamil Nadu Sholayar and Kerala Sholayar are part of
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the Parambikulm Aliyar Project. Except for Kerala Sholayar dam, Tamil Often, searching for immediate and immature solutions, which does not
Nadu owns all the others. The Poringalkuthu Hydro Electric Project the resolve the core issue or may actually aggravate the conflict becomes
second HEP in the State commissioned in 1957 and the Chalakudy the only objective of the respective authorities involved, mainly due to
River Diversion Scheme (CRDS) both situated in the main political compulsions.
Chalakudypuzha were in operation even before the work on PAP began.
The history of Parambikulam-Aliyar Project (PAP) dates back to 1921
A population of about 10 lakh directly depend on the river for various
when Sri. R.N. Arogyaswami Mudaliar, an engineer of Madras P.W.D,
uses. Inter basin water transfers, degradation of the catchment, dams,
envisaged the diversion of waters of Chalakudypuzha. But his proposal
heavy sand mining, and saline ingress are taking their toll on the river.
did not receive any attention at that time. Later the farmers of
Bharathapuzha Vettaikkaranpudur and Anamalai villages in Coimbatore district pressed
for diversion of east flowing rivers to irrigate dry lands in the Coimbatore
Bharathapuzha, originating from the Anamalai hills at an elevation of
plains. Based on the representation of the farmers of Pollachi Taluk, this
1964 m MSL. is the largest river in Kerala with respect to catchment
scheme was revived in 1947. The first feasibility report was prepared in
area. The major tributaries of this river are Chitturpuzha, Gayathripuzha,
1952 by the then Chief Engineer, Irrigation of Madras State. In June
Kalpathypuzha and Thoothapuzha. The Chitturpuzha also called
1955, Sri. U.Ananda Rao the then Chief Engineer, irrigation of Madras
Kannadipuzha originates from the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
State, submitted the report for the inter-basin multipurpose scheme to the
in Tamil Nadu; the Aliyar, Uppar and Palar being its sub tributaries.
Government of Madras. That report contained storage and diversion
Kalpathypuzha is formed by the confluence of four sub tributaries namely
proposals for the Parambikulam group of rivers and Aliyar and Palar only.
Korayar, Varattayar, Walayar and Malampuzha. Thoothapuzha is formed
Nirar and Sholayar were later added to the scheme. The proposal was
by the confluence of Kunthi- originating from the famous Silent Valley
later submitted to the erstwhile Travancore-Cochin Government in 1955
National Park, the Kanjirapuzha and the Thuppanadupuzha. This joins
for its approval. The two governments held talks on the issue on several
the main river at Pallipuram. From Pallipuram, Bharathapuzha flows
occasions at the instance of the Central Water and Power Commission
west draining into the Lakshadweep Sea at Ponnani.
and Union Planning Commission. In 1958, the ministry of Kerala headed
The river has a total catchment area of 6186 sq.km, out of which 1786 by Sri. E.M.S. Namboothiripad finally agreed to the implementation of
sq.km lies in Tamil Nadu. The total length of the river is 209 km, second the PAP and the first agreement between the states on the project was
longest after Periyar. The total annual utilisable yield of the river is signed on 9th November 1958. The work on the project started immediately
estimated as 4146 Mcum (146.4 tmc ft) out of which 797 Mcum (28 afterwards. Supplementary agreements on the project were signed on 4th
tmc ft) is expected from Tamil Nadu.18 Two streams the Palar and Aliyar July 1960 and 10th May, 1969. A Comprehensive Agreement with
are involved in the Parambikulam Aliyar Project. All the major tributaries retrospective from 9th November 1958 was signed on 29th May 1970 between
of Bharathapuzha River have been dammed for irrigation purposes since the Kerala and Tamil Nadu governments with a provision for review once
1950s. Human interference has depleted the river so much that in every 30 years.
Bharathapuzha, once the cultural abode of the State is considered a
The work on the project started with the Parambikulam dam, the
dead river.
foundation stone to which was laid by Sri. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime
History of the Project Minister of India. The Aliyar dam was the first to be completed in 1962.
The actual situations that led to Inter state or Inter basin water transfers The Thunacadavu dam was completed in 1965 and Parambikulam in
are often buried by the time the issue assumes the nature of a dispute. 1967. The Kerala Sholayar was commissioned during 1966 followed by
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both the Tamil Nadu Sholayar and Peruvarippallam in 1971. Other dams/ after all these years, there has neither been a consensus or single opinion
weirs were commissioned subsequently. among the different political parties in Kerala on the need to demand
the rightful allocation from the PAP treaty. On the contrary, the consensus
The proposal for PAP had initially met with stiff resistance from various
has been very strong on the Tamil Nadu side.
quarters in the state of Kerala. But the political climate in the country
was such that the voice of the state or its predecessor, the Travancore- The Project
Cochin state were not heard at the highest decision making bodies.
The Parambikulam Aliyar Project includes ten dams, its reservoirs, tunnels
The Presidents rule, imposed on 23rd March 1956 in Travancore-Cochin and canal systems to divert water from the tributaries of the west flowing
state had also helped the project, as discussion on the project were river basins viz. Periyar, Chalakudypuzha and Bharathapuzha to Tamil
continued by the administrators in the absence of an elected government. Nadu. Details of the structures involved in the project are given below.
On 1 st November 1956, linguistic state of Kerala came into existence
with the union of Travancore- Cochin and Malabar. The first government
Periyar Basin
of the new state took office in 1957. Incidentally, the government headed Two structures namely Upper Nirar Weir and Lower Nirar Dam were
by Sri E.M.Sankaran Namboothiripad was the first ever-elected constructed as part of the PAP agreement in the Nirar tributary.
communist government in the whole world. Even the formation of an
Upper Nirar Weir
elected government in the state did not change the scenario. The Congress
led Kamaraj government of Tamil Nadu had a very strong influence on Salient features of the weir is as follows
the centre whereas the E.M.S ministry, led by the communist party, was Basin : Periyar
never a favourite of the centre. (In fact the political difference was so Tributary : Nirar
strong that the centre ultimately dismissed the communist government District : Coimbatore
in 1959). The opposition to the project from politicians, media, officials Max. Height : 25.91m
etc was overcome; it seems by the pressure tactics adopted by the Central Length : 132.59 m
Government. The adhoc committee of Kerala legislature, in its report on Full Reservoir Level : 1158 m above MSL
PAP and Mullaperiyar says that the Central Government had made Catchment : 75.11 sq.km.
consent to the PAP a pre-condition for sanctioning many development Storage Capacity : 1.10 Mcum
projects of the state. Construction period : 1970 75
Tunnel to Tamil Nadu Sholayar
The Parambikulam Aliyar Project has been one of the most discussed
Length : 4.267 km
Inter basin transfers in Kerala both at the media and government level.
Diameter : 6.09 m
There is not a single ministry in the State that has not made statements
Carrying capacity : 73.6 m3/sec
or claims or promises over the revision of the Agreement, which was
long due since 1988. In fact the complexity of the PAP Agreement, its The Upper Nirar weir is intended to divert the water in the river to the
vagueness, its terms and conditions and the very complicated system of Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam through a tunnel. Two river sluices (1.52m x
water transfer itself makes it difficult to comprehend the issue at a 1.83 m each) are provided to let water into the river from October 1st to
laymans level. Hence, unlike Mullaperiyar or Cauvery disputes, PAP January 31st. The catchment, 60 percent of which is in Kerala and the
never assumed the form of a dispute at the common citizens level. Even rest in Tamil Nadu, receives high rainfall of about 4500 mm on an average.
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Lower Nirar Dam weir and Lower Nirar dam. Two
Salient features of the dam is as follows powerhouses, Power House I diverts water
Basin : Periyar to the Parambikulam dam and Power
Tributary : Nirar House II into the river to reach Kerala
District : Coimbatore Sholayar Dam. In the first agreement in
Max. Height : 50.29 m 1958, only a weir to divert 2.5 tmc ft of
Length : 188 m water was envisaged at Upper Sholayar.
Full Reservoir Level : 1021 m above MSL Subsequently this was changed into a storage reservoir in the supplementary
Catchment : 37.2 sq.km. agreement of 1960.
Storage Capacity : 7.8 Mcum Salient features
Construction period : 1974 - 82
Tunnel to Tamil Nadu Sholayar Basin : Chalakudypuzha
Length : 8 km Tributary : Sholayar
Diameter : 6.7 m District : Coimbatore
Carrying capacity : 62.29 m3/sec Max. Height : 105.16 m
Length : 899 m (Earth) & 345 m (Masonary)
The Lower Nirar dam was constructed at a distance of just 8 km below Full Reservoir Level : 1004 m above MSL
the Upper Nirar Weir. This dam receives water from the free catchment Storage : 152.70 Mcum
of 37.2 sq. km that lies in Tamil Nadu. Water received from the Upper Catchment Area : 121.72 sq.km
Nirar Weir (from October to January) has been allotted to Kerala from Construction Period : 1961 - 71
the Lower Nirar Dam through a river sluice (1.52m x1.83m). As per the Power
agreement, water from the free catchment of the Lower Nirar Dam is Power House I : 2 x 35 MW
diverted through a partially lined 8 km long tunnel to Tamil Nadu Sholayar Head : 409 m
Dam in the Chalakudypuzha Basin. Max. Discharge from PH1 : 2 x 10.62 m3/sec
Chalakudypuzha Basin Power House II : 1 x 25 MW
Head : 155.5 m
As part of the project, Tamil Nadu has constructed four dams across the Max. Discharge from PH2 : 20.59 m3/sec
four tributaries of the Chalakudypuzha. They are Tamil Nadu Sholayar
dam, Parambikulam, Thunacadavu and Peruvarippallam dams. The last Kerala Sholayar Dam
three dams have been built in Kerala by Tamil Nadu and are owned and This is the only structure constructed by Kerala as part of the project.
operated by them. The Kerala Sholayar dam, built and operated by The basic features of this dam is as below:
Kerala, is also a part of PAP.
Basin : Chalakudypuzha
Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam Tributary : Sholayar
District : Thrissur
The Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam (Upper Sholayar), the highest dam in
Max. Height : 57.6 m
Tamil Nadu at 105.16 m serves to store and divert water from the
Length : 396.24 m
catchment of the Sholayar river and the water diverted from Upper Nirar
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Full Reservoir Level : 811.7 m above MSL Thunacadavu Dam
Storage : 153.60 MCum
Tamil Nadu takes its share of water
Catchment Area : 64.7 sq.km
from the Periyar and Chalakudypuzha
Construction Period : 1961 - 66
basins through Thunacadavu dam.
Power : 54 MW
Water is diverted through a 3.85 km
Head : 320 m
long 3.66 m diameter horseshoe
Maxi. Discharge : 3 x 7.5 m3/sec
tunnel to Sarkarpathy Power House
As per the agreement 12.3-tmc ft of water should be available for power (30 MW) situated in Tamil Nadu.
generation at specific periods each year in this reservoir. The water after Thunacadavu reservoir and the
power generation is released into Chalakudypuzha through Anakayam Sarkarpathy tunnel were inaugurated by Dr.K.L Rao on 12 th January
thodu a small stream joining the Chalakudypuzha at Anakayam. 1967.
Parambikulam Dam The details of this storage and balancing reservoir are as follows.
Parambikulam dam has the largest reservoir in the PAP system. The Basin : Chalakudypuzha
details are as below. Tributary : Thunacadavu Aar
District : Palakkad
Max. Height : 25.91m
Tributary : Parambikulam Aar
Length : Earth dam: 579.12 m & Masonry: 318.21m
District : Palakkad
Full Reservoir Level : 539.50 m above MSL
Storage : 15.8 Mcum
Length : Earth dam: 579.12 m & Masonry: 318.21m
Catchment Area : 43.2 sq.km
Construction Period : 1963-65
Storage : 504.66 Mcum
Catchment Area : 228.41 sq.km Peruvarippallam Dam
Construction Period : 1959-67
A 571 m long open channel connects
Other than water from its own catchment, water from Tamil Nadu Peruvarippallam and Thunacadavu
Sholayar along with water dams. This along with Thunacadavu
diverted from the Upper and dam functions as twin balancing
Lower Nirar reaches reservoirs. Peruvarippallam reservoir has
Parambikulam reservoir after no river outlet. The details are as below:
power generation at Power
House No.I. The water from
Tributary : Peruvarippallam Aar
Parambikulam reser voir is
District : Palakkad
diverted to Thunacadavu
reservoir through a 2 km long
Length : 466.34 m
tunnel.
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Storage : 2.90 Mcum District : Coimbatore
Catchment Area : 15.8 sq.km ( Kerala) Installed Capacity : 30 MW
Construction Period : 1965-71 Head : 99.40 m
Discharge : 40 m3 /sec
The Parambikulam, Peruvarippallam and Thunacadavu dams, also
known as the Parambikulam group dams, are situated in Kerala though Aliyar Dam
constructed by Tamil Nadu and the land is still under the control of
The Aliyar dam situated in Tamil Nadu has the following basic features;
Tamil Nadu. While in the Tamil Nadu Government reports and records
the three dams lie in Coimbatore district!3 Basin : Bharathapuzha
Tributary : Aliyar
Contour Canal
District : Coimbatore
The contour canal in the PAP system Height : 44.04 m
is a unique one. This canal carries
Length : 3.2 km
water from Sarkarpathy Power House
Full Reservoir Level : 320 m MSL
to the Aliyar and Thirumoorthy
reservoirs. Provision is also made in Catchment Area : 164.4 sq. km.
this canal to feed Aliyar reservoir, if Maximum storage : 109.43 Mcum
necessary. This canal cuts the natural Construction Period : 1959 - 1962
drains all along its path to The Aliyar dam along with Thirumoorthy dam is central to the scheme
Thirumoorthy and diverts water from several streams including the waters of things as far as Tamil Nadu is concerned. Water from the Periyar and
of Nallar, a tributary of Palar to Thirumoorthy reservoir. Chalakudypuzha basins is diverted to these dams before they are used
Total Length : 49.3 km for irrigation in Tamil Nadu. The Aliyar dam was inaugurated by Sri. K.
Tunnel length : 9.45 km Kamaraj, then Chief Minister of Madras on 2nd October 1962. A part of
Open canal : 39.85 km water from the Periyar and Chalakudy basins are fed into the Aliyar
Bed width : 4.3 m dam from the contour canal through Aliyar feeder canal after power
Full supply depth : 3.4 m generation at Sarkarpathy. The
Discharge : 32.57 m3/sec natural flow in the river is also
stored here and let down to
Bharathapuzha Basin own ayacuts in the state of
Tamil Nadu and to Kerala
Three dams have been constructed as a part of the PAP treaty involving
(Chittur basin). While
the tributaries Aliyar and Palar. Water diverted from Periyar and
Vettaikkaranpudur canal and
Chalakudypuzha is let into the Bharathapuzha basin through Sarkarpathi
Pollachi canal take off from the
powerhouse.
Aliyar dam, the Sethumadai
Sarkarpathi Power House canal branches off from the
Aliyar feeder canal itself.
The basic details of the Sarkarpathy Power House are;
X
30
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Upper Aliyar dam
capacity
36.858
(tmcft)
FRL1 Gross
0.039
0.274
5.392
17.82
0.557
3.864
0.937
1.935
5.42
0.62
This dam is located upstream of the Aliyar dam. This is intended for
electricity generation using the natural flow in the river before water is
let into the Aliyar dam. Salient features of the project is as follows.
The only reservoir owned and operated by Kerala in PAP

3800
3350
3290
2663
1825
1770
1770
1050
2490
1337
ft
River : Bharathapuzha
Table.1 Details of reservoirs/ weirs in the Parambikulam-Aliyar Project.

Tributary : Aliyar
Height
105.16
25.91
50.29
73.15
25.91
27.74
44.04
34.14
57.6
Height : 81 m
81
m
Full Reservoir Level : 761 m above MSL
Storage : 33.19 Mcum.
compl-
State Year of
Catchment : 122.79 sq.km
etion
1975
1982
1971
1966
1967
1965
1971
1962
1971
1967
Installed capacity : 60 MW
Peak Head : 432 m
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Kerala
Max. discharge : 17 m3/sec
TN
TN
TN
TN
TN
TN
Thirumoorthy Dam
The dam receives water from its own catchment and water from the
Coimbatore
Coimbatore
Coimbatore
Coimbatore
Coimbatore
Coimbatore
Sarkarpathy powerhouse through the contour canal. The project was
Loc ation
(District)
Palakkad
Palakkad
Palakkad
inaugurated by Sri.C.Subramaniam, then Union minister for Food and
Thrissur
Agriculture on 12th January 1967. Water from this dam is used for feeding
Parambikulam main canal and the existing old ayacut in the Palar. Water
stored in this dam is used to irrigate 80,826 ha. ayacut ( as per Tamil
Chalakudypuzha
Chalakudypuzha
Chalakudypuzha
Chalakudypuzha
Chalakudypuzha
2
Nadu Govt. reports) in the Coimbatore and Erode districts of Tamil Nadu.
Bharathapuzha
Bharathapuzha
Bharathapuzha
Total storage capacity
FRL Full Reservoir Level

River Basin
Salient features of the Project include;
Periyar
Periyar
Tributary : Palar
Height : 34.14m
Tamil Nadu Sholayar

Length : 2.63 km
Full Reservoir Level : 408 m above MSL
Kerala Sholayar2
Peruvarippallam
Parambikulam
Catchment area : 80.29 sq.km.
Thirumoorthy
Thunacadavu
1
Upper Aliyar
Lower Nirar
Upper Nirar
Storage : 54.80 Mcum. Reservoir
Construction Period : 1962 - 67
Aliyar
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32
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Apart from the agreement there are more dams and diversion weirs in Water from the Upper Nirar and Lower Nirar are first brought to the
the upper reaches of the river Aliyar in Tamil Nadu. One of the main Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam, from where it is taken to the Parambikulam
dams in this is the Kadamparai dam. Vandal dam, Akkamalai and dam along with water from Tamil Nadu Sholayars own catchment. From
Deviyar weirs were constructed to divert water to the Kadamparai dam. Parambikulam, the diverted waters along with water from its own
The water diverted from the Akkamalai weir is supplied and used in the catchment are diverted to Thunacadavu dam. The Peruvaripallam dam
Valparai town in Tamil Nadu. is linked with the Thunacadavu dam through an open canal so that when
water is drawn from Thunacadavu, water from Pervuaripallam also flows
Kadamparai Dam into it. It is from Thunacadavu that Tamil Nadu diverts water from the
This project is designed as a pumped storage hydel project using reversible Periyar and Chalakudy basins into its territory first into the Sarkarpathy
pump turbine, which uses the waters of its own catchment, water stored powerhouse and from there through the contour canal and Aliyar feeder
in the Upper Aliyar and other diversions in the upper regions. The dam is canal into the Aliyar and Thirumoorthy dams. Water from the Periyar
and Chalakudy basins are taken to the Aliyar and Thirumoorthy dams
constructed in the Kadamparai Aar, a tributary of Aliyar. The powerhouse
along a circuitous route. Water is released to Kerala from the Upper Nirar
of this project is located 204 m below ground level.
Weir, Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam and Aliyar dam. (Map 2)
Salient features
The Agreement
Tributary : Kadamparai Aar The existing Parambikulam-Aliyar Agreement for sharing of water from
District : Coimbatore the rivers, the Bharathapuzha, Chalakudypuzha and Periyar was signed
Height : 50 m between Kerala and Tamil Nadu on twentyninth of May 1970. The
Full Reservoir Level : 1149 m above MSL agreement was given retrospective effect from ninth day of November
Storage capacity : 30.85 MCum 1958. Preliminary agreements signed on 9th November 1958, 4th July
Catchment : 22.72 sq.km 1960, 10th May 1969 prior to this ceased to exist with the signing of the
Power 1970 Agreement.
Installed capacity : 400 MW The Agreement, which deals with the tributaries involved, the structures,
Head : 341 m the apportioning of water, financial conditions, provisions for Joint Water
Max. discharge : 150 m3/sec Regulatory Board and miscellaneous provisions, interestingly does not
contain some crucial aspects.
Engineering the river flow ✦ The actual quantity of water available in each tributary is not
The engineering marvel that is the PAP project has to be seen to be specified in the Agreement even though there are some suggestive
believed! The complex system of water transfer, the numerous canals references about some sub basins.
and tunnels crossing the Western Ghats from the east to the west carrying ✦ The actual right or eligibility of the concerned states with respect
the water from the ten dams over long distances proves the incessant to the rivers was also not determined before entering into the
desire of the human race to conquer, rule and manipulate nature to his Agreement.
whims and fancies. The complex system of water diversion in this project
✦ The basin use prior to the Agreement was not even assessed in
is as follows.
some cases.
✦ The Agreement does not have a period either.
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34
X35
The Agreement contains five schedules. and the Nirar dam (hereinafter referred to as the Lower Nirar
catchment) to the Tamil Nadu Sholayar reservoir. This is in lieu of
i. Schedule I deals with the rivers/tributaries involved in the project
the Thekkady dam and reservoir originally proposed as part
and the works that can be carried out as per the Agreement.
of Parambikulam-Aliyar project and subsequently given up
ii. Schedule II, which is the most crucial part, deals with the (Schedule I.2. (vi)).
allocation of water for each state from the tributaries involved.
The portion in bold italics would suggest that Tamil Nadu has a
iii. Financial matters with respect to the construction and rightful claim on the Thekkady Aar and were compensated for giving
maintenance of the different components of the project are dealt up the claim. But the entire catchment of Thekkady Aar, a tributary
with in Schedule III; of Chalakudypuzha is inside Kerala and Tamil Nadu has no rightful
iv. Schedule IV includes several miscellaneous provisions like flood claim on this. The only claim they have on the river is that they
warning, fishing rights, tourism etc. proposed (a dam)! But Tamil Nadu was duly compensated!!
v. Schedule V deals with the constitution, functions and powers The portion in bold (to the extent specified in Schedule II)
of Joint Water Regulatory Board (JWRB) for the Project. suggests diversion to the extent specified in Schedule II, but the second
schedule permits entire diversion from here.
The Agreement also includes two annexures, one dealing with the
fortnightly water requirement for irrigation in Chittur basin in Kerala and 2. Schedule II.1. (ii). The government of Tamil Nadu shall be entitled
the second dealing with the terms and conditions regarding land leased to divert all waters of the river Nirar at the site of the weir mentioned
to Tamil Nadu for the Project purpose. in paragraph 2(i) in Schedule I and utilise the waters for the benefit
of the state of Tamil Nadu provided the entire natural flows in the
The PAP agreement unfortunately cannot be said to have a balanced river during the period 1st October to 31st January every year are let
view on the rights of the rivers, the people dependent on the rivers and down the river for the benefit of the state of Kerala. When
the concerned states. Many social and ecological aspects were ignored; the storage reservoirs contemplated by the Government of Kerala in
laws, norms and precedence regarding Inter-state River water sharing Periyar valley begin to function the entire natural flows of Nirar river
were not considered and it was not even based on sound database. With can be diverted in full every year at the weir site by the Government
the upper riparian state, which incidentally owns only about 10 per cent of Tamil Nadu. The original provision that allots more than 80per
of the total catchment of the three basins combined together, being the cent of the yield to Tamil Nadu, even though majority of catchment
proponent of the scheme it is but understandable to expect that state to is in Kerala, is itself biased against Kerala: the provision for total
claim a major chunk of the benefits of the project. But reaching an diversion at a later stage was totally unwarranted.
agreement on such terms that one state (Kerala) has almost forfeited
many of its lawful rights was surprising. The case of Parambikulam group of rivers is also similar. Here the
dams were constructed by Tamil Nadu inside the state of Kerala and
An analysis of some of the clauses in the agreement can substantiate almost 40 per cent of the catchment falls in the lower riparian state
the point. of Kerala (see Table 2). But while apportioning major share of water
1. Construction of a dam in the Nirar below the diversion weir specified as well as first charge was given to Tamil Nadu (by virtue of incorrect
in item (i) above to store and divert the water to the extent data provided by the project proponent and clever drafting of the
specified in Schedule II in the catchment between the Nirar weir Agreement, the entire yield from these rivers, including that from the
lower riparian state are now utilised by the upper riparian state).
X
36
X 37
Expected yield
The most important part of the Agreement, apart from the rivers
Not mentioned
involved and the structures, which have already been discussed, is
(tmc ft.)
Exclusive of catchment intercepted by contour canal 2 Yield from the intercepted catchment is not included
46.20
0.65
7.65
10.40
2.50
18.50
14. 80
7.00
the second schedule that deals with the apportioning of waters. Even
though there was no official assessment based on stream flow data,
2
of the availability of water, the apportioning was made based on the
Table.2 Catchment area and expected yield in each river basin under PAP
figures provided by the project proponent. But it was later proved

that these figures were not accurate. With hindsight it can even be
assumed that deliberate distortion of figures had taken place to serve
the interest of one party. In fact some dams (Aliyar, Thirumoorthy,
Total area
(sq. km)
570.26
15.80
661.50
64.72
43.25
75.11
21.24
228.41
121.70
121.73
164.40
286.10
inclusive of the catchment area intercepted by Contour canal

Parambikulam, Thunacadavu and Kerala Sholayar dam) of the
project started functioning before the signing of the Treaty and the
actual inflow data in these dams were available. But surprisingly
these data were not considered in the Agreement. The anticipated
yield in each river basin at the time of Agreement is given in the
Table 2
Kerala
0
0.00
0.00
15.80
64.72
221.65
23.31
0.00
46.62
0.00
71.20
0.00
Catchment area (sq.km.)
A total amount of 10.4 tmc ft of water was expected annually from the
Upper Nirar weir and 2.5-tmc ft of water was expected from the free
catchment of Lower Nirar Dam below the Upper Nirar weir, tributary of
the Periyar river basin. Total annual yield expected from Nirar was 12.9
tmc ft. Total yield expected from Chalakudypuzha basin was 33.30 tmc
Tamil Nadu
ft.; 14.80-tmc ft. from Sholayar sub basin and 18.50-tmc ft from
-
121.70
0.00
19.94
348.61
661.50
28.49
21.24
157.21
121.73
164.40
286.10
Parambikulam group of rivers. In the upper reaches of Bharathapuzha,

which lies entirely in Tamil Nadu, total yield expected was not mentioned
3
in the Agreement. The expected yield from Aliyar dam and Thirumoorthy
dam was 7 tmc ft and 0.65 tmc ft respectively. The yield from the
uncontrolled catchment above Manacadavu was also not mentioned in
the Agreement.
Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam
b. Parambikulam Sub Basin
Apportioning of waters
Thirumoorthy dam (Palar)
above Manacadavu weir

Peruvarippallam dam
Kerala Sholayar dam
Chitturpuzha Sub Basin
Uncontrolled catchment
a. Sholayar Sub Basin
Parambikulam dam
Thunacadavu dam
The allocation of water from the three river basins as per the Agreement,
is as follows,
Lower Nirar dam
Bharathapuzha
Upper Nirar weir
Periyar River Basin

River Basin
Aliyar dam 1
Chalakudy
Upper Nirar: Tamil Nadu can divert entire waters at Nirar Weir provided
Periyar
the entire river flow from 1st Oct - 31st Jan is let down the river to Kerala.
1
Total
Total
It was expected that Kerala would receive about 1.4 tmc ft annually
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38
X39
while Tamil Nadu was expected to get about 9 tmc ft. There is a provision Table.3 Allocation of water as per the agreement
in the Agreement for Tamil Nadu to divert the entire flow from Nirar after to respective states
commissioning of all contemplated storage reservoirs by Kerala in Periyar
River. River Basin Allocation Allocation
to Tamil Nadu to Kerala
Lower Nirar : Tamil Nadu can divert the entire waters from lower Nirar (tmc ft) (tmc ft)
dam to Upper Sholayar dam. No allocation is offered to Kerala. Periyar
Chalakudypuzha Basin a. Upper Nirar Divert entire water Natural flow between
except 1st Oct - 31st 1st Oct - 31st Jan. -
Sholayar :The yield from Tamil Nadu Sholayar Dam and Kerala Sholayar Jan - 9.00 tmc ft 1.4 tmc ft approx.
Dam are combined together for apportioning. Tamil Nadu should release expected expected
water to Kerala Sholayar dam from Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam from 1 st b. Lower Nirar Divert entire water No allocation
of July to 1 st of February in specified manner so as to make sure that -2.50 tmc ft expected
Kerala Sholayar dam receives 12.3 tmc ft. annually apart from flood Chalakudy
discharge including the water available from the free catchment of 64.72
a.Sholayar Any surplus over 1
12.30
sq.km area of Kerala Sholayar and water level in the Kerala Sholayar
Sub basin 12.3 tmc ft - 2.50
dam is maintained at specified heights. Tamil Nadu can divert the surplus tmc ft expected
available from the Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam into the Parambikulam
b.Parambikulam 14 tmc ft Any Surplus over
dam (2.5 tmc ft. of water expected annually).
Sub basin 16.5 tmc ft. (inclusive
The schedule for the release of water into the Kerala Sholayar from the of 2.5 tmc ft. of water
Tamil Nadu Sholayar is as follows. from Lower Nirar )-
4.5 tmc ft. approx.
July 1 st Tamil Nadu shall commence filling Kerala Sholayar
Bharathapuzha
Reservoir from 1st July and fill it upto 5 ft below FRL
a.Aliyar Entire flow after 7.25
(ie.2658ft) as soon as possible.
b.Thirumoorthy meeting the Kerala
September 1st Kerala Sholayar reservoir shall be kept at the full requirement
reservoir level of plus 2663ft. Uncontrolled flow Not mentioned Unutilisable
above Manacadavu Flood water
September 2 nd
The level in Kerala Sholayar shall be maintained at
weir
to January 31st 5ft below FRL.
Total 28.00 tmc ft + 20.95 tmc ft +
February1st The Kerala Sholayar shall be kept at FRL Surplus water from yield above 16.5 tmc
February 2nd No releases shall be provided to Kerala Sholayar if a Sholayar + yield ft from Parambikulam
from Bharatha- group + Unutilisable
to June total quantity of 12.3-tmcft.of water has been
puzha Flood water
received from the free catchment and rest from Tamil
Nadu Sholayar.
X
40
X41
Parambikulam group of dams: According to the Agreement Tamil Nadu The statement in the Agreement that the Nirar reservoir and tunnel to
can store and divert a quantity not exceeding 16.5 tmc ft, including 2.5 Tamil Nadu Sholayar are beneficial to Kerala is outrageous. The only
tmc ft from Lower Nirar Dam. Any surplus over 16.5 tmc ft. of water (temporary) allotment to Kerala from Nirar is the natural flow in the
from Parambikulam including 2.5 tmc ft from Lower Nirar dam belongs river from October 1st to January 31st, for which no construction is needed.
to Kerala. Out of the surplus, 2.5 tmc ft. of water can be diverted to As for the Parambikulam group of reservoirs and allied works, the expected
Chittur Taluk annually. Any quantity more than 19 tmc ft. (16.5 + 2.5 benefit to Kerala was diversion of 2.5-tmc ft. to the Chittur basin and in
tmc ft) should be let down into the Chalakudypuzha. the bargain; the flow into Chalakudypuzha will reduce by 16.5 tmc ft.
Some benefit indeed to Kerala!!
Bharathapuzha Basin
The work (a) to (h) will be executed by the Government of Tamil Nadu at
Aliyar & Palar: 7.25 tmcft of water has to be released annually at
their cost in the first instance. The proportionate cost of the works
Manacadavu weir from Aliyar dam for assured irrigation in Chittur Taluk
beneficial to Kerala will be borne by the Government of Kerala. Work
in Kerala excluding unutilisable floodwater. The quantity of water that
(i) will be executed as a deposit work by the Government of Tamil
can be utilised by Tamil Nadu from the two reservoirs namely Aliyar and
Nadu at the cost of the Government of Kerala.- (Sch.III.1.(ii))
Thirumoorthy is not mentioned in the Agreement. The fortnightly
allocation to Kerala at Manacadavu is specified in the Annexure I of the As per the above, any work regarding the project, that is beneficial to
Agreement. Kerala if the area is in Tamil Nadu, is to be executed by the state of
Tamil Nadu as a deposit work for Kerala. Applying the same yardstick,
Schedule III: Financial Terms
the work of the Parambikulam group of dams should have been executed
Cost sharing by the respective States is dealt with in this Schedule. The by the Government of Kerala at the cost of Tamil Nadu Government.
Schedule (cl.1. (ii)) says that the following works will benefit the State of But this was not to be.
Kerala.
The cost sharing as per the Agreement is as follows,
a. Aliyar Reservoir
The benefit to Tamil Nadu from Aliyar reservoir is computable at a
b. Nirar Reservoir quantity of 5.5 tmc ft of water per year while the benefit to Kerala is by
c. Tunnel from Nirar Reservoir to Tamil Nadu Sholayar Reservoir the way of stabilisation of the existing wet ayacut assessable at 1 tmc ft
per year. Capital cost of Aliyar dam shall therefore be shared between
d. Parambikulam Reservoir Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the ratio of 11:2.
e. Tunnel from Parambikulam Reservoir to Thunacadavu reservoir The capital and maintenance cost of all works mentioned in (b) to (h)
f. Thunacadavu Reservoir shall first be allocated in the ratio of 50:50 between power and irrigation
and the cost allocated to power shall be met entirely by Tamil Nadu.
g. Peruvarippallam reservoir The portion of the capital and maintenance costs of these works allocated
h. Water conductor system from Thunacadavu Reservoir to to irrigation shall be shared between Government of Tamil Nadu and
Sarkarpathi powerhouse Kerala in the ratio of 305:25 or 61:5.
i. High-level canal branching off from Sethumadai canal or Suggestive references about the quantity of water intended to be diverted
Sarkarpathi powerhouse for irrigating lands in Kerala. in Periyar and Chalakudy basins is also given in this schedule. But these
X
42
X43
figures were provided in the schedule just for the purpose of arriving at Table. 4 Comparison of yield from Upper and
the cost sharing. The total quantity in the PAP system, which is incorrectly Lower Nirar (tmc ft.)
given as 33-tmc ft annually is as follows:
Year Upper Nirar Lower Nirar
Water diverted from the Anamalyar : 2.5 tmc ft.
Actual Deviation Actual Deviation
Diverted from the Nirar weir : 9.0 tmc ft. yield from yield from
Diverted from Tamil Nadu Sholayar : 2.5 tmc ft. Average Average
1984-85 6.867 -1.767 3.959 1.031
Diverted from Nirar reservoir,
1989-90 7.275 -1.359 4.630 1.702
Parambikulam Dam, Thunacadavu Dam, : 19.0 tmc ft.
1991-92 7.117 -1.517 3.673 0.745
Peruvarippallam Dam 1992-93 6.257 -2.377 4.687 1.759
This is the quantity of water diverted through Sarkarpathy powerhouse 1993-94 7.172 -1.462 3.531 0.603
only. These figures have excluded the quantity of water utilised from 1994-95 7.039 -1.595 4.587 1.659
Bharathapuzha Basin.
Schedule V: Joint Water Regulation Board
The yield at the Upper Nirar weir and Lower Nirar Dam as per the JWRB
The Joint Water Regulation Board constituted with effect from 1 st data from 1974-75 to 2001-02 is given in Fig. 1.
June 1970 is a positive step provided it functions according to the letter
and spirit of the provisions. But experience since its constitution has left
much to be desired. Constitution and powers of the JWRB is detailed in Fig. 1 Water Availability in Nirar Basin
Schedule V. 13
12
The reading of JWRB in the Nirar sub basin casts some doubts in the 11
reliability of the data. The average yield from the upper Nirar weir before 10
Quantity of Water (tmc. ft)

the commissioning of lower Nirar Dam (excluding the the figure 1982-83, 9
which was a drought year) is 9.51-tmc ft. The average yield from upper 8
Nirar weir since the commissioning of Lower Nirar Dam (excluding the 7
the figure 1987-88, which was a drought year) is 6.65-tmc ft. The
6
5
comparative yield of the Upper Nirar weir and Lower Nirar dam in some 4
years is given in Table 4. 3
The catchment for both Lower and Upper Nirar is contiguous. Hence it is 2
1
highly unlikely that there will be drastic difference in rainfall in the two 0
catchments. But as per the table above in many years when the yield in 1970-71
1972-73
1974-75
1976-77
1978-79
1980-81
1982-83
1984-85
1986-87
1988-89
1990-91
1992-93
1994-95
1996-97
1998-99
2000-01
Lower Nirar was more than the average value of 2.928 tmc ft. by 25 to 55
Year
per cent, the yield from Upper Nirar was less by 15 to 25 per cent than the Upper Nirar Lower Nirar
average value of 8.634 tmc ft.

X
44
X45
Annexure II of the Agreement deals with some miscellaneous provisions. with the main river Periyar. In Nirar the quantity of water for either party
is not specified. While Tamil Nadu is entitled to divert the entire quantity
Annexure II. 4. States that The Government of Tamil Nadu shall, in
at Lower Nirar and the entire quantity from February 1st to September
respect of all the lands made available to them, pay as licence fees, land
30th every year at Upper Nirar, Kerala gets the natural flow at the Upper
revenue at the rate prevailing in Kerala State from time to time subject
Nirar weir site from October 1st to January 31st. A 2:1 sharing of flow
to a minimum of Rs. 2 per acre.
period may not seem to be highly biased. But a couple of points, which
More than 6000 acres of Kerala land was released to Tamil Nadu for the the agreement does not say, are to be noted. The prominent monsoon in
project. One cannot but travel down the history lane. In a similar situation the catchments of Nirar is the southwest monsoon, from June to
in 1886, the Periyar Lease Deed dealing with the Mullaperiyar dam, had September, which contributes almost 2/3 rd of the total yield; the rest
provided for a lease amount of Rs.5 per acre to be paid to the then being from the northeast monsoon and summer rains. More than 60per
Travancore state. Considering the value of rupee in those times, it can cent of the catchment of Upper Nirar is in the state of Kerala. Even
be seen that even though the Travancore Rajah had to give water to the though the agreement does not give the figures of water, the quantity
then Madras Government under the British, he ensured that the state expected by Kerala was just 1.4-tmc ft. out of a total anticipated quantity
received the value of water by way of lease for land. After independence of over 10-tmc ft (ie. hardly 15 per cent).
a fresh agreement was signed for Mullaperiyar also on the next day of
The most striking is the case of Lower Nirar. As we have already seen,
the signing of PAP accord. The lease was revised to just Rs. 30 in this
the dam was included as compensation magic. If that in itself was genius,
case. Even that much amount was not provided in the PAP Agreement,
linking of its yield with that of the Parambikulam group of dams was the
signed on the same day.
master stroke. It took just one argument and a false statement for Tamil
Daylight robbery legitimised Nadu to count the yield from Lower Nirar twice! It was said that as this
One of the most intelligent ways of robbing the river waters has another dam was in lieu of the abandoned Thekkady dam, (which is in the
name; Parambikulam-Aliyar Project Agreement. The different schedules Parambikulam area in Kerala) its yield, expected at 2.5 tmc ft. was tied
and clauses in the Agreement are so carefully and intelligently drafted up with the Parambikulam group. The Government of Tamil Nadu will be
that the project proponent is getting a lions share of water from the entitled to draw and utilise a quantity not exceeding 16.5-tmc ft. every
project and is still lamenting that it is suffering a lot due to non-availability year (including evaporation losses) from the yield of Parambikulam Aar.
of its rightful share of water. In fact over the last sixteen years when Thunadadavu Aar, Peruvarippallam Aar, and the water diverted from the
discussions for review of the agreement were on, Tamil Nadu has been yield of Lower Nirar catchment. Sch.II.1.(b). The beginning sentence of
asking for more water saying that they are not getting their due share this clause states that Subject to the provision of sub clause (a) above,
and indications are such that the Government of Kerala is actually going the entire yield of the Lower Nirar catchment (referred to in paragraph 2
to yield to the demand. (vi) of Schedule-I) shall be diverted into the Parambikulam system.
But water from Lower Nirar dam is diverted to the Tamil Nadu Sholayar
We have already seen many clauses in the agreement intended at dam and not into the Parambikulam system as in the second schedule of
misleading people. Lets examine some more aspects of the agreement. the agreement. ( Sch.I clearly states this ).
Altogether seven tributaries or three river basins are part of this project.
But terms for water sharing are not governed by common principles. The entitlement for Tamil Nadu at Sarkarpathy powerhouse through which
water from Periyar and Chalakudy basins are diverted eastwards, is
The river Nirar originates in Kerala, flows through a small distance in calculated as
Tamil Nadu and re-enters Kerala to join with Idamalayar and finally
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Quantity of water drawn through Table.5 Realisation of yield from Sholayar
Sarkarpathy PH (tmc ft.) = X 0.186 tmc ft +16.35 tmc ft. (1)
Particulars Kerala TN Total
Where Total Expected Realisation (32 years) 393.600 80.000 473.600
X = the water released from the powerhouse No. I of Tamil Actual Realisation 382.941 179.307 562.248
Nadu Sholayar in tmc ft. 0.186 is the evaporation loss of the Nirar and Difference -10.659 +99.307 88.648
Sholayar water in Parambikulam reservoir and 16.35 is the Parambikulam
There is a provision to construct a saddle spillway at Tamil Nadu Sholayar
water including water diverted from Lower Nirar excluding evaporation
reservoir to divert water to the Parambikulam dam (and the upper riparian
losses (0.15 tmc ft).
state has constructed two saddle spillways instead of one). But this defies
But X, water from first powerhouse in Tamil Nadu Sholayar includes logic as, according to the agreement, Tamil Nadu is entitled to draw
water diverted from Lower Nirar also. Hence the formula should have water flowing out of the first powerhouse only and not the water diverted
been X 0.186 tmc ft. + 13.85 tmc ft. only, excluding 2.5 tmc ft. of through the spillways (refer equation 1). Eligibility at Sarkarpathy for
Lower Nirar catchment which had already been accounted for in X. Tamil Nadu is given as water from the Parambikulam group including
An impression is sought to be created that Kerala is alloted 12.3-tmc ft. Lower Nirar plus water coming through the first powerhouse only. Hence
of water from the Sholayar River as part of PAP. But the fact is that 55 even if water is diverted through the saddle spillways, they will have to
per cent of this (6.6 Tmc ft. according to Technical Committee report, be let down the Chalakudypuzha itself. It would have made a lot more
2003) is the yield from the own catchment of Kerala Sholayar which sense if the spill were let into the original river itself. But in reality, Tamil
almost entirely falls in Kerala and there is no need to tie up the Kerala Nadu has diverted water from the Upper Sholayar reservoir through the
Sholayar dam which was built by Kerala Government with its own fund, saddle spillways and used it too and Kerala never considered this as a
with PAP. The only argument, from Keralas point of view, in favour of violation! Only construction of additional saddle spillway and not diversion
this tying up is that the Kerala Sholayar will get an assured supply of of water was considered by Kerala as violation of the agreement. Here
12.3 tmc ft. even in lean years as the agreement provides for assured also it was the wrong projection about the yield from the Parambikulam
supply at Kerala Sholayar powerhouse. But experience in the last 32 system that came to Tamil Nadus aid. With the realisation at
years (up to 2002) shows that even this benefit did not materialise. It is Parambikulam falling short of even Tamil Nadus entitlement, it was
only during three years that the yield in Sholayar fell below 12.3 tmc ft. easy to count the water through the saddle spillways with that of
but in none of these years did Kerala get 12.3-tmc ft. In fact even the Parambikulam system.
average realisation at Kerala Sholayar since 1970 is only 11.967 tmc ft Kerala was allocated 7.25 tmc ft. at Manacadavu as first charge for
(Technical Committee Report, 2003) while the actual yield in the basin assured irrigation of existing ayacut of 20,000 acres of paddy lands in
was 19per cent more than anticipated. Let us examine this in another Chittur sub basin from the tributaries of Bharathapuzha. One may note
way; if the Kerala Sholayar was not part of PAP and Tamil Nadu was that Kerala got only what was needed to maintain the existing ayacut
allotted 2.5 tmc ft. from Upper Sholayar which was the expected quantity and no additional benefit was allowed to it. This is against the
for Tamil Nadu from the tributary with first charge to Tamil Nadu, Kerala conventional practice of apportioning where the existing use is catered
would have got about 7.5 tmc ft. less over a period of six years and to first before apportioning the rest.
gained about 100 tmc ft. from the remaining 26 years. The expected
While the first charge was given to Kerala at Sholayar and Aliyar, Tamil
and actual realisation for the respective states from Sholayar is given in
Nadu was given the first charge at the Parambikulam system. Again this
the Table 5, which is self-explanatory.
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will have to be considered as a clever and calculated move to deny even if we account the uncontrolled flood water. This means that the
water to Kerala. As we have already seen, the data about expected yield lower riparian state, which used to get about 90per cent of the flow
in each basin was provided by Tamil Nadu only. In places where first before the project and had existing use for a large portion of that, is left
charge was given to Kerala and Tamil Nadus share was given as the with about 10-12per cent only.
balance, the yield was more than anticipated, whereas at the
Parambikulam system where Kerala is entitled to water after meeting Table.6 Allocation of water to the lower riparian state
Tamil Nadus quota only, the yield was less by a huge quantity. The River Catchment Percentage Expected Allocation Realisation
yield expected from the Parambikulam group was 18.5 tmc ft. and Tamil Basin area in of total yield from TN by Kerala
Nadus share from here was fixed at 14 tmc ft. (plus 2.5 tmc ft. on TN catchment from TN1 catchment from TN
account of tying up Lower Nirar with Parambikulam group makes Tamil in PAP to Kerala catchment
Nadus share 16.5 tmc ft which means that Kerala will get only 2 tmc ft. sq.km tmc ft tmc ft tmc ft
even if the yield was as anticipated.) But as it turned out, the actual Nirar 49.73 51.6 6.65 - 4.85 2 - 3.54 2
average yield from Parambikulam group is only 10.135 tmc ft. and Kerala Upper Sholayar 121.73 65.3 9.66 7.16 5.347
never got a single drop from here except during floods on a couple of Parambikulam Group 177.15 61.6 11.39 - 2.61 - 3.89
occasions. (Even in some years when the yield was more than 16.5 tmc Bharathapuzha 1786 100 28.00 7.25 7.366
ft., they did not release water to Kerala.) The cruellest joke is the fact
Total 55.70 6.95 5.283
that the said dams are built and operated by Tamil Nadu inside Kerala
territory and the water diverted includes that from the catchment inside
1
Calculated based on extent of catchment area
Kerala, which constitutes 38per cent of the total catchment for these
2
Negative sign indicates that part of the actual yield from Kerala is also being
used by Tamil Nadu.
dams. On account of this project these tributaries, the Parambikulam
Aar, Thunacadavu Aar and Peruvaripallam Aar have stopped flowing If the existing norms for sharing water in Inter State Rivers were followed,
below the dams, which is against natural justice. the right of the upper riparian state would not have been more than 50
percentage of the yield in that state. The upper riparian state does not
The story of the robbery reaches its (ill) logical conclusion with the
have basin use in Periyar and Chalakudypuzhas and the lower riparian
robbed being entitled to pay to the robber for the robbery as prescribed
state already was using a large portion of its water in the downstream
in Schedule III.
stretches. If the existing use was considered, the share of the upper riparian
The unquenched thirst state should have been still less. Since the existing norms were not
The continuously raised hue and cry for more from the thirsty neighbour considered, the net gain for the upper riparian state was more than 20
is reverberating inspite of a readily yielding state on the western side of tmc ft. over and above its rightful claim.
the Ghats. The PAP, the Mullaperiyar, the Pandiyar- Punnapuzha, the The upper riparian state still cries foul and demands more.
Pamba-Achankovil-Vaipar the list goes on.
Based on 32 years of experience of the PA Project, Tamil Nadu feels
The catchments in Tamil Nadu in the whole PAP was expected to have that the agreement is heavily tilted in Keralas favour and is detrimental to
a yield of about 55 tmc ft, more than 90per cent of which used to flow the interest of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu desires to correct the imbalances
down into Kerala before the project and the yield from Kerala catchment that are inadvertently incorporated in the agreement at the time of Review
was expected to be about 20 tmc ft. The present situation is that Kerala of the Agreement.4
is getting less than 25 tmc ft, inclusive of yield from its own catchment,
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The Eventful Project years April 1993: Official level meeting at Attaikkatti, Tamil Nadu
1955: Proposal for sharing waters of Parambikulam - Aliyar first taken May 25,1993: The speaker constitutes Assembly Committee with
up by Madras Government with erstwhile Travancore -Cochin Govt. Irrigation Minister Sri.T.M.Jacob, as Chairman.
1957: Concern over river water diversions from Kerala. September 18, 1993: Legislative Committee hears grievances of
farmers under PAP in Kerala.
November 9,1958: First Agreement signed between Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. October 17, 18, 1993: JWRB meeting held at Ootty approves that
Kerala State is not getting its due share from PAP. The decision taken
1958: The project inaugurated by Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, The on the basis of report of sub-committee appointed by JWRB to study
Prime Minister of India the matter.
July 4, 1960, May 10,1969: Supplementary Agreements signed 1994: Kerala Legislative Committee report on the PAP and
on PAP. Mullaperiyar Agreement.
1967: Sri. K.L.Rao, Irrigation Minister of India inaugurates 1996: Ministry level meeting at Chennai on long pending review.
Thunacadavu dam
2002: Ministry level meeting at Chennai decides to constitute a
May 29, 1970: Kerala and Tamil Nadu sign a comprehensive technical committee and submit its report within three months on
agreement with retrospective from 1958. areas, where amendments to the 1970 Agreement are considered
necessary duly supported with facts and figures.
1989: Kerala State renews PAP Agreement and later cancels it due
to contradictory report of Legislative Committee. May 2003: Technical Committee tables report.
21st September 1988: Memorandums prepared by each state and 2003: Representatives of local bodies in Chalakudypuzha basin submit
exchanged for review during minister level meeting. memorandum to Chief Minister demanding protection of Keralas
interests in PAP Agreement.
18th August 1990: Ministerial level discussions held at Trivandrum
but inconclusive. 2004 January 4th: Ministry level meeting of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
decides to review the Agreement in March bypassing all earlier
11th November 1992: Supplementary memorandum submitted by demands put forward by Kerala. The final signing of Review Agreement
Kerala during ministry level meeting due to inadequacy of earlier one. postponed due to Parliament elections in May.
November 13, 1992: Moolathara Regulator heavily damaged due 2004 January: Media and concerned citizens lash out against
to the sudden release of floodwater from Aliyar Dam. decision of Kerala Government to agree to a Review that does not
1992: Estimate Committee of the Kerala Legislative Assembly submits protect interests of Kerala. Chalakudy Puzha Samrakshana Samithi
report related to PAP in Assembly. along with Grama Panchayath presidents in Chalakudypuzha basin
hold press conference questioning stance of Kerala Government.
March 1993: Kerala-Tamil Nadu official level meetings at Trivandrum,
Kerala 2004 March: Farmers of Chittur Taluk go on hunger strike protesting
against non-release of water from Aliyar reservoir to Chitturpuzha.
March 13,1993: K.Krishnankutty MLA through a resolution demands
discussion on disadvantages of PAP and Mullaperiyar Agreements in 2004, November 6th: Chief Ministerial level discussions at Chennai.
Kerala Assembly. Decided to hold further dicussions
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Tamil Nadu government has been continuously demanding for additional Violations in the Agreement
schemes.
A number of violations of the agreement by the upper riparian state has
Anamalayar Scheme
been detected even after that state gained much more than what it
There was a provision in the 1970 agreement that 2.5 tmc ft. of water deserved. The adhoc Committee on Parambikulam Mullaperiyar River
can be diverted from Anamalayar, a tributary of Idamalayar which in Water Agreements Report by the Legislative Committee of Kerala
turn joins Periyar River, through Lower Nirar dam for the use of Tamil Assembly had, in its report, cited many cases of violations.13
Nadu after the completion of Idamalayar Project in Kerala. The proposal 1. According to the Agreement Schedule II para 4 (a) Tamil Nadu
sent by Tamil Nadu is for the construction of a 20 m high dam higher up shall supply 7.25-tmc ft of water exclusive of unutilisable floodwater
in the Italiar tributary of Anamalayar. Water will be taken through a for assured irrigation of 20,000 acres in Kerala. The Committee
tunnel of 5 m diameter and about 5 km in length to fall into Lower Nirar understood that the water measured at Manacadavu from 1970
Dam at FRL.The cost of the diversion is estimated as Rs.24.86 crores. onwards also includes the unutilisable floodwater.
Nallar Scheme 2. Tamil Nadu constructed Kadampara dam (400 MW pumped storage
system), Vandal Dam, Deviyar weir and Akkamalai weir without
Tamil Nadu proposes the Nallar Scheme with the objective of bypassing
the consent from Kerala State. These dams and weirs store water,
the Sholayar, Parambikulam and Aliyar dams from where the Keralas
which resulted in the reduction in the quantity of floodwater during
share has to be given. It contemplates diversion of water from the Upper
monsoon period to Kerala.
Nirar weir through another tunnel of length 14.4 km and creating reservoir
of 7 tmc ft capacity across Nallar, a tributary of Palar. It is also proposed 3. The contour canal is constructed to carry the tailrace water of
to construct a powerhouse with a capacity of 120 MW. Tailrace water Sarkarpathi powerhouse. The committee found that water is being
from the Nallar powerhouse will be carried through another contour canal diverted from numerous streams including Nallar. All these streams
parallel to the existing one to Thirumoorthy reservoir. used to flow into Chitturpuzha before commencement of canal
construction. Tamil Nadu also diverts water from the Uppiliyar which
Dam above Manacadavu weir otherwise would have flowed into Aliyar and Chitturpuzha. Apart
Tamil Nadu government also proposes a dam at the existing site of from this, water is being diverted using shutters in 9 places and
Military anicut with a storage capacity of 0.5-tmc ft. According to Tamil about 100 interceptions along the 52 km long contour canal between
Nadu, the water from the catchment of 40 km stretch from Aliyar dam Sarkarpathi and Thirumoorthy reservoir.
to Manacadavu weir is not fully utilised and the supply to Kerala ie. 4. Tamil Nadu constructed two saddle spillways in Tamil Nadu
7.25 tmc ft cannot be strictly adhered to. Sholayar dam and diverted more water to Parambikulam instead
of one allowed in the Agreement, resulting in the loss of flood water
Dam across Solasulahalli River
which otherwise would flow to Kerala Sholayar.
Tamil Nadu also proposes a 17.4 m high dam across Solasulahalli River
5. According to the Agreement, the water that can be used in the
near Puraripalayam village of Pollachi Taluk for irrigating 1045.7 ha of
Sarkarpathi powerhouse is termed as 16.5 tmc ft from
dry 47.3 ha of wetlands. The reservoir will have a capacity of 0.162-tmc
Parambikulam group dams including 2.5-tmc ft from Lower Nirar
ft and is planning for two yearly fillings. The catchment area of the dam
and the water release from the Manamppilly powerhouse (No.I) of
is 270.39 sq. km. The riparian rights of an extent of 478 ha under 17 Tamil Nadu Sholayar. The Committee found that Tamil Nadu also
anicuts and tanks in Tamil Nadu will also be protected.
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diverts floodwater from the two saddle spillways to Sarkarpathy Table. 7 Comparative benefit of the project as per the agreement
through Parambikulam.
Name of the State Irrigation (ha.) Power
6. Tamil Nadu also diverts water without generating power through
old Additional MW
the surge shaft of Sarkarpathi powerhouse, which is not measured.
Tamil Nadu 2428.2 97,128 185
7. According to the agreement, Tamil Nadu should maintain the level Kerala 8094.01 Nil 54
at 2658 ft between September 2 nd and January 31st at Kerala 1
old ayacut in Chittur Taluk only.
Sholayar. Due to non-release of water to maintain the water level
Here it may be noted that, the lower riparian state, which used to enjoy
Kerala lost crores of rupees worth electricity generation.
the benefits of natural flow in the basins before the project had actually
Apart from what the Committee found out there are other organised got nothing in the bargain. Only water for irrigating old ayacut in Chittur
violations also. Taluk was provided to the state from Aliyar and Palar. No provision for
There are numerous unaccounted lift irrigation schemes below future expansion in utilization was provided. As for electricity generation,
Manacadavu weir. the state of Kerala could have established the Sholayar HEP
independently even without PAP. On the contrary, both irrigation and
A new pipeline was constructed in 2002 that diverts water directly from
electricity generation in the existing schemes in the Chalakudy basin
contour canal near Thirumoorthy to Udumalpet to irrigate 2477 ha
(The Poringalkuthu left bank HEP and Chalakudy River Diversion scheme)
ayacut.
suffered due to the project. Reduction in flow in Periyar had affected
A powerhouse each was constructed at Aliyar (2.5 MW) and Thirumoorthy irrigation as well as Industries.
(1.95 MW).
The actual experience has only increased the disparity.
The Violations still continue.
The Parambikulam- Aliyar project agreement was finalised, as already
Benefits of the Project - mentioned, without having the proper hydrological data of the respective
sub basins. But the allocation was based on the figures given by the
Hidden Impacts! project proponent. The anticipated yield at the time of agreement and
A comparison of the actual benefits to the respective states, both as the actual realisation as per JWRB is given in Table 8 and the total
envisaged in the agreement and as actually materialised will be interesting. utilisation in each sub basins is given in Table 9. It may be noted here
that the actual yield from the catchments of Bharathapuzha basin in
The Benefits- Actual experience Tamil Nadu was not given at the time of the agreement and it is not
The Parambikulam Aliyar Project was intended to irrigate 97,128 ha.in available even now. Out of the total catchment of 6186 sq.kms for
Pollachi, Udumalpet, Dharmapuram, Palladam and Kangeyam taluks Bharathapuzha, 1786 sq.kms lies in Tamil Nadu as per the Water
in the Coimbatore and Periyar Districts of Tamil Nadu, 80 percent of Resources of Kerala(1974-PWD Govt. of Kerala) the yield expected from
this ayacut being dry crops. Generation of 185 MW of electricity in Tamil that catchment was 938 Mm3 out of which 797Mm3 (about 28 tmc ft.) is
Nadu was also intended. In addition, the project also envisaged utilisable. But the PAP documents tell about 956 sq. kms of catchment
stabilisation of old ayacut of 2428.20 ha (6000 acres) in Aliyar. The only. The average yield in the TN catchments of the basin is less than 15
benefit to the lower riparian state was limited to stabilisation of existing
tmc ft. as per JWRB. Hence the figures below may not be reflective of
ayacut of 8094 ha (20,000 acres) in Chittur taluk and generation of
the true picture.
54 MW of electricity at Sholayar.
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Table.8 Yield from river basins involved and utilisation in Table. 9 Total water utilised from each river basin by Kerala
PAP and Tamil Nadu from 1970 -2001
River Basin Expected Yield Utilisation River Basin Kerala Tamil Nadu Total
yield as per TN Kerala Upper Nirar 38.35 203.39 241.74
JWRB Lower Nirar 0.00 55.63 55.64
Periyar Tamil Nadu Sholayar 171.32 179.59 350.91
Parambikulam 0.00 324.33 324.33
Upper Nirar weir 9.00 8.634 7.264 1.370
Bharathapuazha Basin 1
235.72 2
86.78 322.50
Lower Nirar dam 2.50 2.928 2.928 0.000 (Tamil Nadu)
Chalakudy
Total 445.39 849.73 1295.12
Sholayar Sub Basin 1
Excluding unutilisable flood water
Tamil Nadu Sholayar dam 14.80 10.951 5.603 5.348 2
Yield from 286 sq.kms. catchment only accounted for.
Kerala Sholayar dam 6.619 1
6.619
Irrigation: Upper vs Lower riparian state
Parambikulam Sub Basin
Upper riparian state gains
Parambikulam dam 18.50 10.135 10.135 0.000
Thunacadavu dam Water from Aliyar was being used to irrigate about 6000 acres through
five anicuts in Tamil Nadu before the project and the rest used to flow
Peruvarippallam dam naturally to the Kerala side. In the Palar basin an old ayacut of about
Total 44.80 39.267 25.93 13.337 1214 ha (3000 acres) existed. The old ayacut of Aliyar includes five
anicuts namely, Pallivalangal (265.50 ha), Ariyapuram (502.91ha.),
Bharathapuzha
Karapatti (316.31ha.), Peranai (770 ha) and Vadakkalur (720.37 ha.)
Chitturpuzha Sub Basin2 totalling to 2575.09 ha.
Aliyar dam 7.00 7.900 1.583 3
7.366 Apart from the existing ayacuts, new ayacuts for 18,098 ha. from Aliyar
Thirumoorthy dam (Palar) 0.65 1.049 3.980 and 82,275 ha. from Thirumoorthy were developed as part of the project.
The irrigation in the new ayacuts is managed by dividing them into different
Total 52.45 48.216 31.493 20.703
zones. At Aliyar, zone one consists of Pollachi canal and a part of
Uncontrolled catchment Vettaikaranpudur canal and the second zone consist of the Sethumadai
above Manakadavu weir Unknown Unknown Unknown 3.764 canal and the remaining part of Vettaikaranpudur canal. The irrigation
1 The yield from Kerala catchment season for the first zone is from 15th May to December 30th and that for
2 Yield from 286 sq.kms. catchment only accounted for. the second zone is from 16th October to end of February15.
3 The actual water available as per the agreement was less than 7.25 tmc ft, the
agreed share in 8 years.
In the Palar basin, water for the new ayacut of 82,275 ha is drawn from
the Thirumoorthy dam with the water from the Parambikulam group of
reservoirs, coming through the 49 km long contour canal and the yield
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from its own catchment. The ayacut under this canal is divided into whole ayacut under the Parambikulam Main Canal was changed to four-
three zones and water allotted once in 18 months to each zone. The zone irrigation pattern so that the entire ayacut will be covered in two
season of irrigation is from 1st July to 15 th November and from 17th irrigation years. The Zones I and II will be covered in one year and Zone
November to the end of March. Two zones were covered in one year. III and IV in the subsequent year. One zone will be covered from 1 st
August to December and the next zone from 16th December to 30th April.
Irrigation with the PAP waters was mainly intended for dry crops. The
ratio between dry and wet crops as originally intended was 80:20. But In 2002, Tamil Nadu constructed a pipeline directly from contour canal
once water started to flow the ratio began to change in favour of wet near Thirumoorthy to irrigate 2,477 ha additionally in Udumalpet. At
crops increasing the water demand. Table 10 shows the extent of wet present the total area under irrigation from PAP has increased to more
crops in the ayacut area. than 4,35,000 acres.
Table.10 Cropping pattern in the PAP basin -Tamil Nadu15 Table.11 Extent of irrigated lands in Tamil Nadu under PAP (ha.)
Crop Area Percentage River Old New Extension Total

Wet crops Aliyar 2,575 18,098 - 20,673
Paddy double crop 3789 Palar 1,214 82,275 70,358 1,53,847
Paddy single crop 23690 Total (ha.) 3,789 1,00,373 70, 358 1,74,520
Sugarcane 17113 Total (ac.) 9,363 2,48,019 1,73,784 4,31,064
Coconut 7500
Apart from this an additional 2, 477 ha (6118 ac) irrigated at Udumalpet
Cotton 39703
Total 91795 48.6 per cent Lower riparian state loses
Dry Crops Water from the three river basins viz. Bharathapuzha, Chalakudypuzha
Maize 16921 and Periyar was being used in the downstream for various purposes from
Ragi 12386 ancient times. Navigation, fishing, agriculture, domestic purposes, cultural
Groundnut 52214 activities etc. formed part of the water utilisation.
Dry crops under Aliyar 15658
With the geographic peculiarity of Kerala, a state with an average width
Total 97179 51.4 per cent
of only about 65 km and a steep drop in altitude, often a fall between
Grand Total 188974 1000 to 2000 meters in about 40 km, the hydrologic regime of the state
Never ending area expansion is entirely dependent on the flow in its numerous small rivers. Hence
reduction in flow in these rivers will have much more negative impacts
The area under irrigation from PAP keeps on increasing in the upper than major basins elsewhere.
riparian state even though that state complains that it is not getting the
expected quantity of water. In August 1975, the Government of Tamil Chitturpuzha, a major tributary of Bharathapuzha also called
Nadu approved a proposal for extension of the command area of PAP Shokanashini meaning that which annihilates sorrows, flows from
by 1.15 lakh acres. This in fact has created some conflicts even between Tamil Nadu to the state through the middle of the Palakkad gap, the
the farmers of Tamil Nadu. The expansion of the ayacut necessitated widest gap (32kms) in the Western Ghats stretching from Tapi in the
redesigning of the whole irrigation system under Thirumoorthy dam. The north to Kanyakumari. Regional climate in the area under the influence
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of the gap is different from the rest of the state. The rainfall here ranges 16,940 ha. There are also link canals to provide water to tributaries
14
from about 1000 mm to 2300 mm against a state average of 3000 mm. namely Varattayar in Vadakarapathy region in North and Meenkara dam
Chittur taluk, adjacent to the gap, is the most affected with very low in the South in Govindapuram region, both tributaries of Bharathapuzha.
rainfall and high wind velocity. Chittur area has a long history of irrigation
some of which is narrated in the Cochin State Manual. The inadequacy in water
supply in the canals of the Fig. 2 Extent of Irrigated Area in PAP
The irrigation works at Chittur owe their origin to General Cullen, who project has resulted in the
found by his barometrical observation in the forties of the last century collapse of even the age-old 9%
that the river there had a fall of about 200 feet between the eastern and irrigation practices that has
western frontier and that it formed therefore an excellent basis for irrigation resulted in conflicts between
operations. On his suggestion Darbar started the construction of an anicut farmers under the same
at Mulattara in 1849,together with the necessary canals for the distribution irrigation system. The
of water. The system, was originally designed, was however so faulty that situation has turned so worse
the work had to be re-done partially or wholly more than once, so that it that at times police had to
got into regular working order only about twenty-five years ago. A few be called to regulate the
years after the Mulattara works were started, Tottil Pitchu Iyer, an water allocation in the
enterprising Brahman from Coimbatore, constructed a small anicut at Tamil Nadu
ayacut of the project. The
Nurni. This anicut was however acquired by the Government in 1858, comparison of the extent of 91%
Kerala
when Pitchu Iyer began the construction of a larger anicut higher up the irrigated area in the two
streams at Tembaramadakku. A similar anicut was constructed still higher states is depicted in Fig. 2
up at Kunnankattupati by another enterprising land holder, Kittu Pillai by
name, a few years subsequently. Both these anicuts, together with the The pumping from the Chittur Thathamangalam drinking water supply
main and subsidiary canals connected with them, were acquired by the scheme commissioned in 1978 had to be stopped continuously for 10
Government within the last few years, so that all the irrigation works in days due to water scarcity between April and May 2003. Drinking Water
Chittur, except a few minor ones, are now the property of Government. is also supplied from this scheme via tanker lorries to the acute water
The area served by these irrigation works is nearly eighteen thousand shortage areas especially Uzhalapathy, Eruthempathi, Moolathara,
acres There are also several reservoirs in the taluk for the storage Vadakarapathi, Kozhipathi, Muthalamada regions of Chittur taluk during
of water where natural facilities exist for the same. Nine small irrigation summer months.
systems are still owned by private individuals: they irrigate between them In Chalakudy and Periyar river basins the existing downstream uses were
2,000 acres of land.1 never considered during apportioning. The functioning of Chalakudy River
Stabilisation of existing ayacut in the Chittur taluk to the tune of 20,000 Diversion Scheme at Thumboormuzhi with an ayacut area of 14,000 ha
acres was the only irrigation benefit provided to the lower riparian state commissioned before PAP is being affected due to scarcity of water.
as per the agreement. In 1974,the Moolathara weir was reconstructed. The Chalakudypuzha now discharges only meagre quantity of less than
The Moolathara weir along with the four anicuts namely, 2 m3/sec. to the sea during summer months. The agriculture, even after
Kunnamkattupathi (1970 ha.), Thembaramadakku (3321 ha.), Naruni- shifting into less water intensive crops, in the downstream areas of the
Alenkadavu (74 ha), Naruni (431 ha.) are included in the Chittur Valley Chalakudypuzha is seriously affected due to saline water ingression in
Irrigation Project. The present total ayacut area under the scheme is the river on account of reduced flow as well as indiscriminate sand mining.
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The 85 major and 615 minor lift irrigation schemes and 30 odd drinking 25 MW reaches the Kerala Sholayar reservoir. The powerhouse at
water schemes in the Chalakudypuzha basin are also reeling under the Sarkarpathi with an installed capacity of 30 MW utilises the entire diverted
pressure of water scarcity. The condition of the longest river of the state, waters from Periyar and Chalakudypuzha. In addition, that state
Periyar is no better either. Newspapers on the 23rd December 2002 carried constructed Upper Aliyar dam with a 60 MW powerhouse at Navamalai.
the headlines that the people of Kochi Corporation depending on this Thus the total installed capacity for Tamil Nadu as part of the project
river for their drinking water tasted salt in their morning cup of tea! A was 185 MW.
clear indication of the saline ingress in the Periyar. Some of the 240 odd
Apart from this Tamil Nadu constructed Kadamparai Pumped Storage
industries depending on the river Periyar had to be shutdown due to the
Hydro Electric Project, with an installed capacity of 400 MW. The dam
saline ingress in April 2002.
was constructed in the tributary of Aliyar with a live storage capacity of
The Fig 3,4&5 on water utilisation by the respective states, it is hoped, 26.80 Mm3 at 1114 m FRL. The catchment area of this stream is so
will assist in better understanding of the whole scenario. small that more diversions were planned. Accordingly the Vandal dam,
Deviyar weir etc. were constructed to divert more water to Kadamparai
Fig. 5 River basin wise share of water utilisation by each state in PAP reservoir. The water released from the Kadamparai powerhouse, which
Tamil Nadu Kerala is located 204m below ground level will be let into the Upper Aliyar
6%
Reservoir. This powerhouse is intended to operate as a peaking station,
22%
31%
which will produce electricity during the peak hours of the day. The
4x100 MW, reversible pump turbine units are planned to operate daily
45%
six hours in generation mode and eight hours in pumping mode. Water
from the Upper Aliyar reservoir is pumped up back to the Kadamparai
reservoir during the daytime using the thermal power in Tamil Nadu grid.
49%
As water, after electricity generation does not reach the (Lower) Aliyar
47%
reservoir, this scheme contradicts the conditions of PAP agreement.
Periyar Chalakudy River Bharathapuzha
In addition, two mini hydel stations, one at Aliyar with an installed
capacity of 2.5 MW and another at Thirumoorthy with installed capacity
The actual yield in Bharathapuzha basin in Tamil Nadu is not known. 1.95 MW were constructed recently by Tamilnadu in violation of the
Only yield as per the JWRB data, which does not cover the entire agreement.
catchment or yield, is included here.
Power lost
Power Generation; Upper vs Lower riparian state Power generation benefit to the lower riparian state, as already seen is
Power gained through the Kerala Sholayar HEP. Even though the installed capacity of
the scheme is 54 MW, the average discharge from the powerhouse is fixed
In the upper riparian state, three powerhouses were installed in the main
at 390 cusecs, which is 50per cent of its capacity. Incidentally, 55per cent
PAP system, two in the Tamil Nadu Sholyar dam and one at Sarkarpathy.
of the water utilised by this project is from the own catchment in the lower
At Upper Sholayar, Powerhouse No.I with an installed capacity of 70
riparian state. Also, this scheme is not part of the main links of the PAP.
MW diverts water to Parambikulam reservoir after power generation and
the tailrace water from powerhouse No.II with an installed capacity of
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Table. 12 Power generation in PAP population etc. Nevertheless an attempt has been made to provide a
framework within which to understand the various issues and dimensions.
Power Houses Installed capacity (MW)
In most cases the impact on Chalakudy river is highlighted due to the
Tamil Nadu Kerala lack of sufficient information and access to other river basin data.
Tamil Nadu Sholayar PH1 70.00 Impact on the forests and river
Tamil Nadu Sholayar PH2 25.00
Total diversion of water at some structures has resulted in the degradation
Sarkarpathy PH 30.00
of the riparian forests all along the tributaries below the dams. Highly
Upper Aliyar PH 60.00
niche specific riparian forests can survive only in flowing river systems.
Punachi PH (Upper Aliyar) 2.00
The Parambikulam group of dams have submerged numerous fresh water
Kadampara PH* 400.00
swamps in the Parambikulam Plateau that were frequented by Gaurs,
Aliyar PH* 2.50
spotted deer, sambar deer etc. The dams have also affected the Elephant
Thirumoorthy PH* 1.95
movement in the area, which is part of the Parambikulam Wild Life
Kerala Sholayar PH 54.00
Sanctuary. The species diversity and distribution of fishes in the entire
Total 591.45 54.00 river system has also declined due to these interventions. The excerpt
*Outside the purview of Agreement below gives the true picture of environmental degradation in the
It is said that the installed capacity of the Poringalkuthu left bank HEP Parambikulam area.
was reduced to 32 MW from the originally proposed 48 MW in
The Parambikulam Plateau along the southern margin of the Palghat
anticipation of reduced flow due to PAP (later the installed capacity
Gap forms a large natural amphitheatre draining towards the Southwest,
here was increased to 48 MW with the installation of a 16 MW generator
with the backdrop of the Nelliyampathies towards the Northwest and north,
in 1998 to utilise the high flows during the monsoons). As Tamil Nadus
and the Anamalais to the northeast and east. It was one of the best wildlife
share of water from Nirar and Upper Sholayar, had to be brought into
habitats along with Wayanad in the whole of Southern Western Ghats. It
the Kerala territory first for the exclusive use of TN before diverting it
had a variety of habitats, extensive ecotone areas, and safety for animals,
again to TN, it will have been natural justice only if the electricity generated
as human habitations were far away, plenty of water and forage. Although
due to these diversions was at least shared between the states. But this
the area had been heavily worked using the tramway linking it with
was not to be. Table12 gives the comparative benefits in power generation
Chalakudy, the wildlife had not been drastically decimated. Deforestation
to the two states.
gradually reduced the contiguous extensive forest tracts around the
Hidden impacts Parambikulam valley; in particular the large scale tea plantations of Valparai
and Anamalais along its southeastern border and more recent coffee and
There has not been any honest attempt to address or understand or cardamom plantations along the Karappara Valley towards the northwest.
assess the various social, economic and ecological impacts of dams and This denudation resulted in an exceptional concentration of wildlife being
diversions in the PAP system so far. It has been easier to delve into the driven into the central basin of Parambikulam. Starting from the late fifties,
inherent lacunae in the PAP Agreement and the apportioning of waters three dams came up in the heart of the valley- the Parambikulam,
based on the data available. It has also been easier to analyse the Thunacadavu and Peruvarippallam, and 10 other dams immediately outside
underlying political issues in the project. Unfortunately there is a dearth the enclosing hill ranges. Simultaneously, the remaining forests around
of quantitative and qualitative analysis of the impact of such diversions the dams were all clear felled and converted to monoculture of teak
and dams on the river ecology, on the wildlife, on the downstream plantations extending over 10,000 hectares, mostly in Kerala and some in
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Tamil Nadu. The massive destruction of wildlife this entailed indirectly no continuous river discharge data prior to dams in most cases. Even
through habitat destruction and directly through poaching was on a scale then, it has been attempted to gain an understanding of what happens
till then or never again to be matched. In particular the taungya contractors, to river hydrology taking the example of Chalakudy River. As far as our
using crop protection guns, undertook a massive slaughter. Soon the best search takes us, in the pre dam years just the three yearly river discharge
wildlife area and congregation of the entire spectrum of Peninsular Indian data is available for the period from 1951-54 compared to the monthly
wildlife was destroyed. The aftermath of this destruction was that in 1973, discharge data that is available in the post dam years from 1970. The
the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary now extending over 285 sq.km, was available data shows that the yearly discharge at Poringalkuthu was in
constituted.33 between 1800 to 2125 Mm3 between 1951- 1954 (Table 13).
If one takes the case of just the Chalakudypuzha, due to the total diversion Table. 13 River flow at Poringalkuthu before dams and
of the Parambikulam, Peruvarippallam and Thunacadavu tributaries for diversions
the PAP project, there is no river for atleast 5 km downstream of the
Parambikulam dam, 2 km downstream of Peruvarippallam dam and 3 Year Annual Discharge
km downstream of Thunacadavu dam. Between the upper and lower tmc. ft Mm3
Sholayar dam for a distance of 4 km and downstream of the Kerala
1951-52 75.032 2124.91
Sholayar dam for a distance of 12 km also there is no river. Downstream
1952-53 63.919 1810.19
of the Poringalkuthu dam for a distance of 2 km again there is no river
1953-54 66.386 1880.14
flow. The Edamalayar Augmentation Scheme, which is another, Inter
basin diversion to the Periyar river basin, carries the monsoon waters of Source: Water Resources of Kerala 1957, PWD, GoK.
the river through a 7 km canal to the Idamalayar reservoir from the Annual Flow Variation: The period from 1970-1992 for which data was
Poringalkuthu Reservoir. available, shows the water discharges at Poringalkuthu after the
Due to the series of dams and reservoirs and diversions the river has completion of the above said dams in the basin. Poringalkuthu being the
been broken up into a few unconnected segments with drastically downstream dam, the hydrological changes of all the dams upstream
fluctuating water levels in between downstream of the dams. In these can be estimated. Fig.7 shows the discharge details of Poringalkuthu
dry stretches once in a few decades or so, when the rains are heavy, and dam. The lowest water discharge at Poringalkuthu was recorded in 1983,
when the dam shutters are opened for a few days, there is extremely which was a drought year. The average river discharge at Poringalkuthu
violent discharge of floodwaters. The occasional flushing with unnatural between 1970-1992 is 1036 Mm3 a difference of atleast 800 Mm3 annually
flow velocity damages the entire riparian vegetation and destroys the revealing the significant change in the river flow pattern after the
inhabitants of the river even in far downstream stretches. commissioning of dams and diversions upstream. The reduction in the
As for the Kadamparai HEP, continuous underground drilling, blasting reservoir spill in the last 22 years is evident from the fig.6. Even then,
of rocks for over seven to eight years resulted in disastrous loss to wildlife the yearly reduction in the quantum of water will not be sufficient to give
like Gaur, Sambar, Nilgiri langur that once occupied the area.15 a clear picture of the changes in the behaviour of the river flow.
Impact on river hydrology Monthly Flow Variation: As far as the memories of the senior citizens
take them, floods were a natural phenomenon in the Chalakudy River.
The major hurdle in understanding the behavioural change due to dams
They remember the times during annual monsoon when farmers used to
and diversions in any river basin is the lack of reliable and sufficient
wait for the floods that bring rich nutrients and alluvium to enrich their
database apart from the lack of access to Government data. There are
soils for the next crop. These floods that were spread throughout the
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Fig 6. River Discharge at Poringalkuthu The reduction in the river flow during summer months due to diversions
1500
in turn adversely affects the operation of the CRDS, hundreds of lift
1400
1300 irrigation and drinking water schemes downstream. In effect, the
1200 downstream population cannot rely on the river due to the highly fluctuating
Water Discharge in M.Cum
1100 discharge and reduction of flow since the commissioning of the six dams.
1000
900 Displacement of tribal communities
800
The hundreds of Kadar tribal families that were displaced by the
700
600
Parambikulam group of dams have neither been properly rehabilitated
500 nor given any compensation till date. They are a primitive hunter-gatherer
400 tribe found only in the Chalakudypuzha basin and are on the verge of
300
extinction. The Government of Kerala and Tamil Nadu has not even
200
100 recommended for their proper rehabilitation even after thirty four years
0 of Agreement.
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
The Kadar communities of Parambikulam area gave us an account of
Year the displacement due to the PAP group of dams. According to the older
generation Kadars, the British engaged the tribals of the river basin in the
Power House Release Spill from the Reservoir
operation of the tramway. Atleast 300 Kadar families used to stay in the
monsoon season from June to November also helped to transport wood present Parambikulam dam area. Five miles west of Parambikulam at
and reeds from the forests to downstream township at Chalakudy. The Kuriarkutty there was another settlement of 250 families and five miles
presence of open wells, the most common drinking water source in Kerala further, at Orukombankootty there were 150 families all settled near to the
and the presence of flood plains and rice fields in the midlands and tramway path. Again five miles to the west there was the Muthuvarachal
plains on either side of the river helped to receive the floods and in the settlement with 200 families. It is a mystery as to where all of them have
recharge of water into the river during summer seasons. disappeared now, says, a Kadar youth. Once the construction of the
After the dams and diversions upstream, the annual flooding spread Parambikulam group dams started, all these tribal settlements got scattered
over six months was changed into flash floods creating incalculable from their original dwelling places. Many of them were forced to migrate
damages to the river downstream in the form of erosion of the banks, downstream. They remember that some of the Kadar families had to settle
crop damages etc. In other words floods became dam induced and in the area near to the Poringalkuthu HEP area.
regulated. Out of the total average annual flow of 1036 Mm3, 36 per There is no mention of tribal displacement or rehabilitation in the
cent flows as reservoir spill in just ten days! Just 20per cent (236 Mm3) Parambikulam Aliyar Project related documents though it resulted in the
of the annual river flow is available to the downstream population in displacement and migration of considerable tribal population from the
summer months (December to May) to meet their drinking and irrigation project areas. The present Parambikulam settlement is a dismal site with
water needs. The river does not enjoy natural floods anymore. The heavy the houses clustered together with little living space in them and cattle
sand mining going on in the river for the past twenty years has further crammed in between.
reduced the riverbed level to below MSL in some places thus reducing Actually it is necessary to delve deeper into the issue of displacement of
the water table further on either banks. Kadar tribals in the Parambikulam area that has been left unrecorded
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and uncared all these fifty years. It is necessary to know how the dams
have affected their livelihoods and consequently their dependence on
forests through a detailed settlement wise survey. It is also equally
Field Diary
important to find out how they cope up with the changed situation. The contrasting scenario at Aliyar and Thirumoorthy
Impact on the dams downstream It was in the first week of December 2003, the two important dams in
A hydro dam (Poringalkuthu HEP) with 48 MW capacity and a Major the PAP system, Aliyar and Thirumoorthy presented contrasting pictures.
Irrigation scheme (Chalakudy River Diversion Scheme, CRDS) with an While the Thirumoorthy Dam was almost full at that time, the Aliyar
ayacut of 35,000 acres was commissioned in the Chalakudy River in the Dam presented a sorry picture with practically no water available to be
early 1950s before the PAP dams were built. The diversion has drastically released down (to Kerala). The water diverted from the Periyar and
reduced the stream flow into the river affecting the power generation Chalakudypuzha are fed into these dams through the contour canal and
and irrigation capacity and efficiency of these two Projects downstream Aliyar feeder canal before it is used to irrigate more than four lakh acres
as well as the Kerala Sholayar HEP (54 MW) that was commissioned in of land in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. The dams are situated in
1966.The almost complete diversion of the Nirar tributary has reduced the upper reaches of the tributaries of Bharathapuzha Aliyar and Palar.
the stream flow into the Periyar river in Kerala.
A nearby dam, the Amaravathi, constructed across Amaravathi River, a
Due to massive diversion for PAP from the tributaries of the Chalakudy tributary of Cauvery, originating from Kerala and flowing to Tamil Nadu
River coupled with the degradation of the catchment, the water was at its full capacity and spillway gates of the dam were opened a
availability in the river has reduced drastically, which in turn has affected little. Standing by the man made hurdle (for the river) it was felt that the
the drinking and irrigation water availability in the down stream beautiful river was trying hard to free itself from the shackles and flow
panchayaths. down freely. The period of visit being just after the northwest monsoon
Water logging and soil degradation the dams in the area must be having a fair quantity of water. While the
Reports suggest that continuous irrigation in the ayacut of Parambikulam picture at Thirumoorthy and Amaravathy were in accordance with the
-Aliyar project in the Coimbatore district has created acute water logging norms, Aliyar presented a totally different picture, which was quite
in places like Poosaripatti in Pollachi North Block, Anamalai in Anamalai unnatural. The subsequent controversy regarding non-release of water
Block, Ammapatti in Gudimangalam Block and Kongalnagar, Salayur into the Chittur basin (in early 2004) by Tamil Nadu citing non-availability
and C.P.Konar in Udumalpet Block. Apart from this the rotational system of water in the Aliyar dam makes one suspect a deep-rooted conspiracy
of water supply and capillary rise of salts during non-supply period brought with regards to maintenance of water level in various dams.
the black soil regions in and around Adivalli village in the second zone
creating water logging and salinity. The contamination of ground water The visuals of prosperity (or lack of it) also made interesting observations.
from Nitrate (application of fertiliser) is a common phenomenon all over Beyond Vandithavalam, the Kerala Tamil Nadu Border, extensive
the command area of the PAP. 15 sugarcane fields and coconut plantations could be observed. Water from
sugarcane fields was seen draining out into the roadside Nalla.. The
Saline ingress
river Aliyar at Amrampalayam had only a meagre flow. From Pollachi to
The reduction in downstream flow is creating problems of saline ingress
Udumalpet, the area served by PAP, the fields green. The journey from
in the downstream panchayaths leading to drinking water in open wells
Udumalpet to Manupatti, the area served by Thirumoorthy dam, also
getting saline and even rice crops getting damaged due to saline ingress.
presented similar picture. The fields flourished with sugarcane, paddy,
The 250 odd industries dependent on the Periyar are also affected by
bajra, macca, coconut etc.
saline ingress.
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Viewing from the top of the Aliyar dam, coconut plantations were spread The dried up and dying Chitturpuzha
into infinity; the plantations being irrigated from Aliyar. The new powerhouse
According to a resident farmer in his 80s There was enough water in
constructed just below the dam to utilise the water released to the river
the river even in the summer months before the commencement of the
was also observed. A weir, just below the discharge point of the dam toe
PAP. The Chittur region is completely dependent on agriculture. Earlier,
powerhouse downstream could be seen to take water to the fields.
paddy cultivation in the region was limited to lower areas where there
The experience of Thirumoorthy visit was surprising. The reservoir was was assured irrigation and dry crops like cotton, peanut etc. in the upper
full but the contour canal was dry. The local residents told that the lands. After the commissioning of the canal in 1970s there was plenty of
water through the contour canal was just stopped because the reservoir water in the region and people even bought more land in the upper
became full. The main river, as viewed near the Thirumoorthy Koil, regions under paddy cultivation. Traditionally, Chittur taluk had lots of
emptying into the dam was having a decent flow. The river with its cool ponds, which supported agriculture before the canal era. For extending
and crystal clear water was a refreshing experience. Monkeys were trying paddy cultivation, people filled up several existing ponds and chiras like
to snatch away prasadams from devotees. On a walk along the contour Perumkulam, Edayarkulam, kacherrykulam etc. with the feeling that there
canal above the dam for about 2 km, all the small and big rivulets is enough water in the canals and there is no need to maintain the
originating from the mountains are seen draining into the canal. In other ponds. They have also shifted to more water loving crops like sugarcane.
words, the contour canal obstructed the natural drainage. Even with a The ayacut of the Chittur Irrigation Project was under more than 4000
full reservoir and continued flow upstream the river Palar (means river of acres of sugarcane in some years. The scarcity of water is more in
milk) was stone dry below the dam. The insensitivity of man towards downstream areas of the anicuts than in the ayacut areas. For the last
nature was most appalling. A pipeline recently (2002) constructed to two years, the ayacut is also facing water scarcity and from this year
carry water directly from the contour canal (before it reaches the reservoir) people started agitation demanding release of water from the Aliyar
to Udumalpet to cultivate more than 2000 ha. was seen across this reservoir in Tamil Nadu. Moreover Tamil Nadu farmers lift water below
stone dry Palar. The scenes from atop the dam were no different from the Manacadavu weir by using numerous pumps.
that of Aliyar.Coconut palms dominated everywhere. Here also Tamil
Nadu has constructed a dam toe powerhouse with an installed capacity The search for Nirar dams amidst tea plantations and forest fires
of 1.95 MW. (It is said that the machine was installed by SILK, a Kerala It was March 2004; the peak of one of the worst drought ever to have
Government undertaking after pressures from a Kerala minister; the affected the region. Near the famous Athirappilly waterfalls, 30 kms to
ironical part being that the Kerala Government treats the construction the east of Chalakudy along the state highway to Valparai, the Vana
of this powerhouse as a violation of the PAP agreement conditions). A Samrakshana Samithi members narrated the tale of the ravaging forest
major portion of the ayacut in Tamil Nadu under the PAP is fed from fire that had already consumed vast tracts of forest and was still going
this dam. The Parambikulam Main Canal takes off from this reservoir. strong. In fact the visuals of the devastating fire that we had to encounter
Sugarcane is extensively raised near the dam where Udumalpet Canal all along the trip still haunts the memory. The official apathy towards
takes off from the Parambikulam Main Canal. The maintenance of the the fire was very much evident. A Kadar tribe whom we met about 20
canal was poor. The sides of the gigantic canal were wrecked. The expert kms further upstream told us that this was the worst fire in his memory.
opinion was that the overall efficiency of the system was well below 40 He was telling us that the area where we met him had not caught fire for
percent. The experience revealed that the water diverted to the semi the last twenty years.
desert area, is not used judicially. (While this canal is in a state of utter
The destination for the day was Nirar. Along the Chalakudy-Valparai
disrepair, the TN Government is engaged in the repair of the contour
state highway, one could see the almost empty reservoirs of Poringalkuthu
canal against the objection of the state of Kerala)
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and Sholayar hydroelectric projects. It is the water released from the Upper Sholayar Reservoir through a tunnel. The River below the Dam was
Poringalkuthu dam that feeds the Chalakudypuzha in the summer. But totally dry. Details of the Parambikulam- Aliyar project, including schematic
the project, with an installed capacity of 48MW(4x8MW+1x16MW), diagrams, were displayed near the dam. The catchments of Nirar and
works at less than 25per cent of its installed capacity during summer as Upper Sholayar receive maximum rainfall in the whole PAP system;
sufficient water is not available. It is the tailrace water from the Kerala 4500mm on an average. Journey for the day ended on return to Valparai.
Sholayar dam and some flow from the Karappara river, the only
Valparai is one of the highest ridges separating Chalakudypuzha and
undammed major tributary of the river, that feeds the Poringalkuthu
Bharathapuzha Basins. On day two we started along the Valparai
project in the summer. (The storage capacity of Poringalkuthu is only
Attakkati Road. A board, after a few kilometres, indicating that Kadamparai
just above 1 tmc ft.) The provision for maintaining the water level in
dam is 13 kms into the forest road deviating from the main road was so
Kerala Sholayar reservoir at FRL (+2663 ft.) on February 1st is aimed,
enticing that, ignoring the no entry sign, we parked the vehicle and walked
besides helping electricity generation, at ensuring at least minimum water
past the iron bar across the forest road. On entering, it was obvious that
availability in the Chalakudypuzha in summer. But dishonouring of this
the area is very rich in flora and fauna. The Nilgiri Langurs vociferously
provision continuously by the upper riparian state is causing immense
protested the invasion into their privacy. We walked for about 3kms into
hardships to the communities dependent on the Chalakudypuzha. In
the forest. It was disappointing that we could not get permission to visit
fact it is only once, in 1972 that the reservoir was full on 1st of February
the dam. The richness of the forest is a testimony to the commitment of
despite the sub basin receiving 19per cent excess flow than anticipated.
the TN forest officials who are engaged in its conservation.
The situation this year, owing to the severe drought, was still worse.
Above the fire ravaged forest tracts, coffee and tea plantations began at After resuming the journey, we saw the huge arch entrance of Kadamparai
about 2800ft. above MSL. After crossing the state border at Malakkapara, Power House further ahead. The Upper Aliyar dam and the Aliyar Reservior
88 kms upstream of Chalakudy town, we proceeded along the Valparai could be seen at a long distance from the road. The contour canal was
road upto Iyerpady estate and from there to Nirar. also visible near some of the sharply curving hairpin bends to Pollachi.
Water level in Aliyar Reservoir was very low. Some of the extensive
The two dams namely Upper Nirar weir and Lower Nirar dam are in the
plantations served by Aliyar dam could also be observed at a distance.
Kallar Estate area in Tamil Nadu. Tea and cinchona plantations occupy
most of the hill slopes in this region since 1930s. The Nirar river, a The return journey from Valparai to Malakkapara was along a different
tributary of Periyar, originates from the Eravikulam National Park in route; this time along the Upper Sholayar reservoir. The Tamil Nadu
Kerala. The 25m high Upper Nirar weir diverts the entire flow in this Sholayar dam is the highest in that State (105.16m). The reservoir was
tributary from February to September end through a tunnel to the Upper about half full. The two saddle spillways, constructed to divert surplus
Sholayar Reservoir. The stream, even at this time, had a decent flow. water into the Parambikulam valley were seen along the route. As
Smoke emanating form the charred forest floor could be seen from a mentioned in the main text, the agreement has provision for one saddle
couple of places on the high mountains beyond the weir. The water spillway only.
allocated to Kerala from Upper Nirar Weir is let down into the river By the time we left Malakkapara for Chalakudy, it was already dark.
through two small rectangular openings near the base (1.2 m width and Clearing of a roadblock on account of a fallen tree also consumed some
0.6 m depth approx.). These were completely closed at the time of the time. Against the heart rending visuals of the devastating fire, the only
visit, making the river totally dry below the weir. minor consolation was the sight of thousands of dancing glowworms,
The Lower Nirar Dam, located about 8 km downstream of the Upper illuminating the forest in the darkness.
Nirar weir was about half full. Water from this reservoir is also diverted to
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After independence, the leaders of the two states agreed informally on
the continued use of the Mullaperiyar water by Tamil Nadu. From 1959,
The Periyar Project upto 1970, Tamil Nadu used it for power generation too without any
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW formal agreement with Kerala.
The Agreement, amendments and conflicts
The River Periyar is involved in two interstate river water transfer
Agreements viz. The Periyar Lease Deed signed on the 29th October 1886 The Agreement signed on the 1st January 1886 for 999years, stipulated
and the Parambikulam- Aliyar Agreement in 1970 the release of about 8000acres of land in Kerala for lease to Tamil Nadu.
Not only the land but also all the waters (flowing into, through, over or
The Periyar Lease Deed is one of the earliest formal agreements on water
from the said tract) in this area, the right to passage and the fishing rights
diversion in India. During the last decades of nineteenth century European
were totally granted to the lessee. Additional 100 acres was to be leased
explorers identified the abundance of water in the upper Periyar reaches
out for execution and preservation of the irrigation works. All timber and
available for easy diversion to the eastern desiccated Maduari district.34
other trees, woods, under woods and saplings which now are or shall during
The Madras Presidency, of which Madurai was part, was directly under
the continuance of this demise be growing or standing upon any of the said
British rule. Hence the Travancore State was forced to lease its land for
demised lands could be used by the lessee to fell, grub up and use free of
a reservoir and also part with the waters; that too for a period of 999
all charge. The lessor could reduce yearly rent of 40,000 Rupees of British
years!
India from the tribute payable to the British Government of India (acreage
Mullaperiyar Dam was constructed between 1887 and 95 at a cost of rent of 5 Rupees of British India for the 8,000 acres). Finally there was
42.26 lakhs of British Rupees. H. E. Lord Wenlock G.C.I.E., the Governor permission in the lease document to execute a renewed lease for a further
of Madras inaugurated the dam on the 11th of October 1895. Length of term of 999 years at the same yearly and acreage rents. The disputes if any
main dam is 360 metres and baby dam 73 metres. The 47.24 m high were to be referred to the arbitrators or their umpire.
dam with a catchment area of 648 km² has a water spread of about 29
The amended agreement on 29th may 1970 deleted some of the provisions
km². The reservoir with a gross storage capacity of 15.6 tmc ft. (443.55
and added new clauses to the Principal Deed in 1886. As per the amended
Mcum) feeds an ayacut of 2,20,000 acres in Tamil Nadu.23
agreement Kerala was given the fishing rights by deleting clause 6. The
In 1932, the proposal put forward by the erstwhile Madras Government to clause for further renewal of the agreement for 999 years was also removed.
produce electricity using the waters from the Periyar Lake was opposed by the The annual lease rent was increased from Rs.5/- to Rs.30/- per acre of
erstwhile Travancore State. The case was submitted for arbitration. The land given out to Tamil Nadu (i.e. Rs.2, 40,000 per year). It was specified
arbitrators differed in their opinions and passed different awards in January that the lease rent alone should be subjected to revision once in every 30
1937. Under the agreement the matter went before Sir Nalini Ranjan Chatterjee, years commencing from 29th May1970. The validity of the present
the umpire who gave his judgment on the 12th May 1941 that the lessee has no agreement is for 999 years !
right to use the water for any purpose other than irrigation. The Madras
On the same day another agreement was also made between the same
Government violated the ruling and proceeded with arrangements for power
Secretaries of Governments on the Periyar Hydro-electric Scheme.
generation. After the improvement of the carrying capacity of the irrigation
According to it Kerala ratified the works already done by Tamil Nadu
tunnel they commissioned the powerhouse with four units each of 35 MW fully
with effect from the 13th November, 1944. Tamil Nadu agreed to pay at
in a phased manner by 1965.20
the rate of Rs.12/- per K.W. year if the power generated is below 350
million units in a year. If it exceeds 350 million units, the rates shall be
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Rs.12/- per K.W. year up to 350 million units and Rs.18/- for the electrical Addressing the issue
energy generated in excess of 350 million units. (K.W. year means
8,760 units of electrical energy for the purpose of this clause). Though the issue projected with regards to the Periyar Project is the debate
over the raising of dam height, the real loss to the donor state is that of
The problem acquired new dimensions in 1979 when leaks were detected the river that should have flowed west. Mullaperiyar is the main tributary
in the Periyar dam, which caused great concern to Kerala about the safety of Periyar, the longest river in Kerala. The entire tributary was diverted,
of the century old masonry dam. violating the basic riparian rights and the right of the river to maintain a
Following the detection of leaks, the team appointed by the Central Water minimum flow. More than 25 km downstream of the Mullaperiyar dam,
Commission recommended the lowering of the reservoir level to 136 ft. upto the Idukki reservoir practically remains dry due to the complete
from 142.40 ft. along with leak proofing as a precautionary measure diversion upstream and the destruction of the catchment. The Idukki
against a possible dam failure. The team suggested keeping the height at HEP was commissioned in 1975.
136 ft. until completion of the dam strengthening work by Tamil Nadu The Periyar has the maximum number of dams among the rivers of Kerala.
after which it may later be raised to 152 ft. in three stages. There are 16 big and small dams as part of 9 Projects for electricity
The two governments have remained at dispute over the issue of whether or generation and one irrigation dam at Bhoothathankettu including the
not to increase the water level maintained all these years hence at +136 ft. controversial 109 year old Mullaperiyar dam. A list of the dams is given
below
It may seem strange that while the two states are debating over raising of
the reservoir level, there were only a few occasions since 1961 when the ◗ Mullaperiyar dam and reservoir in Kerala diverting water to Tamil
water in the reservoir touched the full reservoir level (FRL). Similarly, Nadu for Power generation and irrigation.
even at 136 ft the spill into Kerala has been very meagre or nil all these ◗ Kundala, Mattuppettey dams in the Pallivasal Hydro Electric Project
years (Table 14). (37.5 MW).
Table.14 Water release from the Mullaperiyar dam (tmc ft) ◗ Sengulam dam in the Sengulam Hydro Electric Project (48 MW)
Particulars 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Average ◗ Kallarkutty reservoir in the Neriamangalm HEP (45 MW)
Tamil Nadu 30.61 20.28 22.67 19.04 28.44 22.43 23.91 ◗ Anayirangal and Ponmudi reservoirs of the Panniayar HEP (30
MW)
Kerala 1.32 0 0 1.46 1.97 0 0.793
◗ Idukki reservoir formed by constructing Idukki, Cheruthoni and
While Tamil Nadu is keen on raising the height of the dam, Kerala is Kulamavu dams in the Idukki HEP (780 MW), which releases water
concerned about the failure of the dam which would wash away three (1440 Mcum annually) into the adjacent Muvattupuzha River after
districts of the state, threat of seismic hazards and impact on the Periyar Power Generation.
Tiger Reserve etc. related to increase of height of water level. Periyar
Tiger Reserve (Thekkady Lake) is world renown for wildlife tourism and ◗ Kallar and Erattayar dams constructed in the Perinjankutty to divert
research. In fact Thekkady Lake is the reservoir of the Mullaperiyar dam. water to the Idukki reservoir as part of Idukki Augmentation Stage III.
Many meetings and negotiations later the argument on raising the water ◗ The Upper Nirar weir and Lower Nirar dam in the upper reaches of
level in the reservoir is still continuing. Presently, the case is in front of Idamalayar to diver water to Tamil Nadu as part of Parambikulam-
the Supreme Court. Aliyar Project.
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◗ Idamala reservoir of the Idamalayar HEP (75 MW) odd medium, small and tiny units utilize about 300-350 million litres of
water per day apart from the 350 million litres of water pumped for
◗ Lower Periyar dam of the Lower Periyar HEP (180 MW)
drinking purposes. Due to the severe pollution from the industrial belt
◗ Boothathankettu irrigation reservoir in the Periyar valley Irrigation directly discharging toxic effluents into the river, the Eloor- Edayar zone
Project has been identified as a Global Toxic Hotspot.
The story of the destruction of forests for the Mullaperiyar Project was The saline ingress into the river is also on the increase every year. During
only a beginning of the destruction to follow in the catchment of Periyar the third week of December 2002, the salinity level in the river touched a
in the name of dams, powerhouses, colonies, penstock pipes, HT power very high of 1000 ppm while the water supplied from the pump house
lines, quarries etc. The enhanced accessibility to the area and incipient had a salinity level of 550 ppm (The Hindu, Dec.21.2002). The Kochi
project settlements that develop gradually into large permanent townships, Corporation almost entirely depends on this river for its drinking water
greater employment opportunities in and around dam sites encouraged requirements.
people to move into the area and settle down. The rapid pace of
The Mullaperiyar dam has already crossed the safe life span of a dam.
development of settlements culminated in the formation of a new district,
Seismicity has already been recorded in this area. The saddest part of
Idukki district, and subsequent township development adding to
the event is that though Tamil Nadu is not a coriparian state it is
deforestation and ecological destabilization.34
consistently insisting at raising the height of the dam inspite of the self-
Till the beginning of twentieth century there was no human habitation in evident problem of dam safety and seismicity factor. The right of the
the entire Idukki high altitude region except for a few scattered tribal river to flow are totally denied to the donor state by completely diverting
settlements. The entire region was thickly forested. Presently, mere 800 the waters from Mullaperiyar, the main tributary of Periyar. Not only has
sq.km of the forests remain in the 5396-sq.km catchment of the Periyar Tamil Nadu violated the rules by generating power using Kerala waters,
River. Out of 800 sq.km of the forests, 300-sq.km lies in the south eastern but also has not shown the willingness so far to share the power thus
portion; water (about 640 Mcum) from this area is diverted to Vaigai generated as per the rules and doctrines on inter state water diversions or
basin in Tamil Nadu. The largest hydroelectric project in Kerala, the Idukki sharing. Meanwhile, compare the trivial 0.13 paise per unit that Tamil
HEP with a total installed capacity of 780 MW diverts about 1440 Mcum Nadu gives in return for the water used for power generation while there
of water annually after power generation into the Muvattupuzha River are times when Kerala has been charged more than Rs. 2 per unit for
basin. The upper Nirar weir and Lower Nirar dam constructed in the availing power from Tamil Nadu.
upper reaches of Idamalayar as part of the Parambikulam Aliyar Project
This maybe the ultimate tragedy.
also diverts 280 Mcum of water annually. These three diversions carrying
a total of 2360 Mcum of water along with extensive deforestation of the The tragedy of human attitude towards each other which in turn reflects
entire catchment has disrupted the hydrological cycle of the river basin. our attitude towards the most precious life resource water that should
Presently except for Pooyamkutty Aar, most of the other tributaries of have been shared and used peacefully, but that which has reached a
the Periyar are in a highly ecologically degraded state. stage wherein greed, selfishness, lack of concern for those who provided
the water, becomes the dominant compulsion.
Atleast 28 lakh people depend on this river for their drinking water
requirements. The Periyar also has the largest number of industries along
its riverbank in downstream Eloor Edayar area as the river branches
out and reaches the backwaters. Atleast six major industries and 1000
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Table.15 Dams in the Bhavani Basin
Name of the dam Year River Design Hei Gross

Bhavani River Diversions of com- Purpose ght Capacity
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW pletion m Mm 3
The Nilgiris and Bhavani river basin- a tale of destruction Glanmorgan 1930 Glanmorgan st. H 16 0.74
Pykara 1935 Pykara H 56 -
The 217 km long Bhavani River a major tributary of Cauvery originates
Mukurthi 1938 Mukurthi H 34 50.98
at about 2500m altitude near Bhavaniaar Betta (also called Koyilumalai
Maravakandi 1947 Aravarihalla H 22 0.82
by Kurumbas, a tribal community) in the Kundah hills of Nilgiris, a part
Moyar Forbay 1951 Moyar H 22 0.17
of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR). Spread across three states Tamil
Bhavani Sagar 1955 Bhavani I 62 929
Nadu (2,537.60 sq.km), Karnataka (1,527.40 sq.km) and Kerala
(1,455.40 sq.km), the NBR is the first global biodiversity hotspot in India Emerald 1961 Emerald H 65 156.2
identified by the UNESCO under the Man and Biosphere Programme Avalanche 1961 Avalanche st. H 57 156.2
(MAB). A total area of 2,195 sq.km under the six protected areas in the Kundah Pallam 1961 Kundah H 32 1.76
NBR is an indication of the rich biodiversity of the Biosphere Reserve. Of Sandnahalla 1963 Sandnahalla st. H 36 26.62
these six, two, Mukurthi National Park (80 sq.km) and Mudumalai Wild Upper Bhavani 1965 Bhavani H 80 101.2
Life Sanctuary (321 sq.km) are in the Bhavani river basin. Almost all the Pegumbahallah 1965 Pegumbahalla H 55 1.07
tributaries of Bhavani River have been dammed or diverted, altering the Western Catchment No.1 1966 Arickyampuzha H 18 0.13
hydrological cycle of the entire ecosystem. -do- No.2 1966 Karampuzha H 30 0.55
The Bhavani, after originating in Tamil Nadu flows in a southwest -do- No.3 1966 Karampuzha H 26 -
direction into Kerala. At Mukkali, the gateway to the famous Silent Valley Porthimund 1966 Porthimund st H 56 60
National Park, the river takes a near U turn and flows northeast through Parsons Valley 1966 Parsons valley H 43 19.25
Attappady before re-entering Tamil Nadu at Koodappatti. The total East Varahapallam 1967 E.V.Pallam H 35 1.36
drainage area of the river in Kerala is 529 sq.km. Kundah, the northern West Varahapallam 1967 W.V.Pallam H 18 0.4
tributary of the Bhavani River, which almost entirely lies in Tamil Nadu, Pillur 1967 Bhavani H 88 44.4
joins the main river at a place called Anthikadavu. The Siruvani River, Siruvani 1973 Siruvani DW 54 18.41
another tributary, originates from the southwestern corner of the Attappady Pykara new forbay 1976 Pykara H 45 5.85
plateau from Palamalai evergreen forests and Chennattu Reserve forest. Varattupallam 1978 Varattupallam I 15 3.94
It descends rapidly and flows north east to join Kodungarappallam near Upper Bhavani
the Tamil Nadu boundary and empties into Bhavani at Koodapatti. The Pumping Weir - Bhavani H 19 0.65
entire course of the Siruvani River, which is about 40 km long, is through
Bangihalla Bund - Bhavani H 23 -
Kerala. The Kodungarappallam tributary of Bhavani River originating from
NiralaPallam Diversion
Perumal Mudi (1641 m) in the southeastern corner of Attappady flows
Weir - Niralapallam H 18 -
along the State boundary in the eastern Attappady region. This stream
source : National register of large dams: Tamil Nadu, CWC, Dam safety organization,
has now almost ceased to exist. More than 1000 tribal families who used New delhi 1994
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to depend on this stream are now forced to dig bore wells even for meeting
their drinking water requirements. The Varahapallam tributary originates
In 1919, independent plans and estimates for the Siruvani water supply
from the southern slopes of Koyilumalai.
scheme, this time consisting of a weir across Siruvani near its origin, was
Dams and diversions in the Bhavani river basin submitted. The proposal envisioned irrigation of 2000 acres in the Noyyal
river basin, continuous water supply to 1 lakh people at the rate of 20
The history of dams in the Bhavani River dates back to 1930s with the
gallons per head per day and 375 gallons per minute per day for industrial
construction of Glanmorgan dam. Presently there are 26 big and small
concerns. The work began in 1924 and was completed in 1931 with a
dams/weirs in this small river. Except three, all are meant for power
total expenditure of Rs.41 lakh. Later the farmers of Palladam and
generation. Almost all the main tributaries and sub tributaries have been
Coimbatore demanded more diversion from Siruvani, which in turn resulted
dammed (Siruvani, Kundah, Varahapallam,Moyar,Pykara etc.).
in raising the height of the Siruvani weir in 1949. Subsequently, in
The most intricate project in the Bhavani Basin is the Kundah complex September 1950 and June 1951, 25 to 40 cusecs of water was released
Power Project with a total installed capacity of 555 MW. The project is for irrigation. This was mainly used by the ayacuts under the Chitrachavadi
inclusive of series of dams and its thirteen big and small reservoirs with channel. In July 1951, following damage in the tunnel, the municipality
five powerhouses. stopped supply of water for the Noyyal basin irrigation.
The main Bhavani River is dammed just before it enters Kerala and the After the reorganisation of the states in 1956, Tamil Nadu approached
total quantity of water upto that point is diverted to the Kundah HEP Kerala Government to divert more water from the Siruvani for drinking
complex. Water from the East and West Varahappallam, which joins the water purposes and also for extending irrigation in the downstream villages.
River Bhavani in Kerala, are also diverted into the Kundah Project before The Kerala Government however refused permission. The subject was
it enters Kerala. Water from these three reservoirs is diverted without any then included in the agenda for the meeting of the Southern Zonal Council
formal agreements with Kerala. held in April 1960, where it was decided that the Chief Ministers of both
These numerous dams and diversions have created serious impacts on states should settle the matter.
the hydrological behavior of the river and have resulted in drastic reduction Subsequently, Tamil Nadu came up with a new proposal to replace the
in the water availability in the Bhavani River. A glance into the table existing weir with a dam. In1973, the two states signed an agreement on
would reveal the complexity of the scenario. the project. Accordingly the Government of Kerala built the Siruvani dam
with a live storage of 650 M cft. at the cost of Government of Tamil
The Siruvani Drinking Water Project Nadu. The dam is to be maintained by the Kerala Government at the
The city of Coimbatore and Siruvani water are inseparable. The history cost of Tamil Nadu. As per the agreement, Kerala has to provide 1,300
of the Siruvani drinking water scheme dates back to 1880s when the first M cft of water per year to Tamil Nadu for the drinking water supply
proposal to construct a multi purpose dam across the Bhavani at its requirements of Coimbatore municipal town and neighbouring areas. In
junction with Siruvani River was first considered. But this proposal was this agreement Kerala has been allotted 2.5 tmc.ft. from the Bhavani
dropped for two reasons- diversions during the low flow periods would basin. The agreement also provides for maintaining minimum flow in the
affect the large irrigation channels, which take off from the river between river. Clause V of the Agreement states that Schedule I shall be
the towns of Mettupalayam and Bhavani, and the investment for constructed to make available a regulated flow of not exceeding 5 cusecs
excavating and tunneling would be exorbitant.42 of water downstream in order to meet the riparian requirement in
Kerala.42 A recent newspaper report that, Tamil Nadu has permanently
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sealed the shutters of the Siruvani dam, obstructing downstream flow is
highly disturbing.
Neyyar Irrigation Scheme
This agreement, at a glance seems to be a balanced one. Unlike in PAP The Neyyar irrigation scheme was conceived by the Princely state of
agreement the construction and maintenance of structures inside Kerala Travancore. With the formation of Travancore-Cochin State in 1949, it
territory is entrusted to Kerala. A minimum stream flow is ensured below was taken up for implementation in 1951 and commissioned in 1959.
the structure. The agreement has got a specific period; 99 years. But one The project was commenced with the full belief that the four taluks of
condition in the agreement, which actually is unwarranted, negates the south Travancore would remain as an integral part of Travancore- Cochin.
positive aspects. The agreement, as already mentioned, stipulates that The 56 km long Neyyar River, southern most river in Kerala, has a
Kerala can utilise 2.5 tmc ft. in the Bhavani basin. This in fact was not catchment area of 497 sq.km. The Neyyar dam has right and left bank
intended to allow water to Kerala, rather it was actually meant to restrict canal systems. It is aimed to irrigate 11,740 ha of land in Neyyattinkara,
Keralas possible future claim on Bhavani waters. Nedumangad and Trivandrum taluk of Trivandrum District in Kerala and
3780 ha in Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. There has not been any
The actual water available in the Kerala part of Bhavani basin is many formal agreement between the two states on the release of waters from
times higher than 2.5 tmc ft. The Kerala catchment of Bhavani mostly this scheme to Tamil Nadu.
includes the eastern sloping Attappady plateau. Attappady, a
predominantly tribal area has a long history of extensive degradation of Pandiyar-Punnampuzha Project
the catchment forests of Bhavani and Siruvani coupled with encroachment
The river Chaliyar is an inter state river, the tributaries Pandiyar and
of non-tribals from Mannarkkad plains and Coimbatore district in search
Punnampuzha originating from Tamil Nadu. The west flowing rivers of
of new land. Over years, the traditional tribal agriculture was replaced by
Pandiyar and Punnampuzha originating in the high peaks of Nilgiris join
the intensive agriculture of the non-tribal settlers, which later added to
at about 5 km west of Guddalore Town and the river beyond the confluence
the severity of the degradation through soil erosion and loss of fertility of
is called Punnampuzha, This joins Chaliyar river in Kerala State near
the land. Presently severe drought, desiccation and poverty have become
Nilambur. Ultimately, this drains into Arabian Sea near Beypore. This
the landmark of this once rich but fragile forested area. The accumulated
project area is located in the Udagamandalam-Mysore road.
impact of all this reflects in the summer flow of Siruvani and Bhavani
that gets fragmented at many places. Hence, it would be suicidal to the As per 1965 understanding between Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Pandiyar-
severely drought ridden Attappady region, if any more efforts are made Punnampuzha hydro electric project envisages utilisation of the west
to divert any amount of these remaining waters. It has to be noted that flowing waters of Pandiyar and Punnampuzha rivers from a total
from January to May, the flow in the Kerala part of Bhavani River is less catchment area of 171.38 sq. km. (66.20 sq. miles) with an average
than 1 tmc ft. The Bhavani and what remains of Siruvani River in the annual yield of 14 tmc ft for power generation with a gross head of
Attappady region is the main stay of more than 25,000 populations of 500.60 m (1642 ft) and with an installed capacity of 100 MW (2x50
tribals in the region. MW) for the first stage and 150 MW as ultimate. The average annual
generation would be 409 MU. The Planning Commission approved the
proposal in 1969.
Subsequently, on representation from the farmers of Coimbatore district,
the possibility of diverting the waters of Pandiar-Punnampuzha lying within
Tamil Nadu to Moyar arm of Bhavani River for use by Tamil Nadu was
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Tragedy of Commons
investigated and this was also found feasible. Tamil Nadu wanted diversion
of at least 7 tmc ft of water eastward to Tamil Nadu.
The concurrence of the Government of Kerala is essential for diversion of
water eastward. The Government of Tamil Nadu is actively pursuing with
the Govt. of Kerala for attaining its concurrence for the implementation
Linking Rivers
of this project.
De-linking India
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Tragedy of Commons Interlinking of Revers
This plan seeks to end the flood problems of the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra while at the same time solving the drought in Southern
India by diverting the excess waters in these Himalayan Rivers to the
Interlinking of Rivers monsoon fed peninsular ones.
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW The National Perspective Plan formulated by the Ministry in 1980 divided
The Mullaperiyar diversion, the Parambikulam-Aliyar Project and the the project into two components the Himalayan and the Peninsular.There
Siruvani diversion are living testimonies to the inherent problems underlying are 14 links envisaged in the Himalayan component and 16 links in the
linking of rivers/diversion of rivers/ river water transfers from its natural Peninsular component involving a total of 30 rivers with a total projected
course. The various political, socio-economic and ecological dimensions investment of Rs. 5,60,000 crores.
of these diversions, the impacts thereof have been discussed in the first
two sections. The proposal for the linking up of major rivers in the country As the storage sites are limited on account of topographical and other
in the name of drought relief, irrigation, power and flood mitigation is a resources, the plan is based on optimum development of available storage
quite well known live issue. Debates, discussions, open forums, workshops, sites including development of new storages, big and small, wherever
demonstrations etc. both for and against the project have been galore feasible. It would require construction of more than 1000 km of new link
since the Hon. Supreme Court of India suggested the Government of canals, 10,000 MW of electricity for lifting water over highlands and over
India to take up the project without delay. The feasibility, sustainability, 200 storage reservoirs to enable this water transfer.
the lack of transparency of the project and its process etc have been The proposal appears to be perfect with claims that all the aspects will
questioned in many forums. be looked after. When one reads between the lines, it becomes evident
A compilation of excerpts of reports, viewpoints and analysis of various that many vital aspects about the proposal are not clear; some are not
concerned people across the country on the Inter Linking of Rivers Project even mentioned in the proposal. Basic information on the status of each
is attempted here in its various dimensions against the background of the river basin, the quantum of water that is proposed to be transferred from
longest experience of Kerala in mass transfer of river waters. The aim is or received by each basin, the existing water use in the recepient river
also to analyse the parallels and implication therein. basin, area which will be benefited and irrigated by each link, power
generation potential of each link, the actual displacement and the type
The Project- An Outline of land that would be required and acquired, the wild life habitats that
would be lost etc. remain unwritten.
The Inter Linking of Rivers Project envisages additional benefits of 25
mha of irrigation from surfacewaters, 10 mha by increased use of ground The various basin states have expressed divergent views about the studies
water, totaling to 35mha which will be over and above the ultimate and feasibility reports prepared by the National Water Development Agency
irrigation potential of 140 mha and 34,000 MW of hydro-power apart (NWDA). The Ministry admits that there could be a number of
from the benefits of flood control, mitigation of drought, navigation, impediments, the most crucial being the lack of consensus amongst the
domestic and industrial watersupply, fisheries, recreational facilities, co-basin States for transfer of surplus water. The NWDA claims that it
salinity and pollution control etc.The project claims that it will also translate has completed the pre feasibility studies of all the links and feasibility
into higher food grains production of 380 million tonnes by 2025. The studies of eight links altogether with one in the Himalayan component
other spin-offs would be socio-economic development and employment and seven in the Peninsular component. It is estimated that all the
generation, among others. feasibility reports for the Peninsular Component will be completed by
2004 while that of the Himalayan Component will be over by 2008.
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projects, whose sites are first identified on the basis of suitable dam sites,
along with a few other projects thrown in the name of minor projects. In
reality, what is passed off as minor has actually become major irrigation
The Project - Promises and source in India today.16
Realities India also has the largest irrigation infrastructure in the world. This existing
system is hardly performing near optimum levels. Irrigation efficiencies
In its proper time, rain becomes stream are not more than 35per cent at best. As the 9th Plan pointed out, even
Stream becomes river, river becomes sea 10per cent increase in irrigation efficiency could lead to additional irrigation
But divide stream from river, potential of 14 mha.31
Even rain from sea and trouble begins( Tao) The failure of large-scale irrigation
More irrigation, larger food production, flood control, drought relief and since 1951, 246 big surface irrigation projects have been initiated.
more power generation: these are the major claims laid down by the
Only 65 out of these have been completed; 181 are still under
Government with regard to the benefits of Inter Linking Project. These
constructionPerhaps we can safely say (about projects started after
claims, we have heard before, throughout the five-year plans in the past. 1970) that for 16 years we have poured money out. The people have got
Given the past experiences in these areas of development, what are the
nothing back, no irrigation, no water, no increase in production, no help
new or additional benefits that the people of India can expect? An honest
in their daily life.
attempt to understand the claims has been attempted.
Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, 198624,
Irrigation is an ancient technology. Though irrigation developed as an
Irrigating more land insurance against drought in low rainfall areas and for extension of crop
The Government says that it is necessary to increase irrigation potential periods and cropped areas in rainfed areas, the rate of irrigated area
to 160 mha for all crops by the year 2050 while the maximum irrigation expansion accelerated since the big dam boom in the 1950s.The Green
potential that could be created through conventional sources has been Revolution Technology in the 1960s assisted in bringing more area under
estimated at 140 mha. Interlinking of rivers will provide the requisite irrigation especially in the fertile parts of India and other Asian countries.
solution to the goal of attaining an irrigation potential of 160 mha. The Since the late 1970s the spread of irrigation has slowed down.
project claims to irrigate an additional 35 mha of land. Even though more than Rs 50,000 crores has been spent on 550 major
Irrigation is the single human activity, which makes maximum demand on and medium irrigation projects in India, these could cover only 60 mha
water. In Africa, Asia and Latin America, agriculture is the dominant water of land under irrigation. Further, 25 to 35 percent of the area irrigated
user accounting for 85per cent of all the water used.45 under such projects turned saline and alkaline and became prone to water
logging due to scientific failure of cropping patterns. Nearly 40 percent of
The major increase in irrigated agriculture has been due to groundwater
water stored in dams is wasted. There is a reason why modern engineers
irrigation development and also due to minor surface potential (GOI,
adopted only canals among the indigenous techniques while others were
1999: 477). Comprehensive planning at river basin level has not been
not. Canal irrigation allows centralised management, which goes well enough
done in the case of any river basin in India. Most of the time what is
with bureaucratic control. (Sengupta, 1993) 16
passed out as river basin wide planning is really a collection of few large
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Modern canal irrigation systems are also plagued by poor design and
construction, poor capacity utilisation, mismanagement, erratic and Flooding the land
unreliable supply of water to farmers, head and tail end conflicts due to On the one side, we carry out irrigation work and put more and more
unequal water distribution, canal losses and leaks, over sizing of benefits water for fresh areas, while on the other side land goes out of cultivation
and under sizing of adverse impacts, lower water use efficiency to name due to water logging. This is a curious state of affairs and it is far better
a few apart from the huge increase in the investment cost per hectare. to stop every irrigation work than allow water logging.
The best instance of poor performance of irrigation systems can be found
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, 1958 24
in Kerala. Out of the 14 completed major irrigation schemes in Kerala,
five, namely Cheerakuzhi, Pamba, Periyar Valley, Chitturpuzha and The Bhakra project on Sutlej is the most frequently quoted success story
Kuttiadi took almost 30 years for completion. The cumulative cost of of a large dam based irrigation project in India, even in the present context
infrastructure development was Rs.1.39 lakh/ha. on an average and it of the interlinking plan. Irrigation was not new to Punjab. Inundated
was more than Rs.3lakhs in the case of Pamba and Kuttiadi Irrigation Irrigation canals since the time of Greek invasions have irrigated millions
Projects. The status of the ongoing schemes is no different as the rate of of hectares. They did not cause water logging. They flowed for four to
achievement was only 22 percent resulting in a cost escalation of 1633 five months and for the remaining part of the year, they served as drainage
percent in absolute terms.43 The Indian Accounts Committee reported in channels. The Bhakra system covering a length of over 3000 km of channels
1983 that since independence not a single large irrigation project in the was different from older canal systems because it was fed by a high dam,
country had been completed on time and within stated cost estimates.24 and included a network of cross country canals which ran against the
natural drainage to irrigate 23, 72,100 ha.40 This did bring water to
The latest instance of the failure of large-scale irrigation systems is evident
some of the very arid lands in south west Punjab and West Haryana.
from the Bargi Dam on the Narmada River.The dam submerged nearly
Ironically, these are some of the very areas in India that are experiencing
81,000 ha of farmland and forest to irrigate a projected area of 4,
the worst impacts in terms of water logging and salinisation.
40,000ha. Seven years after the dam was completed in 1986, just
12,000ha were receiving irrigation waters (3 percent of the planned area).24 The Rajasthan Canal Project (Indira Gandhi Canal) has caused water
logging in 0.170 mha of the irrigation command area according to an
All these indicators point towards the inherent unsustainability of large-
estimate. In two separate estimates, the extent of waterlogged area in
scale irrigation systems. The cost of investment and running of the irrigation
India has been calculated as 1.339mha (Rao, 1984) and 1.014 mha.
systems is simply becoming unaffordable. Governments can no longer
(Joshi and Agnihotri, 1984).35 In the Tungabhadra project in Karnataka,
afford the massive subsidies in such large-scale irrigation projects.
33, 000 ha have been waterlogged (Shiva, 1989: 149). In large parts of
Agricultural prices of food and non-food crops are falling in world market
Haryana, the impact of irrigation over many decades has caused the
making irrigated farming no more economically viable without huge
groundwater table to rise, resulting in severe water logging and salinisation.
subsidies. Farmers are entering into deeper and deeper debt traps due to
Crop yields have declined significantly. Already, water logging problems
increasing degradation of the soils, due to over irrigation, fertilizer and
have developed on about 2, 50, 000 ha of land in northwest India, and
pesticide application and due to the increasing cost of agricultural
it is foreseen that some 3 mha maybe in jeopardy over the next 30 to 50
production.
years. The incidence of flooding also increases as the water table
An economic, social and ecological evaluationof the fertile and productive approaches land surface (World Bank, 1994: 3).
land already lost to irrigation canals and related infrastructure, water
About 1.2 mha in UP (7per cent of net cultivable area) are not used
logging, salinisation and alkalinisation become imperative in this context.
because of high concentration of exchangeable sodium, which is also
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described as alkaline conditions (World Bank, 1998: 80. 7). In Tamil worlds irrigated land has salt pollution problems that diminish the
Nadu saline and alkaline soils are spread over in 0.41 mha and acidic productivity of the soil and, in extreme cases, ruins it forever. It is estimated
soils occur in 0.12 mha (World Bank, 1995 Vol. 2: 299). In Orissa, water that about 7 lakh ha in Punjab are salt affected and produce either no
logging is a major problem of the irrigated delta of the coastal zones: yield or very poor yields.40
about 85,000 ha of the Mahanadi delta is affected (World Bank, 1995b:
In India, the salt-affected areas in the country as reported by the Central
5).16
Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal, India as of 1991 was 7
Water logging does not recognize farm boundaries. Usually, it is the fertile mha of which 2.4 mha were inland saline soils of the arid and semi-arid
deltas and low lying areas that are adversely and irrevocably affected by regions, 2.5 mha were alkali soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains and 2.1
water logging. Once, these areas would have enabled the farmers to raise mha were coastal saline soils. This amounts to 2.3 percent of total
good crops without much dependence on external inputs and irrigation. geographical area or about 4 percent of total cultivable land. The leaching
of the saline desert soils by irrigation was the major cause of the secondary
Intensive irrigation (capillary) salinisation (Smedema 1990a).46
Intensive irrigation on arid and semi arid lands has more serious Water logging and salinity are problems linked to the over use of water in
repercussions than we imagine. regions where the nature of the topography and soils rule out intensive
All irrigation waters, whether from rivers or groundwater, contains dissolved irrigation as a productive use of land and water. The natural ecological
salts washed out of rocks and soils. Evaporation from reservoirs, canals solution to these problems would be to shift to more water prudent
and fields increases the concentration of salts in irrigation water. When cropping pattern, to crops and varieties that need less water. The
the water reaches the crops, the roots absorb water but leave in the soil engineering solution, on the other hand is to redesign the nature by
most of the toxic salts. Compounding irrigated agricultures salt problem artificially transforming the drainage characteristics and chemical
is that soils in arid and semi arid areas naturally tend to have high salt composition of soils. The cure is worse than the disease; more water
levels. To prevent the salinity of irrigated soils from reaching levels, which consumption, more drains to get rid of the excess water quickly, more
would stunt plant growth, farmers apply more water to wash salts from energy and capital for desalting. These cures are neither affordable nor
root zone. Flushing out all the salts, however, increases the salinity of the sustainable.40
groundwater below and, in the absence of good drainage, causes the Increasing food production
water table to rise. Eventually, when the water table reaches the surface,
One of the arguments that have come forward in favour of interlinking is
the water evaporates leaving behind its salt content as a crust of deadly
that we need to increase our food production to 450 million tonnes by
white crystals. Thus in trying to flush out the salts, the irrigator is not
2050 for the fast growing population. The interlinking of rivers, will not
only accelerating salinisation, but also the water logging of the root zone.
only increase the availability of water and reduce drought in the country,
Atleast 25 mha of land in India is facing the threat of salinity24.
but also translate into higher food grains production of 380 million tonnes
The salt poisoning of arable land seems to be an inevitable consequence by 2025.
of intensive irrigation in arid regions. In regions of scarce rainfall, the
From past experiences, we know that assured irrigation has almost always
earth contains a large amount of non-leached salts. Pouring irrigation
prompted farmers to shift to water intensive cash crops from indigenous
water to such soils brings those salts to the surface and leaves behind a
varieties of food crops which were raised adapted to the local climate,
residue when the water evaporates. Today more than one third of the
topography and water availability. Sugar growers in Maharashtra occupy
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only one tenth of the States irrigated land, yet use half of its irrigation The claim made by a number of supporters of large projects that India
water. has achieved food production of today due to large dams based irrigation
is quite erroneous looking at the facts. The India Case Study calculates
It is a well-known fact that more area under irrigation does not necessarily
that the share of the total increase in food production from 1950 1993
mean more food production. A well known and documented case of
attributes to additional land brought under irrigation is 10per cent. However
water logging leading to reduction in yields before that of introducing
during this period the absolute number of people below poverty line-that
irrigation is that of Tawa dam in Madhya Pradesh. According to the
is without capacity to buy food- increased from 180 million to 300
Comptroller and Auditor General of India, it will be noticed that the
million.45
yields per acre after irrigation have actually declined. According to the
scientific and technical opinion now available, because of the soil Another pertinent question that has to be raised here is whether there is
conditions and weather conditions in the command area of the Tawa actually shortage of food grains in India? We have instances in history
project, agricultural operations in both kharif and rabi seasons with the wherein famine has been created and used as a political weapon. Is not
help of irrigation could not have been productive, but on the other hand, the problem more of misappropriation, the failure of the PDS, the incorrect
irrigation could be even harmful. There was also resistance on the part of use of land and other natural resources for unsuitable cropping systems,
cultivators to a change in their habits and the cropping pattern they have the over consumption of fertilizers and pesticides making more and more
been used to. Thus, it would appear that the project was ill conceived productive land barren and uncultivable to name a few? While on one
and the benefits that were presumed would be available could not have hand, our godowns are overflowing; there are millions who cannot afford
been realized (CAG 1979 80)35. a single square meal per day
We have the classic example of Kerala wherein irrigation expansion has After examining the six east flowing rivers, namely, Mahanadi, Krishna,
led to more and more farmers replacing rice farming with commercial Godavari, Cauvery, Vaigai and Pennar, the National Commission for
crops. The cumulative investment for irrigation development in Kerala till Integrated Water Resources Development Plan concludes (p.192) Thus
the end of 1997-2002 was Rs.2692.11 crores, out of which, a major there seems to be no imperative necessity for massive water transfers.
chunk of Rs.1976.98 crores (about 70per cent) was on major and medium The assessed needs of the basins could be met from full development
irrigation projects. The overall trend in agricultural development indicates and efficient utilization of Intra-basin resources except in the case of
that while the net sown area in the State has increased by about 46per Cauvery and Vaigai basins. Even the shortages in the Cauvery and
cent during the period 1952-1997, net irrigated area has increased only Vaigai basins are just 5per cent and 8per cent even after increasing the
by less than 10per cent. The proportion of net irrigated area is stagnant present irrigated areas to 1.4 times in case of Cauvery and 1.6 times in
since 1990s. Similarly while the proportion of canal irrigated area made case of Vaigai.31
a sharp decline from 46per cent in1952 to below 30per centin 1997, the
The depletion of groundwater in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
area irrigated by wells has increased by 108per cent during 1980-1997.
and Karnataka maybe one of the reasons projected by the proponents of
This exposes the mismatch between the largescale investment in canal
Interlinking to be mitigated through mass transfers of water. But we are
irrigation and the corresponding area expansion in Kerala. However, it is
all equally aware that the worsening ground water scenario in these states
important to note that when the share of paddy in the gross irrigated
is also an indicator of the overuse of water for intensive irrigation requiring
area has declined from about 73per cent in 1980-81 to 48per cent in
crops like sugarcane and cotton, incorrect land use pattern and water
1997-98, that of coconut has increased from 15.75per cent to 34.53per
depleting industries. The nature of groundwater, it is hidden, it is very
cent during the same period.43
difficult to measure, and it is not discrete but is linked to the surface
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water flows- making it difficult to know what pumping rate would be the Nile carried an average of some 124 million tonnes of sediment to the
sustainable. Also, the nature of ground water abstraction- through privately sea each year and deposited another 9.5 million tonnes or so on the
owned wells is such that- means that it is difficult to control.6 Recharging narrow flood plain and delta which are home to all of Egypts people.
aquifers requires replenishment of surface water sources. Most of the Today, more than 98 per cent of the Niles sediment drops to the bottom
natural ground water recharge occurs through the beds of rivers and the of the vast Nasser reservoir. The loss of silt - which is low in nitrogen but
gravels of alluvial plains. Land husbandry practices that recharge rather rich in silica, aluminum, iron and other vital trace elements - is believed
than deplete ground water and a resource based or decentralized watershed by many to have had a serious effect on Egyptian agriculture, resulting in
approach in agricultural development would not necessitate more and the need for ever larger amounts of artificial fertilizers and a long term
more centralized area under irrigation to mitigate ground water depletion. decline in trace element levels in soils. Today the Nile has no true delta.24
Further, out of the 47 commercial fish species thriving in the Nile prior to
Controlling floods the dams construction, only 17 were still being harvested a decade after
I do not know much about gods; but I think that the river the dams completion. In the Mediterranean Sea, the annual sardine
Is a strong brown god- sullen, untamed and intractable harvest dropped by 83per cent; a side effect of the reduction in the nutrient
rich silt entering that part of the sea.
T S Eliot (The Dry Salvages)
One of the aims of dam construction has indeed been flood control. But
The project claims that the Inter linking river will provide flood protection. case studies from all over the world also point towards the adverse impact
Human populations have survived for centuries on the most fertile entity of flood control over the river and its dependents. After the Farakka
of a river- the flood plains, weaving their livelihoods tuned to the highs Barrage was built, Malda and Murshidabad have become extremely
and lows of the annual floods. As in the flood plains of the Brahmaputra, vulnerable to floods and erosion. The problem is so acute that the Ganga
sometimes they lived in stilt houses, or moved away during the floods, may soon erode the land between it and its tributary, the Bhagirathi, and
and waited for the floods to subside so that they could use the fertile become a wider mass of water over a stretch of a few kilometers. If that
flood plains to raise their seasonal crops. For pastoral societies, who happens the river may not only engulf houses and cultivable land in north
graze their herds over parched plains and mountains, perennial vegetation Murshidabad, but also the railway tracks - the most important link between
along the banks of rivers provides life sustaining food and fodder during South and North Bengal.7
dry seasons and droughts. Over longer time periods the storage provided by the reservoir creams
Flooding is a natural process that flushes out the river and recharges the off flood peaks and permits the release of augmented flows. In 1978,
drainage channel for water flow. It results in the deposition of alluvium floods exacerbated by forced discharges from Bhakra dam rendered nearly
particularly in the delta areas of rivers to maintain the fertility of the land 65,000 people in Punjab homeless. Eleven years later, a similar flood
by compensating loss of topsoil due to natural erosion. Any system that occurred. Stress has remained on engineering responses like dams and
prevents or severely reduces natural flooding (by diversion of floodwater) embankments, which have necessitated astronomical expenditures.
will cause land fertility to gradually reduce over the years, thus desertifying However, a corresponding jump in flood relief expenditure and an alarming
the land. The greatest loss that land can suffer is desertification by loss increase in flood-affected area, despite protection, make it obvious that
of topsoil. the flood control measures have failed to deliver the goods. The Rashtriya
Barh Ayog (RBA) or National Commission of Floods set up by the
The intricate relationship between flowing rivers and flood plains is evident Government in 1976 found that the countrys flood prone area, which
from the state of the Nile River. Before the Aswan dam was constructed,
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had been estimated at about 25 mha during the 1960s, went upto 34 A more serious difficulty arises from the fact that most of the flow in
mha by 1978. Since 10 mha had been covered by flood protection practically all rivers occurs during the southwest monsoon. Published data
measures by then - it is well known that these measures often fail during from official sources show that 90 per cent of the flow in South Indian
high floods- the commission put the countrys flood prone area at about Rivers occurs between May and November. Data on the Indo-Gangetic
40 mha. 7 and Brahmaputra river basins are classified. Being perennial, the
proportion of the total flow occurring during these months maybe somewhat
The most flood prone basins are those of the Ganga and Brahmaputra in
smaller but not all that much smaller.39
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam, followed by Baitarni,
Brahmani and Subarnarekha basins in Orissa. The commission analysing Human habitation in flood plains has increased over the last few decades.
the flood damages in the 1970s, pointed out that during the period 1976- Of course, human populations in the floodplains are adversely affected.
78, floods were also experienced in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana But it is the population pressure and modern high- production- agriculture-
and Gujarat, which is, in areas not usually affected. The share of boom that has today driven people to settle down in such regions, unlike
damages of the second group went up from around 20-25per cent to in earlier centuries when all inhabitants migrated seasonally. Deaths and
about 50per cent of the total. Even in the chronically flood prone states catastrophes from floods have also been a part of the history especially
of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the flood - affected area has been increasing.4 in the larger river basins of the world like the Hwang Ho, the Brahmaputra
The commission did not find any evidence to show that rainfall had etc.
increased during the 1970s. The commission, therefore, felt that floods
While the Government tries to justify the Inter linking Project also in
had increased more because of human factors like deforestation, drainage
terms of flood control, the social, ecological and economic impact of
congestion caused by badly planned construction of bridges, roads, railway
river diversions on the downstream riparian states or country like
tracts and other developmental activities; reduction in infiltration because
Bangladesh when water gets diverted upstream will be disasterous
of increased occupation of land by industries and large scale urbanisation;
especially since the major economy and livelihood of Bangladesh entirely
and construction of embankments along rivers. Damages increased because
depends on the seasonal fluctuations of Ganga and Brahmaputra.The
of the increased flood incidence and encroachment of flood plains. 7
impact on the fragile wetlands and deltaic systems like the Sunderbans
The basic idea of networking rivers is to convey unwanted floodwaters and the Kaziranga National Park starting from the Brahmaputra Ganges
from one place to another where it is deficient and needed. But this idea basins is another aspect.
does not consider that the period when it is surplus in the donor area
(July to October in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basins) is not the time when
it is needed most in the recipient area (January to May in the peninsular
Drought relief
rivers). In such a situation, it will be necessary to construct enormous Drought proofing and more drinking water for water scarce regions have
holding reservoirs that will add to financial, social and environmental been promised once the interlinking plan is completed.
costs. 44 As M.S. Reddy, former Secretary, the Union Ministry of Water
The terms water scarcity and drought are often defined, used and assessed
Resources pointed out, the plan to lift 1,500 cubic metres of water per
in different circles in so many different ways that these two problems can
second would not be able to control floods since the normal volume of
be viewed only in a contextual manner.
floods in the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi and the Godavari
range between 30,000 and 60,000 cubic metres of water flow per second.2 Drought is not unique and its description is totally dependent on local
conditions and local levels of water use. Under monsoonal weather
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conditions, as in India, determining what exactly can be counted, as acute drought periods and the result is tremendous water scarcity
drought is a complex issue. For official purposes of declaring drought, a confirming that dams have neither effectively controlled floods in the
25per cent to 50per cent deviation from normal rainfall is considered country nor has the drought protection expected from them been met.19
moderate drought while a departure greater than 50per cent is considered Palakkad district which has the maximum irrigation dams in Kerala, built
serious drought (Irrigation Commission, 1972).19 across almost all the tributaries of the Bharathapuzha is one of the worst
drought affected districts in the State.
Drought can be meteorological when rains do not arrive in time, or can
be due to ground water depletion through overuse or misuse, can be soil There are enough indicators to establish our failure in ensuring the stability
water drought when the soil loses its moisture holding capacity due to of the water cycle. State after state is trapped in an irreversible and
incorrect cropping pattern or land use, or even can be surface water worsening crisis of drought, desertification and consequent water scarcity.
drought when streams and rivers dry up during post monsoon due to The magnitude of the scarcity is disproportionately higher than the variation
hydrological destabilization or deforestation. Drought has different in rainfall from normal. Uttar Pradesh had 17,000 villages without water
meanings for a farmer, a hydropower engineer, a meteorologist, and an in the 1960s; this figure had doubled to 35,000 in 1972 and by 1985 the
average citizen to name a few. The most notorious example of this is crisis had extended to 70,000 villages. In Madhya Pradesh 36,420 villages
Cheerapunji in NorthEast India, one of the worlds wettest places, with had no water in 1980; this number had risen to 50,000 in two years and
an average rainfall of more than 9000mm. Illegal logging and expansion 64,565 in 1985.The number of villages without water in Gujarat shot up
of farmland have denuded the once lushly forested slopes of the region, from 3,844 in 1979 to 12,250 in 1986; and in Maharashtra from 17,112
and now it suffers floods for three to four months and severe water in 1979 to 23,000 in 1984.19
shortages for the rest of the year24. Due to the same reasons, even in a
There are sufficient examples to prove that our rivers are drying up, our
heavy rainfall region like Kerala, drought has become a recurring
wells are drying up, and our soils are drying up. But it is more due to the
phenomenon.
destruction and mismanagement of forests, land, soil, water and mineral
In South India, iron ore mining in the Western Ghats Watersheds of resources that have maintained the hydrological cycle for millions of years
Tungabhadra is creating a similar situation of drought by reducing the than due to dearth of engineering solutions. It is more due to unsustainable
base flow and increasing the silt load in the river. Expansion of unterraced agricultural development policies and practises and water policies of the
agriculture and overgrazing has also contributed to hydrological instability changing governments that are totally against watershed principles. Local
throughout the mountain watersheds of the country; the exact nature water resources like tanks, wells, ponds, johads, kundis, surangams to
and the extent of such contribution is however uncertain and little name a few developed by human requirements over centuries adapted to
quantitative information is available. The cumulative impact of all these the geographical, soil and topographical peculiarities are being destroyed
factors has been worsening floods and droughts even under normal rainfall due to pollution, neglect and mismanagement and of course centralized
conditions.19 control of water resources.
Even after 50 years of dam building, the drought prone areas in the
country have gone up. On August 27th 1987, while Gujarat was reeling
More Electricity Generation
under drought, nearly 50 villages downstream of Kadana Dam in Baroda, The interlinking of rivers project will provide an additional power
Savli and Padra Taluks were given the alert for evacuation due to floods generation potential of 34,000 MW.
in view of the water released from dam following rainfall in the catchments
Power development is placed in the concurrent list of the Indian
of the dam. Increasingly, reservoirs are not holding any water during
Constitution, as a joint responsibility of both the states and the Centre.
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The present installed capacity of India is about 89,000 MW. Out of the According to the official sources, the Peninsular River components together
total installed capacity in 1997-98, 63.3 per cent was owned by the states, have a generating capacity of about 4000 MW of power and the rest
30.7 per cent by the Centre and 6 per cent was in private sector.21 30,000 MW by the Himalayan River components.
The Transmission and Distribution loss of Indian Power sector stood at The Himalayan component is proposed to generate huge amount of power.
25per cent in 1997-98 and rose to 26 per cent in the next year (Government Though it has been assured that the project would generate a total 34,000
of India 2001: 175) against 8 per cent of China, 9 per cent of Chile, MW of energy, the National Commission for Integrated Water Resource
Thailand and Malaysia, 8 per cent of world average.21 A single percentage Development Plan (NCIWRDP) also says, Unfortunately, the Himalayan
point reduction in T and D loss would have resulted in additional component data being classified were not available for analysis. If this
availability of about 4365MU. Or an additional generating capacity of is the case then the claims of 30,000 MW of power from the Himalayan
about 900MW (at 56per centPLF) (2.5per cent reduction will provide the Component is itself questionable
total electricity requirement for the state of Kerala) Even this figure of T
and D loss is a gross under estimate, for example the transmission and Unsaid Impacts
distribution losses of Kerala is about 30per cent. But, there has not been
any actual scientific measurement of the T&D loss in the State so far There are certain aspects about the project that have been concealed,
either. suppressed and kept out of bounds from the public who are supposed to
be the beneficiaries of this project.
Underutilisation of generation capacity, high T&D losses, lack of demand
side management, which has a 35per cent energy saving potential, Linking Pollution
subsidised pricing of power, financial crisis of SEBs and corruption are
There is deep concern regarding linking polluted rivers with unpolluted
some of the major problems faced by the Indian power sector. Instead of
ones. Reducing the flow (in a polluted river) by diversion would increase
tackling these problems the authorities always present addition in installed
concentration of pollutants. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra of India
capacity and privatization of energy sector as the only options available.
are filled with bacteria and high feacal count and nearly 200 million litres
Hence, generating more power alone cannot solve the problems facing
of untreated sewage pour into the Yamuna River from Delhis sewage
Indian Power sector. The recent claim of additional power generation
system every day. Annual floods reduce the impact of pollution by flushing
through inter linking rivers has to be viewed against this background.
industrial and municipal pollution in the Ganga down to the Bay of
Barring a few cases where gravity links maybe feasible, interbasin transfers Bengal. In the Yamuna, from which Haryana and Delhi draw so much
generally involve the carrying of water across the natural barrier between water, (it barely flows after Delhi) the water quality at Delhi is so poor as
basins (which is what make them basins) by lifting, by tunnelling through to be positively poisonous.
or by a long circuitous routing around the mountains, if such a possibility
We have the classic case of the Damodar River.The 563 km long Damodar
exists in a given case. Rivers or streams may also have to be crossed in
River, originates in the Kharmarpet hills in the Chottanagpur Plateau. In
some cases. Exceptionally heavy capital investments and continuing energy
its upper reaches, it passes through six districts of Jharkhand. Thereafter
costs (in operation) are almost always likely to be involved. In addition,
it enters West Bengal traversing Burdwan and Hoogli district fully and
big dams, reservoirs and conveyance systems will need to be built, involving
Bankura and Purulia districts before joining the River Hoogli. The river
substantial environmental impacts and displacement /rehabilitation
has atleast one million people dependent on it directly and indirectly. In
problems.26
its upper stretch the Damodar twists through 6 coalfields which is
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4000sq.km Government controlled intensive coal extraction area, which like malaria, filariasis, encephalities, fluorosis, yellow fever, dengue, river
draws water for its operation from the Damodar and its tributaries. One blindness and schistosomiasis in many areas.
hundred and eighty three coal mines. Add to this: 28 iron ore mines, 33
Dams and irrigation schemes can also decrease the availability of clean
limestone mines, 5 copper ore mines, and 84 mica mines. Graphite, silver
water: when water for domestic use comes from irrigation canals, it maybe
and uranium. Then there are coal based industries that dot Damodar valley:
polluted with pesticide runoff and other agricultural wastes, heavily saline
mostly government owned coal washeries: coke oven plants, the countrys
and contaminated with human sewage. Micheal Goldman of the University
major iron and steel plants, thermal power plants. Zinc, glass and cement
of California reports that most of the households he visited during a
plants. Fertilizer and chemical plants. 1,423 factories employing 2, 04,084
research project on the huge Indira Gandhi Canal in the Rajasthan desert
people in Jharkhand alone. And all over the valley, countless little workshops
expressed concern for their childrens stomach ailments due to their
that sprout in the interstices of mega industrial sprawl. .... A river being
contaminated water supply.24
slowly wrung out of its capacity to bear and support life forms. Pollution is
caused by mine overburden, fly ash, oil, toxic metals and coal dust.8
The Human factor
It enters into the Himalayan Component of the Ganga- Damodar -
Subarnrekha link. Through this link the flood waters of Ganga and The history of dam building all over the world and in India has always
Brahmaputra will reach the Subarnarekha and from there to Mahanadi witnessed over sizing of the benefits of dams and canal irrigation systems
by the Subarnerekha-Mahanadi link. From there it becomes part of the and under sizing of the losses. The land and livelihoods lost so far by the
Peninsular Component. From Mahanadi it is planned to transfer water to millions in the name of displacement for dams and canals and powerhouses
the so-called water deficit Southern River basins. and other associated infrastucture is almost always written off as the
inevitable costs of development of the nation that they have to bear
It is a well known fact that the pollution levels in the Ganga and the and suffer. The Proposed Interlinking Project is no different.
Damodar Rivers has worsened, in spite of spending crores of rupees on
the Ganga and Damodar Action Plans. India is home to the most polluted India and China have created the largest number of oustees and have
water in Asia. So the chances are that almost all the rivers in the plan are used brutal tactics to enforce their evictions. According to the WCD report,
polluted in some way or the other. How do the planners intend handling between 16 and 38 million people have been displaced by dams in post
such a problem remains to be seen. Has any estimation been made as Independence India.
to how each state is adding to the pollution and treating the wastes in its It is still not clear as to how many lakhs will be displaced by the proposed
own river basin? It is ironical that a state that is in the forefront for interlinking project. Atleast 8000 sq km (8 lakh ha) of land is the figure
demanding waters through river linking is not doing much to protect its quoted in the project for land acquisition. Sizeable land shall have to be
own available water resources! It is reported that about 29per cent of the acquired for the construction of storage dams, canals and reservoirs. Land
red (polluting) industries in Tamil Nadu are located in the Chennai river acquisition is a big process in itself. It has also to be seen that in an effort to
basin, 28per cent in the Cauvery, 20per cent in the Palar, 7per cent in the provide respite to millions from floods and droughts, we dont displace equal
Vaigai and 6per cent in the Tambraparni river basins. millions. Right now, we dont even have preliminary studies on the number of
Canals are known to lead to many health impacts. Spread of malaria communities that will be displaced by the project. Often, people physically
due to canal irrigation has been known since British times. Large-scale displaced by canals, powerhouses, and associated compensation measures
water projects are known to increase the incidence of water borne diseases such as nature reserves are not enumerated and considered for resettlement.
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The people affected and displaced by the Sardar Sarovar Dam (at least We have a history of 3,600 odd large dams built across most of our
1, 57,000 people) is not yet considered Project Affected! From past rivers. If we honestly go through the past records, we cannot site a single
experiences it is well known that the survey of the categories of people to case wherein afforestation activities for the forests or other wildlife habitats
be affected by dams has generally been inadequate and underestimated. that have been lost to reservoirs and canals have been carried out. In
Moreover, the scope of the definition of the affected has been limited fact dams have only opened up the catchments of our rivers to further
and the totality of affected group has not been determined. encroachment and destruction. Dams have fragmented our rivers into
chains of reservoirs. Dams have severely disrupted the downstream flow
Financial Aspects and livelihoods, which depended on the river flow. Dams and canals
have disrupted or buried wildlife corridors, led to the extinction of thousands
The estimated cost of the project, Rs 5,60,000 crores at 2002 prices, of fish species and aquatic species, degraded flood plains, displaced
equals 25per cent of our Gross Domestic Product, or two and a half millions The list can go on. Very rarely has an EIA rejected a dam
times our annual tax collection and double our present foreign exchange proposal due to the above problems. Very rarely has an EIA process been
reserves. Does the domestic economy have the investment capital of this carried out based on open discussions with the affected persons. Often
magnitude? According to the Governments economic survey for 2001- EIAs have only served to legitimise the Environmental clearance for dam
02, the countrys Gross Domestic Savings were lower than the estimated and canal projects.
cost of this project, which is also higher than Indias total outstanding
external debt by close to $12 billion!
Seeking funds from international sources would be the next option available
to the Government. Apart from the fact that this would place a debt of
$112 on every Indian (where average annual incomes range from $400
to $800), it also raises serious reservations about how this loan is to be
returned, the guarantees and counter- guarantees that would need to be
given to secure it. Annual interest on this amount would be between Rs.
20,000 crores and Rs. 30,000 crores.
User charges for irrigation water or power provided by this scheme could
make these uneconomical for both the agricultural and industrial sectors.
They would put inflationary pressure on the prices of our agricultural
produce even as we try to make these competitive in the international
market. The political viability of collecting these user charges is also being
questioned.
The Environmental Impact Assessment Fiasco

Environmental Impact Assessment followed by Public Hearing is
mandatory for River valley Projects costing more than Rs.100 crores
investment as per the MoEF guidelines since 1997.
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The proposed Kerala Link

Pamba Achankoil Vaippar Project
The 176 km long Pamba River, the third longest river, with a catchment
area of 2235 sq.km, lies entirely in Kerala. It originates from the Southern
part of Kerala Western Ghats. It is formed by the confluence of the
Pamba Aar, Kakki Aar, Azhuthai Aar, Kakkad Aar and Kallar. A branch
of Achankoil River joins river Pamba at Veeyapuram. The two rivers
thereafter drain into Vembanad Lake through several branches. The
catchment area of the 128 km long Achankoil River is 1484 sq.km, which
is also an in-state river. The River Vaippar rises from eastern slopes of
Varasunad hills of the Western Ghats near Sivagiri in Tirunelveli District
in Tamil Nadu and flows a length of 140 km before joining Gulf of Mannar.
These three rivers are also involved in the Interlinking of rivers project
and included as the 16th link in the Peninsular Component, the Pamba-
Achankoil -Vaippar Link Project. It is planned to divert water from the
two west flowing rivers to the east into the Vaippar River basin in Tamil
Nadu through three dams; one in the Kallar tributary of Pamba River at
Punnamedu, one in Kallar tributary of Achankoil at Chittarmuzhi and
one in the main Achankoil River. The diverted water will be stored in a
dam at Mekkara in Hanuman Odai, a tributary of Vaippar and used for
irrigation. It is proposed to divert a total quantity of 636 Mcum. of water
per year from Pamba and Achankoil Rivers for irrigating 91,400 ha of
land in three districts viz. Viruthunagar, Thirunelvelli and Tuticorin. The
Rs.2588 crores project with an installed capacity of 508 MW will produce
1114 million units of electricity per year. The power required to pump up
water from the Achankoil dam to the Chittarmuzhi dam (2283 MU) will
be supplied from the Tamil Nadu grid during off peak hours.
Features of the Project
❖ 150 m. high, 774 m long concrete dam in Pamba - Kallar at
Punnamedu a highland region - storage capacity 208 Mcum of
water.
❖ 160 m high, 738 m, long concrete dam in Achankoil - Kallar. Storage
capacity 497 Mcum of water.
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❖ Achankoil dam -35 m high, concrete dam in mid land region - the pilgrimage season, the river turns into an open drain of human waste,
storage capacity -30.6 Mcum of water. night soil, raw sewage, and domestic and commercial garbage. The heavy
influx of pilgrims, the presence of dams along with the degradation of the
❖ Punnamedu dam- connected to Achankoil Kallar through a tunnel.
catchment has taken its toll on the river. Atleast twelve dams small and
Achankovil dam water is pumped to Achankovil-Kallar dam. 2283
big have been constructed across the Pamba and its tributaries starting
MU of power per year.
from Kakki in the 1960s. The brief details are as below.
❖ From Achenkoil-Kallar to divert water through a tunnel to cross the
❏ The Kakki, Aanathodu and Pamba dams constructed as part of
Western Ghats to reach Mekkarai village- Shengottai Taluk. The
the Sabarigiri HEP (300 MW)
50.7 km long canal passes through Thenkasi and Sankarankovil
Taluk and will reach Selvakulam Periar tank and Alagar Odai a ❏ Upper Moozhiyar, Gavi, Kallar, Meenar I and Meenar II dams/
tributary of Vaippar River. 37 weirs constructed to augment the water availability in the Sabarigiri
HEP
All the reservoirs and tunnels planned in this project falls in the Konni,
Achankoil forest ranges. Atleast 2004 ha of forest is expected to be ❏ Veluthode and Moozhiyar dams as part of the Kakkad HEP (50
submerged in the reservoir. The Tamil Nadu government has already MW)
constructed Adavi Nainar dam, across Hanuman Odai, a small rivulet in
❏ Maniyar weir in the Pamba Valley Irrigation project which also has
Mekkara village even without the consent or knowledge of Kerala
an HEP component (12 MW)
Government.
❏ Azhutha weir as part of diverting water to the Idukki reservoir in
The Pamba- Achankoil Vaippar Link would require atleast 228.3 crore
the Periyar basin.
units of power to pump water to Tamil Nadu for irrigating a projected
91,400 ha. The pumping charges would alone amount to Rs.456.6 crores Two years back, diversion of water in the Kakkad Project led to drying up
at a conservative rate of Rs.2 per unit of electricity. As per this estimate of the river downstream and the people took to the streets to demand
a farmer in Tamil Nadu would have to incur a cost of about Rs.50, 000 release of minimum flow. The state of Achankoil river is not much different
for irrigating one hectare of land annually. This is apart from the cost of either. The dismal scenario upstream has its impacts in the form of
investment, operation and maintenance. But the benefit expected from degradation of drinking water quality and water availability, in Kuttanad,
the project by the Govt. of Tamil Nadu is only Rs.101 crores worth 1.4 once the rice bowl of Kerala.
lakh tonnes of food grains. Tragedy of Kuttanad
Status of the rivers Kuttanad, a Ramsar site, the low-lying floodplain of the four rivers namely
The river Pamba is overburdened by dams constructed in the upper reaches Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba and Achankoil, extends over 800 sq.km
for power generation. Water from the Azhutha tributary is already diverted area in Pathanamthita, Kottayam and Alleppey districts. The areas of
to the Idukki Reservoir as a part of the Idukki Augmentation scheme. The the settlements being islands in between the flood plains, the effective
famous Sabarimala Ayyappa Temple situated upstream on banks of the density of population is one of the largest in India. The area below sea
holy river Pamba attracts millions of pilgrims from all over the world level (ranging from 60cm more than 2 m) is subjected to severe flooding
during November January every year. All pilgrims are expected to take during both the monsoon periods by water drained by the four rivers.
bath in the river as a part of the ritual before entering the Temple. During Most of the land remains submerged for the better part of the year. It has
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the distinction of being one of the few areas in the world where rice suffering from diarrhoea in 2001 was 19,570. Statistics at the Alappuzha
farming is carried out below sea level. The nutrients deposited annually Medical College show an increase in filariasis, schistosomiasis, typhoid,
by the four rivers have been the main stay of livelihood to the farmers jaundice, intestinal cancer, gastroenteritis and cholera. There is no attempt
and fisher folk of Kuttanad. to address the root cause: the scarcity of drinking water. Over the past
10 years, diarrhoeal diseases resulting from inadequate water and
Kuttanad, the rice bowl of Kerala, is facing different types of ecological
sanitation have killed over 5,000 in Kuttanad36.
problems due to the already implemented projects to control flood and
saline ingress. The Thanneermukkam regulator constructed across Kuttanad is a testimony to misplaced and impractical developmental
Vembanad lake to prevent saline ingress into the paddy fields during schemes as well. The backwaters itself are vanishing due to encroachment.
summer season, and the Thottappilly spillway constructed to flush out The Vembanad Lake has been reduced to one-third its size, with 65 per
excess water during monsoons to boost paddy cultivation has severely cent reclaimed by the government or people. Hardly 23 per cent of the
affected the natural flushing in the entire Lower Kuttanad by reducing backwaters remain in Kerala and a part of this is under bunds and barriers.
the tidal movements and dropping the water levels upstream. Fish species get extinct in bunds, as there is no way for them to disperse
Consequently, the water body has tended to become stagnant, leading to and breed. The land of rivers and eternal monsoons is currently dependent
pollution. Moreover the accumulating residues and run off of heavy dosage on tankers supplying drinking water. Now, the demand for water is constant
of pesticides and fertilizers applied in the rice fields gets added to the and thirsty people are willing to pay as much as they are willing to live. In
stagnant waters worsening the severity of pollution. Aquatic weeds have the lowest income groups, people pay a wholly disproportionate share of
also grown to epidemic proportions. their income to locally run private water companies36.
The estuaries and backwater systems of Kerala coast are the nurseries of The saline ingress from sea in the summer months is controlled by the
several species of marine shrimps. During the early stages of their life, downward flow of the river. The four rivers reaching Kuttanad backwaters
prawns enter the backwaters and grow in them for about six months by used to reduce the intensity of pollution and saline ingress of Kuttanad to
feeding on the detritus. Shrimps are caught when they return to the sea. some extent. Over years, the downstream flow of all the four rivers has
The construction of the regulator has severely reduced the backwater reduced drastically. Against this dismal backdrop, the water from Pamba
area available to the prawns to spend their larval and growing stages of and Achankoil if diverted would raise the water pollution to deadly levels,
life. The fishing community is perhaps the major group whose interests upset the water balance further and permanently damage the highly fragile
and livelihood have seldom received any attention in all the developmental social fabric and ecological system of this thickly populated wetland region.
work22. The case of Kuttanad is a classic example of both the failure of
What has happened in Kuttanad is a pointer towards what may be in
man-made flood and salinity control measures and the extent of adverse
store for the low lying areas and flood plains of those rivers whose water
consequences that can happen while intervening in such natural systems.
is planned to be diverted.
According to the Kerala State Pollution Control Board statistics, the
coliform bacteria count in 100 ml of water in the Pamba at Sabarimala
is 2, 00,000. When the river reaches Edathwa in Kuttanad, the count is
48,700. Outbreaks of epidemics like rat fever and diarrhoea have seen
an alarming increase in the region. According to statistics available with
the District Medical Officer, Alappuzha, 18 persons died of Wheels disease
till October 2002. The count for 2001 was 23. The total number of those
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Tragedy of Commons
Resolution passed by the Kerala Legislative 5

Assembly, 6th of August 2003 Implications
Whereas the proposal of the National Water Development Agency to divert WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
the Water of the Pamba and Achankovil rivers to Vaippar basin of Tamil
Nadu is very harmful to the State of Kerala; Where does one start drawing the parallels between the proposed
Inter Linking Project and the linking experiences of Kerala?
And whereas the said proposal is totally discriminatory;
The basic principles and precepts based on which the rivers of Kerala
And whereas the Centre or other agencies have no power to interfere or were diverted to Tamil Nadu are the same as that in the river linking plan.
induce in this case since water is a State subject as per the Constitution; All the Inter state, Inter basin river diversions in the case of Kerala were
initiated based on two main simple linear assumptions; 1) there is surplus
And whereas the Pamba and Achankovil rivers are rivers of the State, the
power to take decision in respect of water thereof is vested only with the water in these west flowing river basins that can be utilised by the water
State Government; deficit neighbouring State, 2) A river is just a channel that carries water
to the sea and to prevent water from flowing waste to the sea, can be
And whereas diverting water from the Pamba River and Achankovil River diverted in any direction from its natural course and manipulated in any
to Tamil Nadu would create severe scarcity of water and environmental manner for human welfare and the river is still expected to perform its
problems in the State; natural functions.
And whereas Hydel Projects and drinking water supply schemes are to be The experiences of Kerala is an indication enough to the rest of the country
implemented in the Pamba river and Achankovil river; as to what is in store if the proposed river linking comes through. It is just
intended to indicate rather than elaborate upon each aspect/ problem
And whereas shortage of water in the drinking water supply projects
that can arise if river linking materializes.
formulated based on the water sources of Pamba river and Achankovil
river is experienced even at present; § Political pressure: There was tremendous pressure on the Kerala
Government from the Centre to agree to the PAP Treaty (inspite of
And whereas the studies of the Centre for Water Resources Development opposition from different circles) in exchange for the sanction of
and Management have made it clear that the Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar
many pending River valley projects in Kerala. Many states like Kerala,
link project would even derange the ecological balance of Kuttanad;
Orissa, Assam have opposed the River Linking openly. The chances
And whereas in the circumstance where the National Water Development for intense pressure or threats in various forms on the dissenting
Agency is going ahead with this project without considering the protest of States to agree to the River Linking are very high.
this State;
§ Concealed clauses: The agreements / awards at times may have
This House unanimously requests the Central Government to give up concealed clauses that are detrimental to the interests of one or
totally the Pamba-Achankovil-Vaipar Link Project. more parties. There are chances that the Agreements even if arrived
at between the states in ILR may contain clauses detrimental to the
The Government of Kerala has accordingly written to the Prime Minister donor state. Once put into practice, it is next to impossible to utilize
and the Union Minister for Water Resources to urge the NWDA not to remedial clauses, if any, in agreements due to various reasons.
pursue with its proposal on Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar link project any
further.
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Tragedy of Commons Implications
§ Reliability of data: The basis of arriving at surplus and deficit is rights of the lower riparian state of Kerala. The government, who is
questionable. The water sharing agreement signed some years after the custodian of public property, does not have any right to divert a
the commissioning of the PAP was not based on reliable data. stream / river totally. Denial of riparian rights is a very crucial issue
Moreover there has been no review of the change in the river flow or that could become a source of dispute and irrevocable damage in
status of degradation of the catchment all these thirty odd years the case of river linking.
since the Agreement was signed. It is not yet clear how the
§ Impact on downstream: The downstream impacts of the PAP
Government of India is going to decide the basis/ quantum of the
diversions in the form of drying up of the river downstream of the
share of water that would be transferred from the surplus to deficit
diversion, destruction of the riparian forests, disruption of wildlife
river basins without making any assessment of the hydrological status
movement, water scarcity in downstream irrigation and power
of the river basins entering River Linking given the inadequate
projects, tribal displacement etc have been discussed already. Massive
hydrological data base we have.
diversions from so called surplus to deficit river basins are bound
§ Mistrust: Unequal apportionment, violations of agreement conditions to cause all of the above cited impacts apart from the loss of inland
etc. are bound to inculcate mistrust among parties and often lead fisheries and related livelihoods due to the drastic fluctuations in
to conflicts. the river flow caused by the diversions and huge storages.
§ Apportioning of waters: River flow is a natural dynamic phenomenon § Displacement of livelihoods: The PAP and Siruvani diversions
that depends on the rains received and the status of the catchment. implimented to provide drinking and irrigation water to Tamil Nadu
It is more complex in the case of huge river basins, which are shared resulted in the loss of livelihoods to the hundreds of tribals living in
by two or more states for diverse uses ranging from Hydro Electric these river basins in Kerala. The massive displacement of people for
Dams, Irrigation dams, Lift Irrigation Schemes, Industries, Drinking the River Linking Project is another equally important issue that
Water Supply Schemes etc. It is simply not possible to assess all the would create similar situation.
complex, ever changing and unending demands for water of the
§ Resource use: The Agreements did not take into account how the
different states. Obviously, the politically more powerful states will
water from the donor state is used by the recipient state or the need
have an upper hand in deciding the apportioning. It will only add to
for regulation of water use by the receiving State. The experiences
the already existing unending disputes on equitable sharing of water
of river diversions for large-scale irrigation have always resulted in
between both upstream and downstream of the same river and
shift towards more water loving crops, intensive irrigation, never
between the surplus and deficit river basins. In the case of
ending demand for water at the expense of severe water scarcity for
apportioning of river water what are the factors deciding the share
the downstream populations in the donor river. In the case of the
to be diverted and who decides the same are questions that remain
PAP, Tamil Nadu has been continuously increasing the ayacut even
unanswered inspite of all these experiences in river diversions.
to the extent of disputes arising between old and new ayacut farmers.
§ Equitability issues: The three rivers in the PAP treaty have never
The complexities created by the existing diversions and treaties are
received their due share of water all these years apart from the
numerous and add to that the complexities that will be created by the 30
numerous violations. Even the basic requirement of minimum stream
new links planned! Given the complex fragile fabric of Indian society that
flow to sustain the life of a river has neither been assessed nor
mainly depends on its numerous rivers big and small for its innumerable
followed.
needs, the scale of consequences of the huge risk that the Government is
§ Denial of riparian rights: the complete diversion of all the three blindly taking up in the name of River Linking cannot even be predicted.
tributaries of Chalakudy River is a blatant violation of the water
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Tragedy of Commons
Beyond Links,
Dams and
Conflicts
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Tragedy of Commons Beyond Links, Dams and Conflicts
The tribals have been dislocated from their livelihoods and settlements-
6 but not properly rehabilitated after all these years.
Beyond Links, Dams and Conflicts Why beyond links?
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW The links have worsened the conflicts, opened up new conflicts, spread
the seeds of disbelief, and strained relations between the two states.
The aim of this book has been to look anew at the problems and
consequences of river diversions- against the backdrop of the already After all these years of massive water diversion, the problems of water
existing links in Kerala-and look anew at the grandiose proposed Inter scarcity and drought in the recipient state remain still unresolved and
Linking Project increasing in scale
The assumption of assured water supply from outside the basin has only
Why Kerala?
increased the consumption and wastage, in the deficit state, as it is the
Because, case anywhere.
Kerala has been always projected as a water surplus state. The water needs of the donor state are also increasing so also the drought
and water scarcity
A major river in Kerala has already been diverted based on this assumption
much before the river link idea was mooted, Why beyond dams?
Atleast four rivers of Kerala are already linked. The twentieth century has seen dams and nothing but dams being erected
across the entire major river basins of the world.
The Inter Linking Task Force has quoted PAP and Mullaperiyar as success
stories in river linking. Dams were believed to deliver water over long distances to quench the
thirst in far away places.
Lately, it is planned to divert two more rivers of Kerala in the new river
linking proposal. Dams were believed to eradicate poverty by boosting irrigated agriculture.
Starting from the Agreement, everything about the three major diversions Dams were believed to control floods.
has been against the interests of Kerala, the donor state. The myth was soon shattered when the expected results were not
Riparian rights, right to compensation for land and water, right to due forthcoming.
share of benefits viz. water or power, irrigation rights etc. have all been The problems of poverty, water scarcity, unemployment, drought, still
consistently violated or denied. loom large.
Upstream - downstream linkages and impacts have not been seriously Dams ushered in new set of problems of displacement of millions, salinity,
looked into water logging, flooding new areas, water conflicts, pollution, greenhouse
gas effects etc.
The riparian forests, wild life and ecology of the rivers that were diverted
have been severely disrupted.
The drinking and irrigation water of downstream panchayaths has been To go beyond.
severely disrupted and saline ingression into the river has increased after The re-search for the roots of the problems has begun-the search for long
diversions lost traditions- the real technological options- the low cost options for
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Tragedy of Commons Beyond Links, Dams and Conflicts
water conservation, protection and augmentation-realization of the link Which would surely not require crores, but the meeting together of the
between ecological degradation and water scarcity. goodwill and sincere efforts of politicians, bureaucracy and the public.
Decentralized and participatory efforts to revive watersheds and river basins Minimize the pollution of rivers, tanks, ponds, wells, and nallas for
is gradually evolving. posterity.
Hence, when society is advancing and responding to the changing needs Try to bridge the losing connections in our minds between ecological
and insights, when the society is trying to grow beyond the dams and degradation and water scarcity.
diversions formula, the Governments entry with an old formula of 200
Which would also mean practicing austerity in ones own personal life.
dams, 30 links involving 37 rivers to solve the water problems of the
country naturally creates apprehension and doubts in the minds of the When there are so many ways opening in front of us, why insist on river
public. linking alone as the ultimate solution?
The people of Kerala have subtly but surely opened a fresh path by rejecting We never heeded the advice of J.C.Kumarappa, A Gandhian Economist
the new river-linking project outright, particularly due to their bitter who once rightly said, the states should be reorganized not on the basis
experiences and suffering of the consequences of river diversions. of language but on the basis of river basin boundaries.
When there are live examples to learn from, is it not better for the public
and the authorities to think and act beyond dams and diversions? Think
and act beyond conflicts induced by human interferences in natural flow
of water? Go beyond River Linking?
It is indeed time for us to recognize that just physical transport of water
cannot solve the problems.
A canal can never perform the functions of a live flowing river.
The time is indeed ripe for us to start understanding issues beyond
boundaries created by humans on rivers.
The real solution beyond conflicts
The time is right to re examine where we have erred in understanding the
limits to technology and engineering led development models-where we
have exceeded the limits of centralized control of water resources.
It is time to evaluate the real potential of humans in solving their water
problems, put faith in their potential and allow them to sustain, care for
and recharge their own water resources. Just guiding them would suffice.
Recognize and assist the local and regional low cost participatory ways
of recharging surface and ground water- to prove which we have ample
examples all over the country.
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Tragedy of Commons
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW APPENDIX I
Oh, the leaky boundaries of man-made states!
Kerala -Tamil Nadu Agreement on Parambikulam - Aliyar Project 1970
How many clouds float past them with impunity;
TAMIL NADU KERALA INTER - STATE AGREEMENT ON THE
how much desert sand shifts from one land to another; DEMISING OR SHARING OF WATERS OF THE BHARATHAPUZHA,
CHALAKUDI AND PERIYAR BASINS.
how many mountain pebbles tumble onto foreign soil
1. AGREEMENT made this twenty ninth day of May of one thousand
in provocative hops!
nine hundred and seventy between the Governor of Tamil Nadu
Need I mention every single bird that flies in the face of frontiers (hereinafter called the Government of Tamil Nadu which expression
or alights on the roadblock at the border? shall, where the context so admits, include his successors in office
and assigns) of the ONE PART and the Governor of Kerala
A humble robin- still, its tail resides abroad (hereinafter called the Government of Kerala which expression
while its beak stays home. If that werent enough, it wont stop shall, where the context so admits, include his successors in office
bobbing! and assigns) of the OTHER PART.
Among innumerable insects, Ill single out only the ant 2. WHEREAS the Government of Tamil Nadu proposed to construct
dams,weirs and reservoirs across and on the Sholayar, the
between the border guards left and right boots Parambikulm Ar, the Thunacadavu Ar, the Thekkady Ar and the
blithely ignoring the questions Where from? and Where to? Peruvarippallam Ar, all tributaries of Chalakudi River, Aliyar and
Palar, tributaries of Bharathapuzha and also across and on the Nirar
Oh, to register in detail, at a glance, the chaos
which is a tributary of Periyar river,for the diversion of the waters of
prevailing on every continent! the said rivers and of Anamalayar, a tributary of Periyar river for
Isnt that a privet on the far bank the benefit of Tamil Nadu.
smuggling its hundredth-thousandth leaf across the river? 3. WHEREAS the Government of Kerala also proposed to construct
dams, reservoirs and weirs on and across some of the said rivers
And who but the octopus, with impudent long arms, and Anamalayar, a tributary of the Periyar river for the benefit of
would disrupt the sacred bounds of territorial waters? the State of Kerala.
4. WHEREAS with a view to arriving at a settlement on the question
of utilization of waters of the aforesaid rivers, the Chief Ministers/
Wislawa Szymborska Ministers of both the Governments have met in conferences and
View with a Grain of Sand1976 entered into agreements on 9-11-1958,4-7-1960 and 10-5-1969 and
the representatives and technical officers of both the Governments
have also met in conferences and after examining the details have
to come to an agreement.
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5. NOW THESE presents witness and parties hereto agree: - difference of opinion and the decision of the arbitrator or such
arbitrators or Umpire, as the case may be shall be final and binding
(a) (i) to the construction of storage and or diversion works on the rivers
on the parties.
as specified in Schedule-I appended
Schedule-I
(ii) to the demising or sharing as the case may be, of waters of these
rivers and in the manner and subject to the condition and SEE PARAGRAPH 5(a) (i) OF THE AGREEMENT
limitations as specified in Schedule- II
RIVERS AND WORKS
(iii) to the sharing of the expenditure consequent on the construction
1.Rivers:
and maintenance of the works referred to the sub-clause(i) above
in the manner specified in Schedule- III (a) This Agreement deals with the utilization of the flows in the following
rivers and streams flowing into them, for the production of hydro
(iv)to the establishment of a Joint Water Regulation Board for the
electric power and irrigation, for drinking water supply, industrial
purpose of regulating the flow of waters in accordance with the
use and for any other purpose for the benefit of the States of
terms of this agreement as specified in Schedule- V
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
(b) Rights, liabilities and obligations other than those mentioned above
(i) Anamalayar and Nirar, both of which are tributaries of the
shall be as specified in Schedule- IV.
Periyar river;
(c) The Government of Tamil Nadu and the Government Of Kerala
(ii) Sholayar, Parambikulam Ar, Thunacadavu Ar, Peruvaripallam
agree that the agreements embodied in the agreement be open to
Ar and Thekkady Ar all of which are tributaries of the
review in the light of the experience gained and to such modifications
Chalakudy river; and
as may be mutually agreed upon, as a result of such review at the
expiry of thirty years from the ninth day of November of one thousand (iii) Palar and Aliyar which are tributaries of the Bharathapuzha.
nine hundred and fifty- eight and once in every thirty years thereafter. (b) The above mentioned rivers which flow partly or wholly through
(d) this agreement shall be deemed to have come into force on the Tamil Nadu/ Kerala and the works covered by this Agreement are
nineth day of November of one thousand nine hundred and fifty- indicated in the map appended.
eight. 2. Works:
(e) The schedules and annexures shall form part of the agreement. 1. The government of Tamil Nadu shall be at liberty to carry out the
(f) Every dispute, doubt, difference or question which may,at any time following works, (hereinafter called the Parambikulam Aliyar
arise between the parties hereto touching on or arising out of or in Project).
respect of this agreement or the subject matters thereof shall be (i) Construction of a weir across Nirar at latitude 100 17 ½ N
referred to the Arbitration of an Arbitrator to be agreed upon longitude 770 1 E with a diversion tunnel leading to the Tamil
between the parties of failing agreement, to two arbitrators one to Nadu Sholayar Reservoir mentioned in item(ii) below. The weir
be appointed by each party hereto and in case of difference of opinion shall have two river sluices of not less than 5x6 whose sill level
between the two arbitrators, to an umpire appointed by the said two shall be 5 below the sill level of the diversion tunnel leading to the
arbitrators, not later than one month from the date of such Tamil Nadu Sholayar Reservoir.
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(ii) Construction of a dam across Sholayar (hereinafter called the Tamil in Schedule II in the catchment between the Nirar Weir and the
Nadu Sholayar Reservoir) at a latitude 100 18 N longitude 760 53 Nirar dam (hereinafter referred to as the lower Nirar catchment)to
E with FRL at R.L+3290 for storing the natural flows in the Tamil Nadu Sholayar Reservoir. This is in lieu of the Thekkadi
Sholayar and also the flows diverted from Nirar and Anamalayar, dam and reservoir originally proposed as part of Parambikulam
the waters being for use in the States of both Tamil Nadu and Aliyar Project and subsequently given up. The Nirar reservoir as
Kerala as in Schedule II. From this reservoir a tunnel may be proposed here will also serve to conduct water diverted from the
constructed to divert water to the Parambikulam Valley. A saddle Anamalayar. A tunnel of suitable size may be constructed to divert
spillway with crest level at R.L + 3290and MWL at RL + 3295 the water from this reservoir to the Tamil Nadu Sholayar Reservoir.
may be provided to surplus the waters into the Parambikulam valley, The location, design and other details of the dam and the diversion
this being of the free overflow type with no shutters provided. tunnel will be as per specifications proposed by the Government of
Adequate outlets shall be provided in the dam or through a tunnel Tamil Nadu and approved by the government of Kerala.
in the flanking hill so as to enable Kerala to get the supplies of
(vii) Construction of lead off canals to take the tail race waters from
water as provided Schedule II at all stages of effective storage in
the Sarkarpathy Power House.
the reservoir.
(viii) Construction of a dam across Aliyar at latitude 100 29 N longitude
(iii) Construction of a dam across Parambikulam Ar, at Pulikalmudi
70 58 E with FRL at plus 1050. The Reservoir is intended to
latitude 10 023 N longitude 760 46 E with FRL at RL +1825 for
impound the natural flows of the Aliyar catchment above the
storing the natural flows in the river and also waters diverted from
reservoir and also part of the tail waters from Sarkarpathy Power
Anamalayar and Nirar and Sholayar with a lead off channel and
House mentioned above.
tunnels to divert water to the Thunacadavu reservoir. The capacity
of the lead off channel and tunnel shall be adequate to convey the (ix) Construction of storage and diversion works across Aliyar above
water requirements of both the States as provided for in Schedule the Aliyar Dam mentioned in item (viii) for generation of power
II at all stages of effective storage in the reservoir. before the water is let down into the said dam.
(iv) Construction of a dam across Thunacadavu Ar at latitude 10 0 25 (x) Construction of a dam across Palar known as Thirumurthi dam at
¾N longitude 76046E with FRL at RL + 1770 to serve as a latitude 100 29 N and longitude 770 9 ½ E with FRL at RL plus
balancing reservoir with lead off channels and tunnels for diverting 1337.
water to Sarkarpathy Power House. It shall have a spillway at a (xi) Other works incidental to the above works including protective
level not higher than the exit tunnel sill level. The capacity of the works, trash racks, regulators etc.
lead off channels and tunnels shall be adequate to convey the
water requirements of both the States as provided for in Schedule II. The government of Kerala shall be at liberty to carry out the
II at all stages of effective storage in the reservoir. following works:-
(v) Construction of a dam across Peruvaripallam Ar at latitude 10 0 (i) Construction of a dam across Sholayar (hereinafter called the
26 ½ N longitude 76 0 46 E with FRL at plus 1770 for storing and Kerala Sholayar Reservoir) within the State of Kerala at latitude
diverting the natural flows. 100 17 N and longitude 760 45 E with FRL plus 2663 with
necessary diversion and other works.
(vi) Construction of a dam in the Nirar below the diversion weir specified
in item(i) above to store and divert the water to the extent specified
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(ii) Construction of projects in the Periyar sytem without reference to flows in the river during the period 1st October to 31 st January
Tamil Nadu without affecting in any manner the irrigation rights every year are let down the river for the benefit of the State of
of Tamil Nadu in respect of Periyar reservoir covered by the Periyar Kerala. For this purpose the river sluices will be fully left open
Lease Deed of 1886. during the period 1st October to 31st January. During this period
tunnel leading to Tamil Nadu Sholayar Reservoir will be kept fully
(iii) Construction of storage and diversion works within the State of
closed. When the storage reservoirs contemplated by the
Kerala in Chalakudy and Bharathapuzha rivers and their tributaries
Government of Kerala in Periyar valley began to function , the
but below the works covered by this agreement and without physical
entire natural flows of Nirar river can be diverted in full every year
damage or obstruction to the works covered by this agreement.
at the weir site by the Government of Tamil Nadu.
(iv) Other connected works incidental to the above works including
(b) Subject to the provision of sub clause (a) above, the entire yield of
protective works,trash racks,regulators etc.
the lower Nirar catchment (referred to in paragraph 2(iv) of Schedule
(v) All R.Ls referring to Kerala Sholayar are based on the Project B.M. I) shall be diver ted into the Parambikulam system. The
of that Project. The B.Ms inturn are related to M.S.L and give Government of Tamil Nadu will be entitled to draw and utilise a
mean sea level values. quantity not exceeding 16.5 TMC ft every year (including
Schedule II evaporation losses) from the yield of the Parambikulam Ar,
Peruvarippallam Ar, Thunacadavu Ar and the water diverted from
( SEE PARAGRAPH 5(a) (ii) OF THE AGREEMENT) the yield of the lower Nirar catchment. The quantity in excess of
UTILISATION OF WATERS 16.5 TMC ft ( including evaporation losses) to be utilized by Tamil
Nadu shall belong to Kerala and shall be made available for the
The actual use of the waters of these rivers shall be governed by the
use by Kerala as specified in paragraph 3 below, provided however
conditions and limitations mentioned hereunder.
that until the Nirar reservoir is constructed and commissioned the
1. Periyar Basin figures and letters 16.5 TMC ft, wherever they occur in this clause
shall be read and constructed as 14 TMC ft.
(i) Anamalyar : 2.5 TMC ft of water may be diverted every year by
Tamil Nadu from Anamalayar for use in the Parambikulam Aliyar 2. Chalakudi Basin: Sholayar
Project System. This, however, will be done after the construction
The Government of Kerala shall be entitled to utilise a total volume
of the Idamalayar project is completed by the Government of
of 12.3 tmc ft of water every year amounting to the utilization of
Kerala. Details regarding the diversion of the water by Tamil Nadu
390 c/s average discharge from the Kerala Sholayar Reservoir
will be settled separately between the two Governments and a
delivered and measured at the Kerala Sholayar Power House, and
supplementary agreement executed. Kerala will undertake projects
this quantity shall be drawn by Kerala without allowing any spill
in the Periyar system without reference to Tamil Nadu in respect of
over the spillway in Kerala Sholayar dam except under emergency
Periyar Reservoir covered by the Periyar Lease Deed of 1886.
conditions. The Kerala State shall be entitled to regulate this water
(ii) Nirar: (a) The government of Tamil Nadu shall be entitled to from the Kerala Sholayar Reservoir which has a storage capacity
divert all the waters of the river Nirar at the site of the weir of 5.3 TMC ft. to provide for an average discharge of 390 c/s for
mentioned in paragraph 2(i) in Schedule I and utilize the waters power or irrigation purposes, as the case may be subject to the
for the benefit of the State of Tamil Nadu provided the entire natural total utlisation of 12.3 TMC ft. of water annually and subject to
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the condition that water shall be drawn only through the power Subject to the above, the actual regulation at Kerala Sholayar
tunnel except under emergency conditions with due intimation to Power House shall be as decided by the Government of Kerala.
the Government of Tamil Nadu. After ensuring this flow and the
(ii) The Government of Kerala shall not ordinarily operate the under
total volume referred above, the Government of Tamil Nadu shall
sluices or river outlets in the Kerala Sholayar Reservoir except under
be entitled to store, regulate and divert from Tamil Nadu Sholayar
emergency conditions and during flood seasons, and when they
Reservoir, into the Parambikulam Aliyar Project system all the
are so operated due intimation should be given to the authorised
surplus flows of the Sholayar and also the waters diverted from
officers of the Government of Tamil Nadu.
Nirar and Anamalayar rivers as specified in paragraph I above.
The Government of Tamil Nadu shall be entitled to use the waters 3. Parambikulam group of rivers.
let down to Kerala for generation of Hydro Electric Power within (a) As already stated in paragraph 1(ii) of this schedule and subject to
the limits of the State of Tamil Nadu for the benefit of the State of the proviso thereto out of the total annual yield of Parambikulam
Tamil Nadu. Ar, Thunacadavu Ar and Peruvarippallam Ar, hereinafter referred
Subject to the total quantity delivered and measured at Kerala to as the Parambikulam system at the respective dam sites and
Sholayar Power House being 12.3 TMC ft. every year, the the lower Nirar catchment at the Nirar Dam site, the Government
requirements of Kerala shall be supplied in the following manner:- of Tamil Nadu shall be entitled to store and divert every year, a
total quantity of not exceeding 16.5 TMC ft including the Tamil
(i) The Government of Tamil Nadu shall let down from their reservoir
Nadu share of evaporation losses.
in the Sholayar river such quantities of water as together with the
yield from the intermediate catchment between Tamil Nadu Note: Out of the evaporation losses of Parambikulam waters 0.150
Sholayar Reservoir and Kerala Reservoir will ensure the following. TMC ft. should be met from the share of 16.5 TMC ft. of Tamil
Nadu and the formula X- 0.186 TMC ft. + 16.350 TMC ft. adopted
July 1 st : Tamil Nadu shall commence filling Kerala Sholayar
to measure the quantum of water at the Sarkarpathy Power House
Reservoir from 1 st July and fill upto 5 below the FRL that is plus
where X= quantum of water coming out of the first Power House.
2658 as soon as possible.
0.186 TMC ft. = evaporation losses of Sholayar and Nirar waters
September 1st : Kerala Sholayar Reservoir shall be kept at the full in Parambikulam Reservoir. 16.35 TMC ft. = Parambikulam water
reservoir level of plus 2663. after allowing for evaporation losses.
September 2nd to January 31st : The level in Kerala Sholayar shall (b) (i) Subject to the provisions of the proviso to paragraph 1(ii) (b) of
be maintained at about 5 ft. below FRL i.e. plus 2658. this schedule any surplus over 16.5 TMC ft. or 14 TMC ft. as the
case may be, including concerned evaporation losses available from
February 1st : The Kerala Sholayar Reservoir shall be kept at the
the yield at Parambikulam, Thunacadavu and Peruvarippallam
full reservoir level of plus 2663.
dam sites and the Lower Nirar catchment at the Lower Nirar Dam
February to June: No releases need be made from Tamil Nadu site shall belong to the Government of Kerala. The quantity
Reservoir during these months provided that 12.3 TMC ft. of water available shall be determined by gaugings in the rivers carried out
had been delivered at the Kerala Sholayar Power House by 1 st jointly by the technical officers of the two Governments for a period
February. of ten years from July 1970 under the supervision of the Joint
Water Regulation Board. But as an interim measure, average of
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the gaugings for the year 1970-71 shall be used for the first year of Explanation: Any flow at Manacadavu weir during any fortnight,
operation under the Joint Water Regulation Board and gradually exceeding the quantum which has to be regulated and supplied as
corrected on the basis of the observations of each succeeding year shown in Annexure I will be deemed unutilisable.
till the 10 th year when the final figures shall be determined and
(b) The actual regulation for the supply of water for the Kerala Ayacut
accepted.
below Manacadavu Weir shall be as specified in Annexure- I and
(ii) Out of the surplus so determined, the Government of Kerala shall such supplies shall be ensured by the Government of Tamil Nadu.
be entitled to a quantity upto 2.5 TMC ft. for the exclusive use of
(c ) The Joint Water Regulation Board may make any variation to suit
Kerala for irrigating lands in Chitttur taluk. The quantity to which
local conditions in requirements specified in Annexure-I subject to
Government of Kerala is entitled shall be stored and diverted to
the total quantum being 7.250 TMC ft. annually.
the State of Kerala through a high level canal to be constructed
exclusively for the use of Kerala at the cost of Government of (d) The Joint Water Regulation Board will fix points for gaugings of
Kerala branching off from Sarkarpathy power house or Sethumada flows of Palar below Thirumurthi Dam the Aliyar and also at the
canal for irrigating lands in Chittur taluk in the State of Kerala. different anicuts in the two rivers above Manacadavu weir.
Until the high level canal if constructed, Kerala will have the right 5. Thekkady Ar:
use this quantity of water in the Chitturpuzha systems water in
excess of 19 TMC ft or 16.5 TMC ft after setting off 16.5 TMC ft. Tamil Nadu will have no claim for the waters of Thekkadi Ar.
or 14 TMC ft. as the case may be to be drawn by Tamil Nadu and 6. Joint Water Regulation Board:
2.5 TMC ft to be drawn through Parambikulam conductor system
As the follows from one river into another and from one reservoir
for use in Kerala, if Any shall be let down into the Chalakudi basin
/ weir into another are inter-connected, there shall be a Joint Water
through the spillway and outlet arrangements in the dams across
Regulation Board referred to in paragraph 5(a)(iv) the constitution,
the Parambikulam group of rivers.
functions, powers and duties of which are defined in Schedule V.
(iii) If the surplus available for the diversion for use in the Chitturpuzha
7. In all calculations of yield, transfer, discharge, delivery and
valley is short of 2.5 TMC ft. the Government of Kerala may make
utilization, year by year, of water in the rivers, reservoirs, Power
up the shortfall by diversion from other Kerala sources, if they do
Houses and Canals, initial and final storages and intermediate
desire.
flows will be into account to the extent they are necessary and
4. Aliyar: relevant
(a) At present an extent of 20,000 acres of double crop wet lands in
Chitturpuzha Valley in Kerala State (including an extent of 5000
acres of land raising Varthu Vithacrop) and an extent of 6,400
acres of double crop wet lands in Tamil Nadu are being irrigated
from the waters of Palar and Aliyar rivers. The Government of
Tamil Nadu shall supply annually at Manacadavu weir near Kerala
border 7.250 TMC ft. of water exclusive of unutilisable flood waters
for assured irrigation of 20,000 acres in Kerala (including 5,000
acres of Varthu Vitha).
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References 16. Himanshu Thakkar. 2001. Assessment of Irrigation Options in India.
1. Achyutha Menon. 1995.The Cochin State Manuel. Kerala Gazetteers In. Irrigation Options, WCD Thematic Reviews
Department.p.314 17. Jain.S.N., Alice Jacob and Subhash, C. Jain. Inter State Water
2. Aniket Alam, 2002. River Grid, the preferred solution, Dec 2, The Disputes in India. Indian Law Institute. p 151-173
Hindu, Hyderabad 18. James.E.J. 1991. Water Resources Development of Bharathapuzha
3. Anonymous. 2002.Irrigation Reservoirs in Tamil Nadu. Irrigation Basin. A Status Report. CWRDM. Kozhikode 41 p
Management Training Institute. Thuvakudy. Trichy. p 66-148. 19. Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, The Indian Drought 1987-88; The
4. Anonymous.2003. Report of the Technical Committee to Identify Ecological Causes of Water Crisis: What to do. Third World Science
the Areas Where Amendments are Required to be made to the Movement, Research Foundation for Science and Ecology, New Delhi
Parambikulam Aliyar Project Agreement Annexure VII, 197 p. 56p
5. Basak. P. (Ed.). 1995.Water Atlas of Kerala. CWRDM.Kozhikode. 20. Joseph.J.Karoor.2003. Mullaperiyar Diversion.Paper presented at the
82p National Workshop on Inter Linking of Rivers in India. July 12 13,
6. Charles. W. Howe and K. William Easter.1970.Interbasin Transfers 2003. Thrissur. Kerala. SANDRP and CPSS.
of Water. Economic Issues and Impacts. The John Hopkins Press, 21. Kannan K.P. and Vijayamohanan Pillai. N. 2002, Plight of the Power
Baltimore and London.p 106-107 Sector in India, Centre for Development Studies,
7. CSE. 2003.Coal dust; Fly ash and Slurry, March 15,Down to Earth. Thiruvananthapuram
Vol 11, No 20. 22. Kannan.K.P. 1979. Ecological and socio-economic consequences of
8. CSE.1996. Floods, Flood plains, Environmental Myths, The Citizens water control projects: The case of Kuttanad in Kerala(India) Working
Third Report, CSE. New Delhi Paper No. 87, Centre for Development studies, Trivandrum.
9. GoK 1958. Water Resources of Kerala. Advance Report. GOK. PWD. 23. Mackenzie.A.T. 1963.The History of Periyar Project. Government
Irrigation Branch. of Madras.
10. GoK. 1974. Water Resources of Kerala. PWD. Trivandrum.110 p 24. Patrick Mc Cully, 1996. Silenced Rivers. The Ecology and Politics of
11. GoK.1970.Kerala Tamil Nadu Agreement on Parambikulam Aliyar Large Dams. Zed Books. London
Project. Govt. of Kerala Press. Trivandrum 25. Ramanna.M.V.V. 1992. Inter State River Water Disputes in India.
12. GoK.1973. Kerala Tamil Nadu Agreement on Siruvani Drinking Water Orient Longman Ltd.Hyderabad 94p
Supply Project. GoK. Govt. Press. Trivandrum. 26. Ramaswamy. R. Iyer. 2003. Water Perspectives, Issues, Concerns.
13. GoK.1994. Adhoc Committee on Parambikulam Mullaperiyar River Sage Publications, Delhi.368 p.
Water Agreements- Report.56 p 27. Rao.K.L. 1984.Inter basin transfer of water and its importance for
14. Irrigation Department, Project Report on Chitturpuzha Scheme, development. In. Proceedings of the National Workshop on Inter
National Water Management Project, GoK Basin Transfer of Water 27-28- Jan 1984. CWRDM. Calicut. Kerala.p
22-25
15. Govt of Tamil Nadu. 1997. State Framework Water Resources
Plan.Annexure.17. PAP Basin,Institute of Water Studies. Tharamani. 28. Robin Clarke.1991. Water: The International Crisis. Earthscan
Chennai.144p Publications Ltd. London. p 50
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29. Sanctuary Report. 2003.Wild Rivers. Sanctuary Asia. February. Katmandu. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition,
Vol.23 (1) Colorado. P. 162-190
30. Sandra Postel.1993.Rivers Drying Up. World Watch.Vol.8 (3) May- 43. Viswanathan, P. K., 2002, Irrigation and agricultural development in
June Kerala: An analysis of missed linkages. Review of Devpt. And Change.
Vol VII, No.2.p 279-313
31. SANDRP.2003.The Mindlessness called River Linking Proposals, May
44. Vombatkere .S.G 2003, Proposed Interlinking of Rivers. DNRM
2003, Dossier, SANDRP
Series, January 2003
32. Sathis Chandran Nair S., 2002. Environmental Protection and
45. WCD. 2000. The Report of the World Commission on Dams.
Watershed Management.In. A Compendium of Selected Articles on
Earthscan Publishers. London
Watershed Based Development and Management, Planning &
Environment Affairs Department, Govt. of Kerala 46. World Bank 1993. Irrigiation - Induced Salinity - A Growing Problem
for Development and Environment 94p
33. Sathis Chandran Nair.1991. The Southern Weatern Ghats.A
Biodiversity Conservation Plan.INTACH.92 p.
34. Sathis Chandran Nair.1994. The High Ranges. INTACH Southern
Western Ghats Environment Series. INTACH. New Delhi.81 p
35. Shekhar Singh and Pranab Banerji. 2002,Large Dams in India,
Environmental, Social and Economic Impacts. IIPA. New Delhi 338p
36. Suchitra, M. 2003.Thirst Below Sea Level, The Hindu 15 July, 2003
37. Sukumaran Nair.N.K. 2003.Pampa- Achankovil- Vaippar Link. Paper
presented at the National Workshop on Inter Linking of Rivers in
India. July 12 13, 2003. Thrissur. Kerala. SANDRP and CPSS.
38. Umashankari.2004.Interlinking Rivers. Contradictions and
Confrontations. South Asian Dialogues on Ecological Democracy
and Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi. p :55-57
39. Vaidhyanathan, A. 2003. Interlinking of rivers March 26 and 27,
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42. Velayuthan Saravanam and Paul Appasamy.1999.Historical
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Abbreviations
Measures of Volume
tmc ft thousand million cubic feet
M cum - Million cubic meters
One tmc ft = 28.32 M cum.
Measures of water flow
m3/sec cubic meters/ second (cumec)
ft3 /sec cubic feet /sec (cusec)
One cumec = 35.315 cusec
Measure Area
ha.- hectares
ac. - Acres
One hectares = 2.47 acres
Power
MW Mega Watt
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X
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Tragedy of Commons: The Kerala Experience in River Linking

Book · January 2004

Sharan Pravin Ravi C. G. Madhusoodhanan

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The Kerala Experience in

RRC & SANDRP

Layout : Mac World, Thrissur

Published by : River Research Centre,Kerala, South Asia

Distributors : Alter Media, Thrissur.

Address : River Research Centre

Printed at : Kairali Offset Printers,

River basin development has been increasingly viewed and implemented

Kerala Experience Chalakudypuzha etc. are following suit.

The only reservoir owned and operated by Kerala in PAP

Table.1 Details of reservoirs/ weirs in the Parambikulam-Aliyar Project.

Total storage capacity

FRL  Full Reservoir Level

Tamil Nadu Sholayar

figures provided by the project proponent. But it was later proved

inclusive of the catchment area intercepted by Contour canal

Parambikulam group of rivers. In the upper reaches of Bharathapuzha,

b. Parambikulam Sub Basin

above Manacadavu weir

Chitturpuzha Sub Basin

Periyar River Basin

Quantity of Water (tmc. ft)

average value of 8.634 tmc ft.

Crop Area Percentage River Old New Extension Total

Name of the dam Year River Design Hei Gross

The Environmental Impact Assessment Fiasco

The proposed Kerala Link

Resolution passed by the Kerala Legislative 5

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FRL Full Reservoir Level