Qualitative Design, Data Collection and

Quality: An Overview
(with a List of Resources)

Davao, 15-16 May 2017

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Characteristics of qualitative
data
 Researchers strive to understand the meaning people
have constructed about their world
 The researcher is the primary instrument for data
collection and analysis
 The process is inductive in that researchers gather data to
build themes/categories/hypotheses/theories
 The product of qualitative inquiry is richly descriptive,
such as detailed descriptions of contexts, quotes or case
studies

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Sampling
 Identify sites and participants based on places and
people that can best help to understand the central
phenomenon
 Information could come from one site, several sites,
individuals or groups, or a combination of these
 Many different sampling strategies available
 Purposeful
 Theoretical
 Convenience
 Snowball

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Sample Size
 This can be highly variable
 A few individuals or cases is typical, as the ability of a
researcher to provide an in-depth picture diminishes
with each additional case
 In some situations, a single individual or site is studied

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Designs: Phenomenology
 Phenomenological studies examine human
experiences through the descriptions provided by the
people involved. These experiences are called lived
experiences. The goal of phenomenological studies is
to describe the meaning that experiences hold for each
subject. This type of research is used to study areas in
which there is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004). In
phenomenological research, respondents are asked to
describe their experiences as they perceive them. They
may write about their experiences, but information is
generally obtained through interviews.

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 Phenomenological research methods are very different
from the methods used in quantitative research.
Mariano (1990) asserted that phenomenology could be
difficult to understand, particularly if a person has had
a limited background in philosophy. Although
phenomenological research has sometimes been
viewed as so-called soft science, Streubert and
Carpenter (2002) contended that this research method
is rigorous, critical, and systematic. They called for the
beginning researcher to seek a mentor who has
experience in phenomenological research.

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 Designs: Ethnography
 Ethnographic studies involve the collection and analysis
of data about cultural groups. Agar (1986) described
ethnography as “encountering alien worlds and making
sense of them” (p. 12). He further stated that
ethnographers try to show how actions in one world
make sense from the point of view of another world.
Cameron (1990) wrote that ethnography means “learning
from people” (p. 5). According to Leininger (1985),
ethnography can be defined as “the systematic process of
observing, detailing, describing, documenting, and
analyzing the lifeways or particular patterns of a culture
(or subculture) in order to grasp the lifeways or patterns
of the people in their familiar environment” (p. 35).
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 Ethnographers interview people who are most
knowledgeable about the culture. These people are
called key informants. Data are generally collected
through participant observation and interviews. As
discussed under phenomenological studies,
researchers bracket, or make explicit, their own
personal biases and beliefs, set them aside, and then
try to understand the daily lives of individuals as they
live them. Data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously. As understanding of the data occurs,
new questions emerge. The end purpose of
ethnography is the development of cultural theories.

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Design: Case study
 Case studies are in-depth examinations of people
or groups of people. A case study could also
examine an institution, such as hospice care for the
dying. The case method has its roots in sociology and
has also been used a great deal in anthropology, law,
and medicine. In medicine, case studies have
frequently been concerned with a particular disease. In
nursing, the case study approach might be used to
answer a question such as “How do the nurse and
patient manage nausea associated with
chemotherapy?” Jacelon and O’Dell (2005) have
proposed the use of case studies to explore real clinical
situations in depth.
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 The case study research design is also useful for testing
whether scientific theories and models actually work
in the real world. You may come out with a great
computer model for describing how the ecosystem of a
rock pool works but it is only by trying it out on a real
life pool that you can see if it is a realistic simulation.
 For psychologists, anthropologists and social scientists
they have been regarded as a valid method of research
for many years. Scientists are sometimes guilty of
becoming bogged down in the general picture and it is
sometimes important to understand specific cases and
ensure a more holistic approach to research.

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Design: Grounded research
 Usually regarded as a useful data analysis technique in
addition to be a design
 Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach
developed by two sociologists, Glaser and Strauss
(1967). Grounded theory studies are studies in which
data are collected and analyzed and then a theory is
developed that is grounded in the data.
 The grounded theory method uses both an inductive
and a deductive approach to theory development.
According to Field and Morse (1985), “constructs and
concepts are grounded in the data and hypotheses are
tested as they arise from the research” (p. 23).
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 Data are gathered in naturalistic settings (field
settings). Data collection primarily consists of
participant observation and interviews, and data are
recorded through handwritten notes and tape
recordings. Data collection and data analysis occur
simultaneously. A process called constant comparison
is used, in which data are constantly compared to data
that have already been gathered. Pertinent concepts
are identified and assigned codes. These codes are
constantly reviewed as new interpretations are made
of the data. The researcher keeps an open mind and
uses an intuitive process in interpreting data.

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 Methods of data collection
 Many and varied
 Interviews
 Observations
 Open-ended questions
 Documents: field notes,
journals, drawings,
assessment
 Videos or photographs

http://www.altham.com/assets/images/Girl_sitting_writing_.jpg

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 Interviews
 Many different types
of interviews
 One-on-one
 Focus group
 Telephone
 Electronic e-mail

http://www.toonpool.com/user/317/files/interview_394775.jpg

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Semi-structured interviews
 Before the interview
 Think carefully about what questions and how many you wish to
ask?
 Develop the interview protocol with open-ended questions
 Pilot the interview protocol
 What sort of answers do you expect?
 Will you audio-record the interview?
 Where and when will you conduct the interview?
 Obtain consent

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Semi-structured interview
 During the interview
 Thank interviewee at start
 State the day, time and place on audio-recorder
 Have a plan, but be flexible
 Treat it as a conversation
 Learn to listen
 Take notes?
 Ask a range of open-ended questions (see handout)
 Withhold any judgments and refrain from debating
 Summarise interviewee’s comments to check understanding

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Semi-structured interviews
 After the interview
 Ask for any further comments
 State that the interview is ended and switch off the
audio-recorder
 Thank the interviewee
 Inform them of what happens with their data
 Make notes about how the interview went

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Five challenges of interviewing for the first time
(see handout)
1. Unexpected interviewee behaviour or environmental
problems
2. Intrusion of own biases and expectations
3. Maintaining focus in asking questions
4. Dealing with sensitive issues
5. Transcription

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Characteristics of a successful interviewer (see
handout)
 Knowledgeable  Steering
 Structuring  Critical
 Clear  Remembering
 Gentle  Interpreting
 Sensitive  Balanced
 Open  Ethically sensitive

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 Involve respondent as soon as possible
 Ask factual questions before controversial questions
 Avoid close ended questions – yes/no questions
 Avoid questions that makes respondent defensive or
need to justify their response
 If answers are short, say “can you say more?”. Tolerate
silence – give them time to think.
 Avoid “loaded questions” and “leading questions” and
“irrelevant questions”.

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 Interview questions are NOT the same as research
questions but guided by them

 To record or not to record??

 Always take notes – do not depend on technology alone
 Some people may feel defensive when recorded but your
memory is short – a recording is permanent
 Always ask permission to tape
 Video recording is more intrusive but may be more
informative.
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Observation
 What role will you play?
 Participant observer: takes part in activities in the
setting they observe
 Nonparticipant observer: visits a site and records notes
without becoming involved in activities
 Changing observational roles: researchers adapt their
role to the situation

http://fiddledd.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/cartoon_eyes.jpg
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Observation
 Before observations
 Select a site to be observed
 Obtain consent
 Ease into the site slowly
 At the site identify who or what to observe, when to observe and
how long to observe
 Determine, initially, your role as an observer
 Develop an observational protocol
 Pilot the protocol

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Observation
 During observations
 Conduct multiple observations over time
 Use a broad-to-narrow strategy to collect data
 Develop a rapport with individuals at the site
 Design a means to collect fieldnotes
 Consider what information will you record
 Record descriptive and reflective fieldnotes
 Descriptions can be in dot points or full sentences

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Observation
 After observation
 Withdraw from the site slowly
 Thank participants
 Inform them of what happens with the data

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References
 Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods (3rd ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
 Creswell, J. W. (2008). Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). NJ: Merrill Prentice
Hall
 Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews. An introduction to qualitative research
interviewing. CA: Sage Publications.
 Merriam, S. B. and Associates. (2002). Qualitative research in
practice. Examples for discussion and analysis. CA: Jossey-Bass.

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References
 Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods (3rd ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
 Creswell, J. W. (2008). Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). NJ: Merrill Prentice
Hall
 Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews. An introduction to qualitative research
interviewing. CA: Sage Publications.
 Merriam, S. B. and Associates. (2002). Qualitative research in
practice. Examples for discussion and analysis. CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Additional Readings on Qualitative Research
 Open access Journal Qualitative Social Research
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs
 Qualitative Research Methods Overview
http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
 Module 9 : Introduction to Research
http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Introduction%20to%20Researc
h%20and%20Managing%20Information%20Leicester/page_53.htm
 Qualitative Research Defining and Designing
https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/48453_ch_1.pdf
 Comparison of five paradigms http://www.qualres.org/HomePhil-3514.html
 Selection of the Research Paradigm and Methodology
http://www.celt.mmu.ac.uk/researchmethods/Modules/Selection_of_m
ethodology/

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Part II Quality Criteria for Qualitative Designs
 No claim for single “truth”
 There is no standardised criteria – different authors
have different criteria
 Overall purpose is to convince reader not to establish
the “truth” once for all
 Does not mean anything goes!!! (see following section)
 Not all the following criteria apply to all research
projects – chose those that are relevant
(This section draws from Source Guba, E. & Lincoln. Y. (1989). Fourth
Generation Evaluation. USA: Sage)

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Traditional (Quantitative Designs)
 aims at achieving
 Instrument validity and reliability
 Internal validity
 External Validity
 Objectivity

Cuba and Lincoln identify parallel criteria for

establishing quality of qualitative research

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Credibility/integrity (Internal validity): Isomorphism
with real phenomenon investigated
 Prolong engagement
 Persistent and though observation
 Peer debriefing
 Negative case studies
 Progressive subjectivity
 Member check
 Triangulation
 Do insiders agree with images presented

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Confirmability (Objectivity)
 Analysis grounded in data
 Systematic documentation
 Peer checking
 An audit trail of procedures and results

Transferability (external validity): How much

learning can benefit other situations
 Thick descriptions of procedures and results that allow
reader to determine if the results are relevant to their
context
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Authenticity: (This has no parallel in traditional
research)
 Fairness: have a wide range of views been obtained, are
procedures negotiated with participants
 Ontological authenticity: have participants increased their
knowledge of their world?
 Educative authenticity: have they increased their
knowledge about others
 Catalitic authenticity: have they improved their practice
 Tactical authenticity: have them been empowered

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Reflexitivity (This has no parallel in traditional
research)

 Are procedures of research consistent with

philosophical stance? Eg, feminist research and action
research.
 Is the research self-critical?

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Quality in Qualitative Research
 Additional Web Readings

 Jeasik Cho and Allen Trent. Validity in qualitative research revisited.

http://www.sagepub.com/mertensstudy/articles/Ch_8-3.pdf
 Joseph Maxwell. Understanding and validity of qualitative research.
http://mkoehler.educ.msu.edu/hybridphd/hybridphd_summer_2010/wp-
content/uploads/2010/06/maxwell92.pdf
 Lisa A. Guion, David C. Diehl, and Debra McDonald. Triangulation: Establishing the Validity
of Qualitative Studies http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fy394
 Nahid Golafshani. Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research.
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf (note the author uses traditional terms
from quantitative research).
 Qualitative Research Guidelines Project. Lincoln and Guba's Evaluative Criteria.
http://www.qualres.org/HomeLinc-3684.html

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Data Collection in Qualitative Research
 Additional Web Readings
 Human Kinetics. Explore four methods for collecting qualitative research.
http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/explore-four-methods-for-collecting-
qualitative-research .
 P. Gill, K. Stewart, E. Treasure and B. Chadwick. Methods of data collection in qualitative
research: interviews and focus groups
http://www.academia.edu/746649/Methods_of_data_collection_in_qualitative_research_intervi
ews_and_focus_groups
 Family Health International. Qualitative Research Methods Overview.
http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
 Barbara B. Kawulich. Participant Observation as a Data Collection Method
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/466/996
 Margaret C. Harrell, Melissa A. Bradley. Semi-Structured Interviews and Focus Groups.
http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2009/RAND_TR718.pdf
 Interviewing in Qualitative Research http://www.comp.dit.ie/dgordon/Podcasts/Interviews/chap15.pdf

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 Additional Resources on Qualitative
Research
 Relevant Web Journals on Qualitative Research
 Forum Qualitative Social Research (Web journal) http://www.qualitative-
research.net/fqs/fqs-eng.htm
 The Qualitative report (Web Journal) http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/index.html
 International Journal of Qualitative Methods
http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/IJQM/index
 Educational Researcher On line (AERA publication – recent articles free)
http://edr.sagepub.com/content/early/recent
 Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal
http://groundedtheoryreview.com/

 Other Open Access Journals or Partial Open Access Journals

http://oneworldripples.com/open-access-research-journals--proceedings.html

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 Relevant Articles
 The Epistemology of Qualitative Research (article)
https://connect.ssri.duke.edu/sites/connect.ssri.duke.edu/files/upload/help-
resource/Becker.Epistemology%20of%20Qualitative%20Research.pdf
 Writing a Qualitative Research Proposal
http://www.vchri.ca/i/pdf/WritingQualitative.pdf (slide show)

 Other Resources
 UK Association for Qualitative Research http://www.aqr.org.uk/
 International Institute of Qualitative Methodologies http://www.iiqm.ualberta.ca/
 Qualitative Research Recourses http://www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/QualPage/
 Qualitative Research Recourses http://sophia.smith.edu/~jdrisko/qualres.htm

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 Action Research
 Action Research Resources http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arhome.html
 Action Research at Queens University http://resources.educ.queensu.ca/ar/
 Collaborative Action Research Network http://www.esri.mmu.ac.uk/carnnew/
 ActionResearch.net http://www.actionresearch.net/
 Jean McNiff Homepage http://www.jeanmcniff.com/ar-booklet.asp
 Action Research and Action Learning http://www.aral.com.au/

 Other Methodologies/Methods
 Resources on Ethnographic Studies
 Grounded Theory References http://www.groundedtheory.com/
 Grounded Theory Online http://www.groundedtheoryonline.com/
 A Critique of Using Grounded Theory as a Research Method
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-6/allen.pdf
 Grounded Theory: An Exploration of Process and Procedure
http://www.uk.sagepub.com/gray/Website%20material/Journals/qhr_walker.pdf

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