by SAIF SIDDIQUI

1) What is temperature inversion and isothermal layer

In the troposphere, the temperature of air normally falls steadily as height
increases. Sometimes, local influences cause the temperature of air to:
(a) Increase with height instead of falling. This is called a temperature
inversion OR
(b) Remain constant with height. The air is then said to be an isothermal layer.
However, both above conditions, (a) & (b), are temporary and will return to
normal subsequently
2) What is DALR and SALR?
It has been observed that the temperature of a dry parcel of air, which is made
to rise, falls at a steady rate of 10 degree C for every km of ascent i.e. Dry
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is 10C per km.
The temperature of a saturated parcel of air, which is made to rise, falls at a
rate of approximately 5 degree C per km of ascent i.e., Saturated Adiabatic
Lapse Rate (SALR), is about 5C per km.
3) What is diurnal Variation and diurnal range of atmospheric temperature?
It has been observed that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at
about 1400 hours local time and reaches its minimum at about half-hour after
sunrise. Since this happens once per day this is called diurnal variation of
atmospheric temperature.
Diurnal range of atmospheric temperature- The difference between the
maximum and minimum values in a day is called the diurnal range of
atmospheric temperature for that day
4) What is semi diurnal variation of pressure?
Owing to many causes, which are not fully understood by man, atmospheric
pressure changes with the time of the day. It has been observed that it is
maximum at about 10 & 22 hours and minimum at about 04 & 16 hours Local
Mean Time. Since this happens twice a day, it is called semi-diurnal variation
of atmospheric pressure.
5) What is conduction, convention and radiation?
Conduction-Heat is transferred from one place to another, through a solid, by
direct contact between molecules.
Convection-Is the transference of heat in a fluid (gas or liquid) by the
movement of molecules.
On the earth's surface, heat is transferred from one place to another by ocean
currents and also by convection currents of air
Radiation-Is the transference of heat from one place to another through
space, without the necessity of any intervening medium. Heat given off by the
sun travels through space and reaches the earth by the process of radiation.
6) What is barometric tendency?
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Barometric tendency is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at

the time of observation and the atmospheric pressure three hours earlier. It is
expressed in millibars and up to one decimal of a millibar.
7) What is terrestrial radiation and insolation? Why cloudy nights are warmer
than clear sky
Insolation is the name given to all forms of energy received by the earth, from
the sun, by the process of radiation. Insolation includes light, heat, ultra-violet
rays, infra-red rays, etc.
Insolation comes in the form of energy of very short wave length. Energy of
such short wave length has the property of passing through transparent media
without heating the media. Insolation, therefore, passes through the earth's
atmosphere without heating it.
On striking the earth's surface, most of the Insolation is directly reflected off
and only a small fraction is absorbed, cloudy nights are much warmer than
nights with clear skies - terrestrial radiation, trying to go out to space at
night, is reflected back towards the earth's surface by the clouds.

Green house effect- The foregoing phenomenon is called green house effect
because this principle is used to grow tropical plants in cold regions, in a
special structure called a green house. A large room is built with glass roof and
glass sides with small windows for air circulation. Sunlight (insolation) easily
enters the room through the roof and/or the sides. Terrestrial radiation, from
the floor of the house, cannot pass easily through the glass and gets trapped
inside the room, thereby raising the temperature of the room.
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8) What is frigid, torrid and temperate zone?

9) What is humidity, relative humidity and absolute humidity? What is the

relation with temperature?
Humidity- Humidity is the quantity of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
Absolute humidity- Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour contained
in a sample of air. It is usually expressed in grams per cubic metre (gm/m3 ).
Relative humidity- Relative humidity is the percentage ratio of the actual
water vapour contained in a given sample of air, to the maximum quantity of
water vapour that the sample can hold at that temperature.
R H % = (Present quantity of water vapour/Max. possible at that
temperature) X 100
- If the temperature of the sample of air is raised, its capacity to hold water
vapour increases

10) What is saturation and dew point?

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If a sample of air was progressively cooled, its relative humidity would steadily
increase i.e., the air would become relatively more moist. At some
temperature, the air would become wet i.e., its relatively humidity would
become 100%. The air is then said to be saturated and the temperature at
which this occurs is called the dew point temperature of that sample of air.
Dew point of a sample of air would depend on its temperature & relative
humidity.

11) What is Fohn Wind effect?

12) What is orographic cloud?

Orographic clouds are clouds that develop in response to the forced lifting of
air by the earth's topography (mountains for example).
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13) What is Virga?

precipitation evaporates completely, during its transit through the
atmosphere, and does not reach the ground. It may then be visible as vertical
streamers below clouds and is called "Virga".

14) What is dew, hoarfrost, glaze frost and rime?

Dew: When water vapour condenses into droplets of water and gets deposited
on exposed surfaces on or near the ground, it is called dew. By late night or
early morning the surface of the land gets very cold and hence the air in
contact with it may get cooled below its dew point, resulting in the formation
of dew. Dew can also be formed at other times of the day if a warm moist
wind blows gently over a very cold land surface. The presence of water or ice
particles on the surface speeds up the formation of dew.
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Hoarfrost: Is the name given to ice crystals deposited on exposed surfaces on

or near the ground, when the ground temperature is much lower than
'freezing point. In this case, the water vapour directly turns into ice without
becoming water. Hoarfrost should not be confused with frozen dew. In the
case of frozen dew, the water vapour becomes water and then freezes.

Glazed frost: Is a thin, transparent, smooth layer of ice formed when rain or
drizzle falls on a surface whose temperature is below freezing point. Glazed
frost can also form if a warm moist current of air blows over a very cold
surface. In the UK, glazed frost is also called "Black ice" as it cannot be
distinguished against a black road surface
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Rime: When super-cooled water droplets in a fog come into contact with very
cold solid objects such as ship's masts, superstructure etc., whose temperature
is well below freezing point, they freeze almost immediately and remain struck
to the object in the form of ice. This white deposit of ice is called rime. Since
these fog particles are carried by the wind, rime forms only on the windward
side of objects.

15) What is difference between rain, drizzle, snowflakes, snow pallets, ice pallets,
sleet, hail?
1. Drizzle: Fine drops of water, diameter less than 0.5 mm. Termed heavy or
light depending on intensity o-f precipitation. Clouds: St, Sc.
2. Rain: Water drops larger than 0.5 mm diameter. Termed heavy or light
depending on intensity of precipitation. Clouds: Ns, As, Sc, Ac, Cu, Cb.
3. Freezing rain/drizzle: The water drops freeze on impact with cold ground.
Clouds: Same as for rain/drizzle.
4. Snow-flakes: Loose clusters of ice crystals, in very soft, small particles
having branches. Clouds: Ns, As, Sc, C
5. Snow pellets: White opaque grains of ice, very soft and spherical or conical
in shape, diameter between 2 and 5 mm. Clouds:' Cb in cold weather.
6. Sleet: Sometimes rain and snow fall together or partly melted snowflakes
fall. This is called sleet and is common in the U.K. Clouds: Same as for
snowflakes.
7. Ice pellets: Transparent pellets of ice, frozen hard, less than 0.5 mm
diameter. Clouds: Ns, As, Cb.
8. Hail: Balls of hard ice, 0.5 to 50 mm diameter or more. Clouds: Cb.

16) What is mist and fog and their difference. When mist will formed? What is
haze and spray?
Mist is said to exist when visibility is reduced by water particles that have
condensed on dust, minute particles of salt, etc., but are so small that they
remain suspended in the air. If mist becomes dense and reduces visibility to 1
km or less, it is called fog. Mist can occur when relative humidity is an low as
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80% the radius of the droplets of water is less than 1 micron (one million
microns are equal to one metre). Fog generally occurs when relative humidity
is 90% or more - the radius of the droplets of water is between 1 & 10 microns.
Mist is always experienced before and after fog.
Haze- If visibility is reduced by solid particles such as dust, sand, volcanic ash,
etc., in suspension in the air, haze is said to exist. Haze can, in rare cases,
reduce visibility to 200 metres or less.
Spray- Spray is the name given to small droplets of water driven by the wind,
from the tops of waves. Spray affects visibility when the wind force is 9 or
more (wind speed of over 40 knots)
17) What is radiation fog and its favorable conditions?
Radiation fog- also called land fog because it forms only over land, not over
sea. During the night, land gives off its heat very quickly. On clear nights, the
radiation of heat from the land surface into space is quicker as it is
unobstructed by clouds. The air in contact with the ground thus gets cooled
and if cooled below its dew point, a large quantity of dew is deposited. If,
however, a light breeze is blowing, turbulence causes the cold from the land
surface to be communicated to the air a couple of metres above the ground
and shallow fog called 'ground fog' results. Radiation fog, which can form over
land only, may drift on to rivers, harbours, lakes and other coastal regions.
For example: fog on the Thames River, Dover Straits, the Sandheads of the
Hooghly, etc. Radiation fog forms over land because of the large diurnal range
of air temperature over land. It does not form over sea because of the very
small diurnal range of air temperature over sea. Radiation fog reaches its
maximum about half hour after sunrise because air temperature is at its
lowest at that time. It generally dissipates after the sun has shone for a few
hours and the land surface has warmed up.
Conditions favourable for radiation fog are:
• Large moisture content in the lower layers of air.
• Little or no cloud at night.
• Light breeze at the surface.
• Cold wet surface of land.
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18) What is advection fog, how you will know the time of advection fog?
Advection fog- Is also called sea fog because it is mostly found over sea. It can,
however, form over land also. It is formed when a moist wind blows over a
relatively cold surface of sea or land. When the most air is cooled below its
dew point, the excess water vapour condenses into small droplets of water on
dust or minute particles of salt, resulting in advection fog. Wind causes
advection fog to form and also to spread. If the wind is quite strong,
turbulence causes advection fog to form to considerable depth.
Best examples of advection fog are:
• On the Grand Banks of New Foundland where the warm, moist Westerlies,
blowing over the warm Gulf Stream, cross over the cold Labrador Current.
• Off the east coast of Japan where the warm, moist Westerlies, blowing over
the warm Kuro Shio, cross over the cold Oya Shio.
• The south coast of the UK in winter, whenever SW winds blow. These winds
come from lower latitudes and blow over the sea and are hence warm and
moist, compared to the cold land surface.
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The possible time of occurrence of advection fog can sometimes be predicted by

plotting the temperature of the sea surface and the dew point temperature of the air
as two separate curves against ship's time as shown in the following figure. In the
case illustrated, it is observed that the two curves appear to converge. By extending
the two lines as shown in dotted lines, it is noticed that the curves would intersect at
about 1400 hours. We can then expect to experience advection fog at about 1400
hours.

19) What are different types of clouds and their codes?

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20) What is turbulence, orographic, convection and frontal type of formation of

clouds?
Turbulence: Strong winds blowing over uneven ground strike against the
various obstructions and the air gets deflected upwards. This causes thorough
mixing of the air and, as the air rises, it cools adiabatically. If during this
process, the air gets cooled below its dew point, clouds will form. These clouds
will be stratus and their bases will generally be not more than 600m high.
Turbulence clouds will be formed in great quantities if the air is maritime
(moisture laden) and blows over cold, uneven ground. Over sea, wind speeds
of more than 13 knots only (force 4 and over) can produce sea waves of
sufficient height to create turbulence clouds.

Orographic Lifting- when a warm, moist wind blows against a mountain

range, it begins to climb up the mountainside. During this ascent, it cools
adiabatically and after cooling below its dew point, orographic clouds are
formed. These are of the stratus type. If the mountain is quite high, further
ascent results in nimbostratus and continuous precipitation.
Convection type- When a parcel of air gets heated due to any local cause, it
expands, becomes less dense than surrounding air, and rises. This is called a
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convection current. So long as the parcel is warmer than the surrounding air at
each level, it will continue to rise (unstable condition of air). During this ascent,
the rising air cools adiabatically and, when cooled below its dew point,
condensation takes place resulting in convection clouds that are always of the
cumulus type. That is why a large island (more than about 10 miles long) in
mid ocean may be seen to have a stationary cumulus cloud above it during
daytime

Frontal lifting- Where a warm air-mass and a cold air-mass are in contact,
their line of separation, at sea level, is called a front. The boundary between
them is not vertical. It is inclined towards the colder air mass because the cold
air, being denser, acts like a wedge and lifts up the warm air. In the case of a
warm front, the slope is gradual and the upsliding warm air forms stratiform
clouds nimbostratus, altostratus, cirrostratus and finally cirrus. In the case of
a cold front, the slope is very steep and the upsliding warm air forms
cumulonimbus and cumulus clouds.

21) What is ISOBAR?

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An isobar is a line drawn, on a weather map, joining all places having the same
atmospheric pressure at the time for which that weather map was drawn
For standardisation, isobars are drawn at 4 mb intervals and the pressure
denoted by an isobar must be divisible by four i.e., 996, 1000, 1004. Where
consecutive isobars are very far apart, intermediate isobars at 2 mb intervals
may be inserted.

22) What is pressure gradient and what is the relation between isobar and
pressure gradient?

Pressure gradient is the fall of pressure with distance, as shown on a weather

map. If the distance between consecutive isobars is small, the pressure
gradient is said to be high and strong winds are expected to blow. If the
distance between consecutive isobars is large, the pressure gradient is said to
be small and winds of lower speed will be expected.
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23) During formation of fronts, what will be the change of isobar?

24) Explain coriolis force?
Whilst blowing from HP to LP areas, the wind is deflected by Coriolis (also
called Geostrophic) force. Coriolis force is caused by the rotation of the earth.
Coriolis force is minimum at the equator and increases as latitude increases,
becoming maximum at the poles. It deflects the winds to their right in the
northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere.

25) What is geostropic wind and wind scale? How to measure geostropic wind
scale and its correction?
On a weather map, a geostrophic wind scale is provided, drawn to the scale of
the map.

The distance between two consecutive isobars is taken off the weather map by
a divider. The divider is then placed on the geostrophic wind scale, both legs on
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the horizontal line corresponding to the latitude in which the measurement is

being made. The left leg of the divider is placed on the margin and the position
of the other leg gives the geostrophic wind speed, interpolating as necessary
between the curves. For example, on the geostrophic wind scale illustrated, a
distance between consecutive isobars on the map equal to 1.65 cm (200 M) in
35° latitude will result in a geostrophic wind speed of about 20 knots. Because
of friction between the air and the earth's surface, the surface wind speed
over land would be about half the geostrophic wind speed & over sea, about
two-thirds

If a geostrophic wind scale, drawn to the scale of the map, is not available, the
following table may be used to obtain geostrophic wind speed.

26) What is waves, swell, gust, squall, veering and backing?

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1. Sea (waves): Is the name given to waves, on the sea-surface, created by

wind that is presently blowing. The height of sea disturbance, in open waters,
is directly related to the wind force as per Beaufort scale.
2. Swell: Is the name given to waves, on the sea  surface, formed by wind that
has subsequently stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place quite far
away. Swell travels quickly and has been known to have been felt over 1000
miles away. Swell travels radially outwards from the centre of a storm and is
usually the first indication of the presence and bearing (direction) of a TRS.

3. Gust: A gust of wind is the sudden increase of wind speed for a very short
period of time. It is usually caused by terrestrial obstructions to the flow of
wind.
4. Squall: A sudden increase of wind force by at least 3 stages of the Beaufort
scale (increase of at least 16 knots wind speed), reaching upto at least force 6
(22 knots) and lasting at least one minute. A squall is different from a gust of
wind by its greater duration.
5. Veering: A clockwise change of direction from which the wind is blowing
e.g., from N to NE, from S to SW, from W to NW, etc. .'
6. Backing: An anticlockwise change of direction from which the wind is
blowing e.g., from N to NW, from E to NE, from SW to S, etc.

27) What is buys ballots law, its effect on equator and higher latitudes and is it
applicable on land?
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Face the true wind and the low-pressure area will be on your right in the Northern
Hemisphere, left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Caution when applying Buys Ballot's Law
1. Near the equator: Buys Ballot's law should not be applied within a few degrees
of the equator. This is because Coriolis force is negligible at the equator and
therefore the winds blow directly across the isobars from HP to LP areas.
2. In the vicinity of land: The wind experienced may not be the free unobstructed
wind. It may be wind deflected by the land.
28) What is beaufort scale?
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29) True and Apparent wind plotting?

Consider a triangle OA T where, AT is the course and speed of the vessel OT is
the direction and speed of true wind OA is the direction & speed of apparent
wind. Knowing any two of the above, the third can be found by simple
construction, somewhat similar to radar plotting, as illustrated in the following
examples.
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30) Types 0f isobaric pattern, Explain low and high?

1. Straight isobars

2. Cyclone or low- Cyclone or low is an area of low pressure surrounded by

areas of high pressure. The isobars form closed shapes. The winds blow
spirally inwards, anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
in the southern hemisphere. The pressure gradient is usually high, resulting
in strong winds.

3. Secondary cyclone or secondary low

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4. Anticyclone or high
Anticyclone or high is an area of high pressure surrounded by areas of low
pressure. The isobars form closed shapes. The winds blow spirally
outwards, clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the
southern hemisphere. The pressure gradient is usually low resulting in low
wind speeds.
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5. Col- A Col is an area between two highs and two lows situated alternately.
Light variable winds are experienced but not for long. Sudden change of
weather is likely. Relative humidity is fairly high and lightning may be seen.
A Col may be situated between a primary low and secondary low under
'Secondary Low' or it may be situated at the boundary between two
different air masses. In the latter case, the change of weather, especially
temperature, will be even more drastic. No definite pattern of weather is
associated with a Col. Fog may be experienced in autumn. In summer over
land, thunderstorms are frequently experienced.
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6. Ridge or wedge- A ridge or wedge is an area of high pressiJre jutting into

areas of low pressure. The isobars are curved, with the high pressure inside,
and are' generally far apart. They do not necessarily form closed shapes. A
ridge may form by itself or it may be the outer fringes of an anticyclone far
away.
The weather associated with a ridge is like that of an anticyclone - no
precipitation, light winds, no clouds

7. Trough- A trough is an area of low pressure jutting into areas of high

pressure. The isobars are curved, with the low pressure inside, but they do
not form closed shapes. The pressure gradient is fairly high resulting in
strong winds.
Bad weather is associated with a trough. Before the trough, pressure falls
and weather deteriorates
There are two forms of trough:
Non-frontal trough: In this case, the isobars curve gently (change direction
gradually). When a non-frontal trough passes over an observer, the wind
veers gradually in the NH and backs gradually in the SH. The "U" of the
non-frontal trough always points towards the equator.
Frontal trough: A frontal trough exists at the boundary between two
different air-masses. The 'V' formed by the isobars always points towards
the equator. On crossing a frontal trough, the isobars change direction
suddenly by about 90° - veers in the NH and backs in SH. Squalls may be
experienced, accompanied by lightning and heavy precipitation.
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31) What is the general distribution of pressure and winds on Earth?

over large landmasses there is low pressure in summer and high pressure in
winter (see the foregoing weather maps). The wind direction and force thus
become modified accordingly.
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32) Explain Sea breeze and land breeze?

33) Explain monsoons of Indian Ocean?

SW monsoon- During northern summer, the continent of Asia gets very warm
and the resultant low pressure over it centres over the Thar Desert (NW part of
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the Indian sub-continent) with a pressure of about 994 mb. This low is
considerably lower than the equatorial low of 1012 mb and hence a pressure
gradient exists from the equator towards NW India. The SE Trade winds,
blowing from the oceanic high of 30 S towards the equatorial low, cross over
the equator and blow, as a strong SW wind called the SW Monsoon, towards
the low over NW India. The SW direction is the result of gradient force and
Coriolis force. The SW Monsoon blows from June to October and brings heavy
rain to the West Coast of India, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The
wind force is about 7 or 8 in the Arabian Sea and about 6 or 7 in the Bay of
Bengal. The same SW Monsoon is also experienced in the China Sea
NE monsoon- During northern winter, the continent of Asia gets cold and the
resultant high pressure over it centres over Siberia with a pressure of about
1036 mb. The equatorial low of 1012 mb. being oceanic, remains practically
unaffected by the change of season. The anticyclonic winds, around the
Siberian high, reach the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the NE Monsoon
with a force of 3 to 4. Heavy rain falls on the East Coast of India. The NE
Monsoon blows from December to April.

34) Explain Anabatic and Katabatic wind?

On clear nights, If the ground is sloping, the air at point X in the figure is colder
and hence denser than at point Y, air from X at the top of the hill starts sliding
down due to gravitational force and is called a 'Katabatic wind'
During daytime, the land surface gets heated quickly, resulting in a layer of
warm air next to the land surface. The air at points X in the figure is warmer
than at point Y. The relatively colder air at Y subsides into the valley and the
warm air, thus displaced from the valley, slides gently up the mountain side.
This is called an ‘Anabatic wind’
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35) Explain weather reporting system?

As recommended by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), each
government recruits a number of merchant ships called the Voluntary
Observing Fleet (VOF). The Indian VOF -consists of Indian ships and also such
foreign vessels that frequently and regularly call at Indian ports and hence
treat an Indian port as their homeport.
Each vessel of the VOF makes weather observations at fixed UTC (GMT) hours
called synoptic hours (Under normal conditions of weather, the hours of
observation, called synoptic hours, are 00, 06, 12 and 18 UTC. In cases where
there is disturbed weather, additional synoptic hours are 03, 09, 15 and 21
UTC) ,and send to any of the designated coast radio stations listed in the
Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 3 (ALRS 3) which forwards them to the
Regional Meteorological Data Collection Centre, (RMC) collates all the
reports of that area and makes weather forecasts, which are transmitted to
ships of that area, as weather bulletins (described later in this chapter),
through selected stations, at fixed times, using terrestrial or space radio
communications facilities
Meteorological log books- Each ship of the VOF is given a meteorological or
weather logbook. All weather observations at synoptic hours and any special
message must be recorded neatly and legibly in the weather logbook, whether
they were transmitted or not.
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In accordance with the recommendation of the WMO, vessels of the VOF are
divided into three categories:
Selected ship: A mobile ship which is equipped with sufficient certified
meteorological instruments for making observations and which transmits the
required observations in the full code consisting of eighteen to twenty one
groups.
Supplementary ship: A mobile ship which is equipped with a limited number of
certified meteorological instruments for making observations and which
transmits the observations in the abbreviated form of the code consisting of
twelve or more groups.
Auxiliary ship: A mobile ship normally not provided with certified
meteorological instruments which transmits weather reports in disturbed
weather or under a special request, in the reduced form of the code consisting
of eleven or more groups * or in plain language.
The following equipment is manufactured and supplied, free of charge, by
the India Meteorological Department:
Selected ship: 1. Barometer
2. Whirling psychrometer
3. Weekly barograph
4. Sea-thermometers
5. Marine buckets
Supplementary ship: 1. Barometer
2. Whirling psychrometer
Publications supplied by IMD
IMD supplies the following publications, free of charge, to Selected and
Supplementary ships:
1. Monthly meteorological charts of the Indian Ocean.
2. Indian Ocean Currents.
3. Marine Observer's Handbook.
4. International Cloud Atlas
5. Ship's Weather Code.
6. Weather Services to Shipping, Fishing Vessels and Marine Interests
7. Code of Storm Warning Signals.
8. Handbook of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of Bengal.
9. Winds, Weather and Currents on the Coasts of India.
10. State of Sea Card.
The meteorological instruments
1. The thermometer- The thermometer is an instrument for measuring
temperature. Thermometers meant for normal use, to measure temperature
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of liquids and gases, contain mercury. When the temperature increases, the
mercury in the bulb expands and the length of mercury in the column gets
more. When the temperature decreases, the mercury in the bulb contracts and
the length of mercury in the column gets less.
2. Reasons why mercury is used
(i) Easily visible.
(ii) Large, uniform coefficient of expansion.
(iii) Does not wet the glass.
(iv) High boiling point (over 350Q C) .
(v) Fairly low freezing point (about -39QC).

The hygrometer (also called psychrometer) The hygrometer is an instrument for

obtaining the relative humidity and/or dew point temperature of air. The type in use
at sea on merchant ships is called the Mason's hygrometer or wet-and-dry-bulb
hygrometer or psychrometer.
Principle- Because of capillary action, the muslin always remains damp - water is
drawn upwards, from the bottle through the strands of wick. If the atmosphere is dry,
rapid evaporation takes place from the muslin. Since evaporation causes cooling, the
wet bulb thermometer will show a much lower reading than the dry bulb
thermometer. If the atmosphere is humid, evaporation from the muslin will be slow,
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and less cooling of the wet bulb will take place. The reading of the wet bulb
thermometer will then be not much lower than that of the dry bulb thermometer.
In other words, the difference between the readings of the wet bulb and the dry bulb
thermometers (called the depression of the wet bulb), gives an indication of the
relative humidity of the air. The greater the difference, the lower the relative
humidity and vice versa.
To find relative humidity and dew point Meteorological tables, entered with dry bulb
reading on one axis and the depression of the wet bulb on the other axis, give the
relative humidity or the dew point of the air.

The Stevenson screen This is a wooden box specially constructed to house a

hygrometer. It was invented by Thomas Stevenson (father of Robert Louis Stevenson).
It is a wooden cupboard with a hinged door. The door, the back and the two sides, are
all fitted with "louvers" or slats which let air circulate freely without letting in direct
solar radiation or re-radiated heat from ship's structure. The louvers also keep out
rain and spray. There are various types of Stevenson's screens. The type found on
ships is the portable type. If sunlight is allowed to fall directly on the thermometer it
will get very hot and the reading shown by it will be the temperature of the
instrument itself, not that of the atmosphere. Inside the screen, the thermometer will
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show the temperature of the atmosphere because of the shade and the free
circulation of air. During the night, if the thermometer was out in the open, its bulb
would radiate out its heat very quickly, much quicker than the air and would thus
show a lower  than-true reading of atmospheric temperature. The thermometer will
then show the temperature of the instrument itself, not that of the atmosphere.

The whirling psychrometer This is a very efficient type of hygrometer. Hence its basic
principle is the same as hygrometer. It consists of a light wooden frame, pivoted to
revolve smoothly around a handle. The frame has two identical Celsius thermometers
mounted on it. One of them has a single layer of thin muslin tied firmly around its
bulb, with string, and is called the wet bulb thermometer. When required, the frame
is held horizontal and, using a dropper, one drop of distilled water is made to fall on
the muslin to make it damp. The frame is then whirled in open air for at least two
minutes before reading off the wet and dry bulb temperatures. By entering
meteorological tables with the dry bulb reading on one axis and the depression of the
wet bulb 011 the other axis, the dew point and/ or the relative humidity is obtained.
Different tables are used for the whirling psychrometer and for the hygrometer in the
Stevenson's screen because of their different rates of evaporation.
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Aneroid barometer The aneroid barometer is operated by a metal cell containing

only a very small amount of air, or a series of such cells joined together. The increased
air pressure causes the sides of the cell or cells to come closer together. One side is
fixed to the base of the instrument while the other is connected by means of a system
of levers and pulleys to a rotating pointer that moves over a scale on the face of the
instrument. This pointer is usually black.

The aneroid barometer (below) consists of a closed sealed capsule with flexible sides.
Any change in pressure alters the thickness of the capsule. When the atmospheric
pressure increases, the cell gets compressed and the inward movement of the cell
wall is transmitted to the pointer mechanically and it then registers a higher reading
on the scale.

Levers magnify these changes, causing a pointer to move on a dial, or numbers to

change on a digital read-out device.
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Errors of an aneroid barometer For the sake of uniformity of climatic records, and for
forecasting purposes, it is necessary to convert the reading to that at sea level. Hence
readings of an aneroid barometer need two corrections - index error (instrumental
error) and height above sea level.
(i) Index error: This is very likely and is caused by imperfect elasticity of the
vacuum chamber. Index error is likely to change and should be obtained at
least once in three months. This could be done by comparison with another
aneroid barometer whose index error is known. Representatives of port
meteorological offices in most ports usually bring their aneroid barometer
on board for comparison, free of charge, on a request from the ship. The
index error should be entered on a special card hung near the instrument. If
the index error becomes quite large, it can be reduced, if not eliminated, by
a small adjustment on the back of the instrument, with the use of a
screwdriver.
(ii) (ii) Height correction: Since atmospheric pressure near sea level falls at the
rate of one millibar for every 10 metres increase of height, the correction
may be calculated as follows:

OR barometric height correction table may be referred

Location of an aneroid barometer: The instrument should be so positioned as to be:

(i) Away from undue vibration or sudden jerks (which would cause changes in its
index error).
(ii) Away from draughts of air
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(iii) Away from places liable to experience abnormal or sudden changes of

temperature.
The barograph The barograph is an aneroid barometer that gives a
continuous record of pressure on a paper chart. Such a chart, with a
continuous barograph trace on it, is called a barogram. The barograph is so
adjusted as to allow for index error and also error due to height above sea
level. Comparison should be done once a week, when the paper is changed
and, if necessary, adjustment of error made. For climatic record purposes,
the barograph is always set to UTC (GMT) not to ship's time.

The vacuum chamber consists of a series of metal boxes arranged

vertically, resembling the bellows of an accordion. Change of atmospheric
pressure causes the top of the chamber to ascend or descend and this
movement is conveyed by a lever system to a stylus (pen) that moves up or
down on the chart. The chart is fixed on a cylindrical drum that rotates at a
uniform speed of one rotation per week. The rotation is effected by an
eight-day clock mechanism. The clock is, therefore, wound whenever the
chart is changed. The key of the clockwork mechanism can be reached by
removing the lid of the drum. The tip of the stylus has a detachable pen
that contains one drop of slow drying ink, specially supplied for this
purpose. The ink needs to be replenished once a week and this is done by a
dropper and inkbottle provided. The pen should be washed with water or
cleaned with methylated spirit about once a month to ensure that the trace
is thin, clear and even. Excess of ink should be avoided as the ink will not
only corrode the pen arm but also cause the normally detachable pen to
stick fast to the pen arm. The entire barograph is provided with a hinged
glass cover, to keep out gusts of wind and dust, and is mounted on springs
and rubber pads to reduce vibration.
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AIR MASSES AND FRONTS

An air-mass may be defined as a quantity of air with dimensions of about 500
nautical miles or so, with little or no horizontal variation of any of its properties,
especially temperature.
Factors affecting the properties of an air-mass
1. Its source region.
2. Its track over the earth's surface.
3. The extent of convergence and divergence.
4. Its age.
5. Its rate of travel.
Front- The boundary between two adjacent air masses is well defined by their
different characteristics and is called a front.
Types of fronts
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OCCLUDED FRONT
An Occluded Front forms when a warm air mass gets caught between two cold air
masses. The warm air mass rises as the cool air masses push and meet in the middle.
The temperature drops as the warm air mass is occluded, or “cut off,” from the
ground and pushed upward.
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Line Squall: A cold front is often referred to as line squall because, just before it
passes, the long line of low-based (but of very high vertical extent) Cb clouds is visible.
Line squalls are sometimes known by local names e.g., Pampero in South America
and Southerly Buster in Australia.
Frontolysis- Frontolysis is the decay or weakening and final dissipation of a frontal
depression. The first step is tile formation of occlusions.
OCEAN CURRENTS
An ocean current is the general movement of a body of sea-water on a permanent,
semi-perman.ent or seasonal basis.
There are three main causes of ocean currents:
1. Drift- Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long
periods. The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea-surface to
move.
2. Upwelling- Whenever a wind blows away from a long coastline for a considerable
length of time, the outflow of water from the coast is replaced by an upward
movement (upwelling) of sea-water, from a depth upto about 150 metres or so. Since
this upwelling takes place from below, the water that comes to the surface is colder
than the surrounding sea-surface.
3. Gradient- A gradient current is caused by differences in level (resulting from
natural slopes or build-up by winds) or by differences in density (resulting from
differences of temperature or salinity)
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General circulation in the Mediterranean Sea- the level of the Mediterranean Sea is
lower than that of the Atlantic. This is because the Mediterranean Sea is land-locked,
resulting in a very much higher rate of evaporation, and also because the input of
water from rains and rivers is very small.
Effects of ocean current
1. Distribute the heat uniformly across the globe
2. When a warm and cold current meet, many nutrients are present, which
attracts planktons, which attract fishes making it as a rich fishing ground
3. We find the dessert at the west coast of the continents( most cold currents you
will find at the west coast of continent, so they have less moisture in them so
less rainfall), we find more rainfall at the east side of the continents