CH A P T ER

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Y
ou have already learnt that the air EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
contains water vapour. It varies from
zero to four per cent by volume of the The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
atmosphere and plays an important role in the is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
weather phenomena. Water is present in the condensation respectively. Evaporation is a
atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, process by which water is transformed from
liquid and solid. The moisture in the liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the main cause
atmosphere is derived from water bodies for evaporation. The temperature at which the
through evaporation and from plants through water starts evaporating is referred to as the
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous latent heat of vapourisation.
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the Increase in temperature increases water
oceans and the continents through the absorption and retention capacity of the given
processes of evaporation, transpiration, parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
condensation and precipitation. is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and
Water vapour present in the air is known retaining moisture. Movement of air replaces
as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
different ways. The actual amount of the water Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
vapour present in the atmosphere is known as greater is the evaporation.
the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water The transformation of water vapour into
vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed water is called condensation. Condensation is
in terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is
of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
on its temperature. The absolute humidity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
differs from place to place on the surface of the water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it
earth. The percentage of moisture present in directly condenses into solid form, it is known
the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity as sublimation. In free air, condensation results
at a given temperature is known as the relative from cooling around very small particles
humidity. With the change of air temperature, termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
the capacity to retain moisture increases or Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean
decreases and the relative humidity is also are particularly good nuclei because they
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least absorb water. Condensation also takes place
over the continents. when the moist air comes in contact with some
The air containing moisture to its full colder object and it may also take place when
capacity at a given temperature is said to be the temperature is close to the dew point.
saturated. It means that the air at the given Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
temperature is incapable of holding any amount of cooling and the relative humidity of
additional amount of moisture at that stage. the air. Condensation is influenced by the
The temperature at which saturation occurs volume of air, temperature, pressure and
in a given sample of air is known as dew point. humidity. Condensation takes place: (i) when

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the temperature of the air is reduced to dew condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
point with its volume remaining constant; (ii) described as smog. The only difference between
when both the volume and the temperature are the mist and fog is that mist contains more
reduced; (iv) when moisture is added to the air moisture than the fog. In mist each nuceli
through evaporation. However, the most contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are
favourable condition for condensation is the frequent over mountains as the rising warm
decrease in air temperature. air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs
After condensation the water vapour or the are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the warm currents of air come in contact with cold
following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which
Forms of condensation can be classified on the condensation takes place around nuclei
basis of temperature and location. provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt
Condensation takes place when the dew point particles.
is lower than the freezing point as well as
higher than the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
Dew
tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation
When the moisture is deposited in the form of of the water vapour in free air at considerable
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid elevations. As the clouds are formed at some
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the height over the surface of the earth, they take
surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant various shapes. According to their height,
leaves, it is known as dew. The ideal conditions expanse, density and transparency or
for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
relative humidity, and cold and long nights. types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus;
For the formation of dew, it is necessary that (iv) nimbus.
the dew point is above the freezing point.
Cirrus
Frost
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
Frost forms on cold surfaces when (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
condensation takes place below freezing point clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
(00C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the always white in colour.
freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited
in the form of minute ice crystals instead of Cumulus
water droplets. The ideal conditions for the
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They
formation of white frost are the same as those
are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -
for the formation of dew, except that the air
7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen
temperature must be at or below the freezing
scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
point.
Stratus
Fog and Mist
As their name implies, these are layered clouds
When the temperature of an air mass
covering large portions of the sky. These clouds
containing a large quantity of water vapour falls
are generally formed either due to loss of heat
all of a sudden, condensation takes place within
or the mixing of air masses with different
itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
temperatures.
with its base at or very near to the ground.
Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
Nimbus
becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial
centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They
help the formation of fog and mist. Such a form at middle levels or very near to the surface

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of the earth. These are extremely dense and Precipitation

opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the
The process of continuous condensation in free
clouds are so low that they seem to touch the
air helps the condensed particles to grow in
ground. Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses
size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold
of thick vapour.
them against the force of gravity, they fall on to
the earth’s surface. So after the condensation
of water vapour, the release of moisture is
known as precipitation. This may take place
in liquid or solid form. The precipitation in the
form of water is called rainfall, when the
temperature is lower than the 00C, precipitation
takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in
the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals
form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail,
Figure 11.1 though the latter are limited in occurrence and
are sporadic in both time and space.
Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow-water. When a layer of air with
the temperature above freezing point overlies
a subfreezing layer near the ground,
precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
encounter the colder air below. As a result, they
solidify and reach the ground as small pellets
of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which
they are formed.
Sometimes, drops of rain after being
released by the clouds become solidified into
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which
reach the surface of the earth are called
hailstones. These are formed by the rainwater
passing through the colder layers. Hailstones
have several concentric layers of ice one over
the other.
Types of Rainfall

Figure 11.2
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified
into three main types – the convectional,
Identify these cloud types which are orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
shown in Figure 11.1 and 11.2.
Convectional Rain
A combination of these four basic types can
The, air on being heated, becomes light and
give rise to the following types of clouds: high
clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it
middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus; expands and loses heat and consequently,
low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus condensation takes place and cumulous
and clouds with extensive vertical clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening,
development – cumulus and cumulonimbus. heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last

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long. Such rain is common in the summer or the continents. The rainfall is more over the
in the hotter part of the day. It is very common oceans than on the landmasses of the world
in the equatorial regions and interior parts of because of being great sources of water.
the continents, particularly in the northern Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of
hemisphere. the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
Orographic Rain west. But, between 450 and 650 N and S of
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is
When the saturated air mass comes across a first received on the western margins of the
mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, continents and it goes on decreasing towards
it expands; the temperature falls, and the the east. Wherever mountains run parallel to
moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes plain, on the windward side and it decreases
receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the towards the leeward side.
windward side, when these winds reach the On the basis of the total amount of annual
other slope, they descend, and their precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take world are identified as follows.
in moisture increases and hence, these leeward The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area of the mountains along the western coasts in
situated on the leeward side, which gets less the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of
is also known as the relief rain. over 200 cm per annum. Interior continental
areas receive moderate rainfall varying from
Cyclonic Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of
the continents receive moderate amount of
You have already read about extra tropical
rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land
cyclones and cyclonic rain in Chapter 10.
and the eastern and interior parts of the
Please consult Chapter 10 to understand
temperate lands receive rainfall varying
cyclonic rainfall.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum. Areas lying
in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the
World Distribution of Rainfall continents and high latitudes receive very low
Different places on the earth’s surface receive rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that distribution of rainfall provides an important
too in different seasons. aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
In general, as we proceed from the equator regions rainfall is distributed evenly
towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing throughout the year such as in the equatorial
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of regions.

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following is the most important constituent of the
atmosphere for human beings?
(a) Water vapour (c) Dust particle
(b) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen

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(ii) Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid
into vapour?
(a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
(iii) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity :
(a) Relative humidity (c) Absolute humidity
(b) Specific humidity (d) Saturated air
(iv) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky?
(a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus
(b) Stratus (d) Cumulus
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name the three types of precipitation.
(ii) Explain relative humidity.
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?
(iv) How are clouds formed? Classify them.
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.
(ii) What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost
formation.

Project Work
Browse through the newspaper from 1st June to 31st December and note the news
about extreme rainfall in different parts of the country.

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