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Sampling in Qualitative Research

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DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5366-3.ch002

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 25

Chapter 2
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
Musarrat Shaheen
IFHE University, India

Sudeepta Pradhan
IFHE University, India

Ranajee
IFHE University, India

ABSTRACT
The chapter discusses different types of sampling methods used in qualitative research
to select information-rich cases. Two types of sampling techniques are discussed in
the past qualitative studies—the theoretical and the purposeful sampling techniques.
The chapter illustrates these two types of sampling techniques relevant examples.
The sample size estimation and the point of data saturation and data sufficiency are
also discussed in the chapter. The chapter will help the scholars and researchers in
selecting the right technique for their qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION

Compared to the quantitative research, the sampling procedures in qualitative research

are not well defined. Selection of participants in qualitative research depends on the
purpose of the research and is found to rely heavily on the researcher’s discretion.
This flexibility in the procedure of sampling in qualitative has led to confusion to
some researchers and increases the chances of mistakes (Morse, 1991). Quantitative
techniques, however, rely on randomly selected, larger samples. The sampling

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5366-3.ch002

Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Sampling in Qualitative Research

techniques and logic behind each approach tend to be unique as the purpose of
each strategy is different. The logic of probability or random sampling techniques
of quantitative research depends on selecting a statistically representative sample
from a larger population to get the generalized results.
Citing an instance where a researcher employed random sampling in qualitative
research, Morse stated that it violates the principles of sampling method of quantitative
research that requires ‘an adequate sample size in order to ensure representativeness
and the qualitative principle of appropriateness that requires purposeful sampling
and a “good” informant” (Morse, 1991, p.127). A good informant is the one who is
articulate, reflective and is interested in sharing the information with the interviewers.
Qualitative research focuses in-depth on small samples, even a single sampling
unit (n = 1), selected purposefully for the study (Patton, 1990). The reliability and
generalizability of the findings of qualitative research rely heavily on the information
provided by the participants of the sample. Studies have been criticised for not
describing in detail the procedure by which respondent is selected which makes
the interpretation of the results difficult and also affects the replication of the study
(Kitson et al. 1982). To establish rigour and credibility in qualitative studies it is the
responsibility of the researcher to select the right technique of sampling (Lowenberg
1993; Sandelowski, 1995).
The chapter intends to discuss the complexity associated with sampling procedure
in qualitative research. The different types of sampling techniques used in qualitative
research will also be explained to facilitate selection of right kind of sampling
technique for the qualitative studies.

QUALITATIVE DESIGNS AND DATA COLLECTION

Qualitative researchers need to answer one important question: How to select

samples for the study? In order to analyze the variation among programs, a random
sample would be appropriate in order to generalize the findings. Limited resources
and limited time tend to force a researcher to evaluate samples and events carefully.
They may try looking at extreme cases for more insightful results. The evaluation
then focuses on understanding which events are significant. The sample need not
be random or excellent or structure, it depends on what the researcher believes to
be relevant for their study. Qualitative inquiry works for researchers who can work
effectively under ambiguity. Qualitative inquiry has no stringent rules regarding the
sample size. It depends on the purpose of the research, what’s at stake, what is useful,
what is credible, and what is the line of research that can be undertaken within the
timeframe and use the resources at hand. The same set of fixed resources and time
can be used in various ways. A large sample can be used to study differences in

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

behaviour, or a smaller sample size can be employed for in-depth analysis. Qualitative
research is considered meaningful if it the sample selected is information-rich and the
analytical capabilities of the researcher are high. Two types of sampling techniques
discussed in the past qualitative researches are theoretical and purposeful sampling
(Coyne, 1997).

THEORETICAL SAMPLING

The origin of theoretical sampling goes back to the discovery of grounded theory
method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Theoretical sampling technique is developed as
a rigorous method employing which qualitative data can be captured to develop a
new theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). It is defined as the sampling process by which
data can be collected to develop a theory whereby the researcher ‘collects, codes,
and analyses his data and decides which data to collect next and where to find them,
in order to develop his theory as it emerges’ (Glaser, 1978, p. 36). The process of
data collection through theoretical sampling method is controlled by the emerging
theory and not by any other variables (Coyne, 1997). The selection of respondents
in theoretical sampling, depends on the theory and groups are chosen as and when
they are needed rather than before the research begins. That is the sample in this
technique is not selected from a population on the basis of some variables prior to
the study. Rather ‘the initial sample is determined to examine the phenomena where
it is found to exist’ (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986, p. 9). The initial stage of theoretical
sampling resembles the purposeful sampling as researcher visit the groups which
they believe will maximize the possibilities of obtaining data and leads to more data
on their question. The theoretical sampling method facilitates researcher to collects,
codes, and analyses data simultaneously in order to decide what data to collect next
(Shaheen, Gupta, & Kumar, 2016). Sampling takes place at two stages in grounded
theory’s data collection. The data collection procedure of theoretical sampling can
be explained through the inductive-deductive process which is a characteristic of
grounded theory method. The inductive process involves the theory emerging from
the data and the deductive process involves the purposeful selection of samples to
test, verify, and develop the theory (Becker, 1993). Thus, the purposeful selection
is an inclusive part of the deductive process of the grounded theory. Theoretical
sampling allows for flexibility during the research process (Glaser, 1978). The
researcher can make shifts of plan and emphasis early in the research process so
that the data gathered reflects what is occurring in the field rather than speculation
about what cannot or should have been observed. Further sampling is done to
develop the categories and their relationships and interrelationships. The emerging
categories could lead the researcher to samples in different locations. The aim is to

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 Sampling in Qualitative Research

achieve depth in the developing categories. The emerging categories may indicate
that the researcher proceeds to another location to sample there that would increase
breadth in the category. In the present book, the qualitative methods discussed in
the subsequent chapters use the purposeful sampling.

PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING

Purposeful sampling resides on the proposition that information-rich samples are

to be selected to have an in-depth view of the phenomena (Shaheen et al., 2016).
Selection of respondent is possible only after several observational visits to the sites.
The visit assists in selecting and locating the sample that fits well with the purpose
and objective of the study. Categories such as age, gender, experience, functional
role, or ideology of the organization may serve as the starting points for researchers
to narrow down on a location of the study (Patton, 1990).
Purposeful sampling differs in logic from the probability sampling of quantitative
research. Purposeful samples are generally small in size, so their utility and credibility
are questioned on the basis of their logic and purpose. Random probability sample,
on the other hand, fails to accomplish what in-depth, purposeful samples accomplish.
Qualitative sampling designs are designed by the researcher based on the objectives
of the study. Samples may be added in the later stages of research as well. Sample
profile may be decided and altered if information emerges indicate a change. The
sampling design is flexible and emerges during the analyses in qualitative research.
The sample size adequacy is subject to peer review, validation, and judgment
(Patton, 1990).
The logic and power of purposeful sampling depend on selecting information-rich
cases for in-depth study. Information-rich cases contain issues that are important for
the research, therefore, purposeful sampling. For instance, if the research objective
is to analyze the reasons and ways why firms invest in socially responsible activities,
the researcher can gain insights by going for an in-depth analysis of few carefully
selected annual reports of firms from different industries. Purposeful sampling
helps the researcher to select sources of information that would help answer the
research objectives.
There are different opinions on types of sampling techniques in qualitative research
(Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990; Sandelowski, 1995; Staruss & Corbin, 1990). Morse
(1991) discussed four types of sampling— the purposeful or theoretical sampling,
the nominated sample, the volunteer sample, and the sample that includes the whole
population. Morse has not provided any difference between purpose and theoretical
sampling and used it as synonymously. In the purposeful (theoretical) sampling
researcher select participants according to the objective and needs of the study.

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

That is in the initial level researcher selects participants who have broad and general
knowledge of the topic or phenomena of the study. Then as the study progresses
descriptions are expanded and based on the initial analysis further respondents are
sought for. In the final stage, atypical cases are selected to verify the findings and
to understand the breadth of the concept or phenomena.
But, these authors opine that all types of sampling techniques in qualitative
research can be encompassed under a broader term, ‘purposeful sampling’. The
authors stated that the qualitative research typically focuses ‘on relatively small
samples, even single cases, selected purposefully’ (Patton, 1990, p. 169). Patton
(2002) provided 16 different kinds of strategies for selecting information-rich cases.
These strategies bring forth the complexity of sampling in qualitative research. The
principle underlying these strategies is to select an information-rich case that is the
sample/case is selected purposefully to fit with the purpose of the study. Patton did
not provide any discussion on theoretical sampling, though some similarities can
be found in his conforming and disconfirming cases. Purposeful sampling requires
an access to a key informant which becomes the source for other samples. The
strategies given by Patton (1990) are discussed below.

• Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling: It involves selecting ‘illuminative

cases’ (Patton, 2002) that illustrate a context in terms of outstanding
successes or failures. That is it the approach focuses on the cases that have in-
depth information. These cases may be unusual or peculiar or enlightening.
This strategy would be particularly suitable for ‘realist syntheses’ (Suri,
2011) which examines how a program is likely to work under particular
circumstances by analysing the successful and unsuccessful implementation
of the program (Pawson, 2006). Say, for example, the objective of the study
is to analyze the effectiveness of CSR programs; one might compare the CSR
activities of different industries, or new CSR initiatives with that of well-
established ones.

Past studies that have used extreme and deviant case sampling in their studies are
Çetingöz (2012), Ersoy (2014), Lakhan, Bipeta, Yerramilli & Nahar (2017), and Şahin
(2008). Lakhan et al., (2017) explored the common patterns of the consanguineous
relationship in the parents of children with intellectual disability in India. The authors
desire to explore whether intellectual disability which is inherited in families through
consanguineous marriage can be the cause of intellectual disability in the children.
Extreme or deviant case sampling was used to select cases from homes, camps, and
clinical settings. Similarly, Ersay (2014) employed extreme or deviant case sampling
to select participants (teachers and students in this case) from two kinds of school,
a low socioeconomic school and a high socioeconomic background school. The

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 Sampling in Qualitative Research

author wants to explore the challenges of citizenship education procedures in the

social studies course in Turkey.

• Intensity Sampling: Intensity sampling involves selecting samples that

are excellent or rich examples of the phenomena of interest (Patton, 2002).
It is similar to extreme case sampling but with less focus on the extremes.
Intensity sample includes information-rich cases that exhibit intense but not
extreme inputs. Intensity sampling looks for rich examples and not unusual
cases. A mild sample won’t provide much to researchers for their study. So,
a sample with sufficient intensity is required to make the study interesting.
Intensity sampling involves prior information and judgment on part of the
researcher. The researcher needs to do exploratory research to determine the
nature of the variation in the study. For instance, if a researcher wants to
have a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon then it is crucial to
examine cases where these changes were occurring thoroughly in the system
over a sufficient period of time (Suri, 2011).

Several studies have used intensity sampling to conduct their qualitative studies
are Hignett (2003), Falciani-White (2017), Issa (2006), Kashkalani, Maleki, Tabibi
and Nasiripour (2017), Kleinn, Ramírez, Holmgren, Valverde and Chavez (2005),
Mehra, Singh, Agarwal, Gopinathan and Nishchal (2015), Meland, Xu, Henze and
Wang (2013), and Ragagnin, de Sena Júnior and da Silveira (2010). Kashkalani et
al. (2017) used purposeful intensity sampling to identify the factors that are involved
in determining the number of clinical faculty members required for medical schools
in Iran. Similarly, Falciani-White (2017) used intensity sampling to select academic
scholars from major three divisions of academia (humanities, natural sciences,
and social sciences). The purpose was to understand how information behaviours
function in the broader landscape of academic practice. Hignett (2003) also employed
intensity sampling to choose participants from hospitals to examine the influence
of organizational and cultural factors on the practice of ergonomics.

• Maximum Variation (Heterogeneity) Sampling: In this approach, the

key dimensions of variations are identified and then cases are selected that
differ from each other as much as possible. This sampling technique yields—
detailed descriptions of each case which are useful for capturing uniqueness,
and the shared patterns that differentiate cases from each other. Purposeful
sampling captures the central themes that span across a large sample or
variation. Heterogeneity is an issue in small samples as individual cases vary
from each other. The maximum variation sampling turns this problem into
the strength by looking into common patterns that emerge from variation in

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

a program. The variation in a small sample can be maximized by identifying

the diverse characteristics to construct the sample. For instance, if a study
looks into the effect of a new legislation in the State, specifically at different
levels of management, and across rural and urban areas, there may not be
enough resources to randomly select enough information across the state. The
researcher can ensure a variation in geographical locations for the purposes
of the study.

Some of the studies that have used maximum variation sampling in their studies
are Dansereau et al. (2017), Gokturk and Dinckal (2017), Zhang, Wang, Millar, Li
and Yan (2017), Wendell, Wright and Paugh (2017), Kendall-Gallagher, Reeves,
Alexanian and Kitto (2017), Klingler and Marckmann (2016), Liu, Zhao and Xie
(2016), Van Niekerk (2016), Demartoto, Zunariyah and Soemanto (2016), Bursa
and Ersoy (2016), Vo, Le, Le, Tran Minh and Nuorti (2015), Goldman, Reeves,
Wu, Silver, MacMillan and Kitto (2015), Véliz, Berra and Jorna (2015), Eschler,
Kendall, O’Leary, Vizer, Lozano, McClure, Pratt and Ralston (2015), Çiçeklioʇlu,
Öcek, Turk and Taner (2015), Bahadori, Sanaeinasab, Ghanei, Mehrabi Tavana,
Ravangard and Karamali (2015), Cakmak, Isci, Uslu, Oztekin, Danisman and Karadag
(2015), Wassenaar, van den Boogaard, van der Hooft, Pickkers and Schoonhoven
(2015), Patel, Nelson, Id-Deen and Caldwell (2014), Grant, Ure, Nicolson, Hanley,
Sheikh and McKinstry, Sullivan (2013), Hsu (2012), Briggs, Slater, Bunzli, Jordan,
Davies, Smith and Quintner (2012), Cavalli-Björkman, Glimelius and Strang (2012).
To assess the training need for knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of in large
canteens of schools and factories towards Le et al. (2015) used maximum variance
sampling and found that food-handlers of schools were having adequate KAP then
the food-handlers of factories. Zhang et al. (2017) conducted a qualitative study
to understand the coping mechanism of public healthcare officers in the backdrop
of health reforms in China. The authors employed maximum variation sampling
method to select 30 public healthcare provider having variation in terms of different
specialties. Similarly, Wassenaar et al. (2015) used maximum variation sampling to
recruit nurses varying in terms gender, age, work experience and who were appointed
in intensive care units of different hospitals. The authors want to study the views of
nurses regarding their role in intensive care unit’s patients’ perception about safety.

• Homogeneous Samples: A small homogeneous sample directly contrasts

the maximum variation sampling strategy. The purpose is to discuss some
particular subgroup in details and have an in-depth analysis of the same.
A study that uses varied participants may need to use in-depth information
about a particular subgroup. A study that looks into the mentor-mentee
relationship may focus in detail on one particular mentee. Focus group

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interviews concentrate on homogeneous groups and conduct open-ended

interviews with small groups or focused issues. Sampling in focus groups
involves bringing individuals from similar backgrounds to participate in a
group interview.

Some of the scholars who have used homogeneous sampling technique to select
respondents for their studies are Metin, Taris, Peeters, van Beek and Van den Bosch
(2016), Akkermans, Brenninkmeijer, Schaufeli and Blonk (2015), van Beek, Taris,
Schaufeli and Brenninkmeijer (2014), and Jeurissen and Nyklíček (2001). The role
of the employees’ on the occupation outcomes such as work engagement and work
performance was examined by Metin et al. (2016). The author selected homogeneous
sample i.e., bank employees in this study to understand their state of authenticity
and in its influence on work performance outcomes.

• Typical Case Sampling: Typical cases are selected with the help of key
informants like knowledgeable participants, who know what is typical. Such
typical samples can also be selected from survey data, demographic analysis,
or any other data that provide normal characteristics from which “average”
can be distinguished. When the unit of analysis is an entire community, typical
cases can be easily identified. It is however important, to get a consensus
regarding which programs are “typical.”

Some of the studies that have used typical case sampling are Ahi and Balcı
(2017), Quinn, Hunter, Ray, Quadir, Sen, and Cumming (2016), Jaffri, Samah,
Mohd Tahir, and Mohd Yusof (2016), Asl, Iezadi, Behbahani and Bonab (2015),
Yeh (2015), Sung-Gu (2015), Tarman and Kuran (2015), B-Lajoie, Hulme and
Johnson (2014), Kezar (2013), Lash, Kulakaç, Buldukoglu and Kukulu (2006).
Ahi and Balcı (2017) to explore the knowledge of children about a biologically-
based complex system used a typical case sampling method to select children from
different levels of schooling and age groups. The children who were having similar
characteristics were combined together to form different focus groups. Similarly,
Quinn Hunter, Ray, Quadir, Sen and Cumming (2016) used typical case sampling to
select women who were physically disabled. The authors want to examine different
forms of discrimination and exclusion of disable women from the mainstream society
compare to the peers who were not suffering from any form of disability. Lash,
Kulakaç, Buldukoglu and Kukulu (2006) also used typical case sampling to select
nursing and midwifery students who have undergone verbal abuse originated from
clinical instructors, agency nurses, physicians, patients and their families.

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

• Stratified Purposeful Sampling: A typical case sampling strategy can be

combined with others, taking a stratified purposeful sample of different cases.
This is less than full maximum variation sample. The stratified purposeful
sample is used to capture major variations and not to identify a common
cause. Each stratum constitutes a fairly homogeneous sample.

Some of the qualitative research that have employed stratified purposeful sampling
are Danforth, Weidman and Farnsworth (2017), Aktaruzzaman and Plunkett (2017),
Khwankong, Sriplung and Kerdpon (2016), Karamanidou and Dimopoulos, (2016),
Elpers, Lester, Shinn and Bush (2016),Tajeddini and Trueman (2014), Sandelowski
(2000), and Nielsen, Dyhr, Lauritzen and Malterud (2004). Danforth et al. (2017)
used stratified purposeful sampling to select participants from different management
roles of 15 commercial construction companies. The objective was to understand
the approaches these companies had employed to withstand the great recession of
2007-2009. Similarly, Tajeddini and Trueman (2014) employed stratified purposeful
sampling to approach managers and owners of 11 high-class hotels of Iran. The
objective of this study was to explore the perception and meaning of innovativeness
in the hospitality industry from both the perspectives of managers as well as owners.

• Critical Case Sampling: Purposeful samples can be collected from critical

cases. These are cases which are important in a particular context. Data is
collected after understanding the events of a critical case. If a particular group
has problems, it can be assumed that every other group has similar problems.
Critical case sampling is preferred in cases where the study is restrained due
to limited resources. In such situations, it is a strategic move to opt for the
site that would yield the best information and have an impact on the findings.
Studying a few critical cases does not help in generalizing the findings, but
logical generalizations can be made from the evidence provided by such in-
depth study.

Some of the past qualitative studies that have used critical case sampling are
Crowther, Bostock and Perry (2015), Onwuegbuzie, Frels, Leech and Collins (2011),
Devine and Boyle, Boyd (2011), Devine Boyd and Boyle (2010), Davies and Drake
(2007), Drake and Davies (2006), and Melton, Nofzinger‐Collins, Wynne and Susman
(2005). By employing critical case sampling technique Devine and Boyle, Boyd
(2011) conducted in-depth interviews with public officials of Northern Ireland and
the Republic of Ireland. These participants were authorized to take decisions on
sports tourism. The purpose of the study was to explore the factors that strengthen the
relationship between public agencies who are engaged in sports tourism. Similarly,
Davies and Drake (2007) to understand how outsourcing home care strategies best

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 Sampling in Qualitative Research

align with the Best Value policy of UK, used critical case sampling to locate local
authorities and private providers who are involved in the outsourcing process.

• Snowball or Chain Sampling: This is the most common approach used

by researchers to locate information-rich key informants. By asking the
respondents who to talk with, the size of the snowball increases with the
accumulation of new information-rich cases. Recommended informants
provide the names of recommended respondents who are used in the study.
Peters and Waterman’s (1982) study Search of Excellence is one of the
prominent studies that used the snowball sampling technique by asking a
group of people to identify well-run companies.

Some of the qualitative research that have used snowball sampling are Melton,
Nofzinger‐Collins, Wynne and Susman (2005), Rutkow, Smith, Lai,Vernick, Davis
and Alexer (2017), Ravichran, Israeli, Sethna, Bolden and Ghosh (2017), Ramesh,
Ireson and Williams (2017), Chaudhary and Chaudhary (2017), Lee (2017), Kibirango,
Munene, Balunywa and Obbo (2017), Hidayat, Rafiki and Aldoseri (2017), Drum,
Pernsteiner and Revak (2017), Tam and Gray (2016), Dusek, Clarke, Yurova and
Ruppel (2016), Subramani, Jan, Batcha and Vinodh (2016), Kumar and Jauhari
(2016), Sepahv, Mousavi and Ouranji (2016). Using snowball sampling Kumar
and Jauhari (2016) located 192 respondents to explore the role of organizational
justice, learning goal, and need satisfaction in the relationship between participative
decision making and turnover intention of the employees. Similarly, using snowball
Chaudhary (2017) searched the employees to understand the influence of employees’
perception of corporate social responsibility on their work engagement level.

• Criterion Sampling: Criterion sampling reviews all cases that meet some
pre-determined, significant criterion and is generally used in quality assurance
efforts. Criterion sampling is used in studies that are information-rich and
may reveal major issues/weaknesses and provide areas for improvement.
Criterion sampling adds a qualitative aspect to a management information
system. It can be employed to identify cases from close-ended questionnaires
for an in-depth study. Some of the past qualitative work that has used
criterion sampling techniques are Hovland-Scafe and Kramer (2016); Dağ
and Sarı (2017); Hamilton, Worthy, Kurtz, Cudjoe and Johnstone (2016);
Hacieminoglu (2014); Arikan and Ozen (2015). For instance, Arikan and
Ozen (2016) use the criterion ‘possession of a mobile device’ to select
participants. The objective of the study was to provide insights into the
learning environment that uses tablets and quick response codes to enhance
the vocabulary of English language of students.

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

• Theory-Based or Operational Construct Sampling: Theory based

sampling is s formal and basic research version of criterion sampling. The
researcher samples events, timelines or people based on their research needs.
The sample is hence representative of the event. Scholars who have used
theory-based sampling technique in their studies are Pate (2006), Schneider,
French and Chen (2006), Hsu and Shyu (2003), Escudero-Carretero, Prieto-
Rodriguez, Fernández-Fernández and March-Cerdà (2006), Cruz, Bhanu and
Thakoor (2014).
• Confirming and Disconfirming Cases: During the initial qualitative
fieldwork, a researcher gathers data and allows patterns to emerge. After
a period of time, the exploratory process is taken over by confirmatory
fieldwork. The confirmatory phase tests the patterns evolved during the
exploratory study. This step tests ideas and checks the viability of findings
using new information. Skinner (1985) and Allan and Jenkins (1983) are
some of the scholars who have used confirming and disconfirming cases
sampling technique to choose respondents for their qualitative studies.
• Opportunistic Sampling: Qualitative research involves on-the-spot sampling
decisions that help collects data from new opportunities that arise during
the process of data collection. Qualitative designs involve taking advantage
of new opportunities after the fieldwork starts. It is not possible to record
everything that is observed, so the researcher needs to decide which events
to observe, what to analyze and what time period to use for data collection.
These decisions are not made initially but evolve during the study. Scholars
that have used opportunistic sampling techniques in their studies to select
information-rich cases are Williams, Kruse and Dorn (2016), Archibald and
James (2016), Murillo, Kenchington, Lawson, Li and Piper (2016), Kendall,
Macleod, Boyd, Boulanger, Royle, Kasworm and Graves (2016), Holt and
Powell (2015), Bradley and Griffin (2015), and Evans and Dowler (1999).
• Purposeful Random Sampling: Studies that use a small sample size do
not necessarily mean that sampling strategy should not be random. The
random sampling of small samples tends to increase the credibility of the
results (Patton, 1990). The credibility of random, systematic samples is
high. A small random sample is used by researchers for credibility and not
representativeness. A small purposeful random sample clarifies any doubts
regarding the reasons why a case is selected but does not allow for statistical
generalizations. Oladapo and Ab Rahman (in-press), Ly, Labonté, Bourgeault,
and Niang (2017), and Thompson Jr. (1973) used purposeful random sampling
in their studies to select participants relevant to their studies. To understand
the role of telemedicine as a strategy for healthcare support in underserved

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areas, Ly et al. (2017) used purposeful random sampling to select physicians

from government and district hospitals.
• Sampling Politically Important Cases: This sampling strategy requires
in-depth analysis of an event in order to gain attention and be used. The
researcher does not alter the image of the event/politics but simply studies it.
This sampling strategy increases the usefulness of such information limited
number of cases can be accessed. Wonka (2016) and Agné (2006) have used
a politically important sampling technique to select participants for their
studies.
• Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling refers to collecting data by
convenience: doing it fast and conveniently. It is one of the most commonly
employed sampling strategies as well as the least desirable (Patton, 1990).
Evaluators use this sampling technique as collecting sample this way is easy
and inexpensive. Though convenience and cost of high significance, they
should not be the first factor to be considered. The utility of such sample
should be considered as a primary factor. Convenience sampling is, therefore,
neither purposeful nor strategic (Patton, 1990, p 181).
• Combination or Mixed Purposeful Sampling: Researchers tend to estimate
an approximate sample size, but finally may end up with a random sample
that may be a combination of several sampling techniques. So, the above-
discussed approaches need not be mutually exclusive. Quinn (2016) and
Benoot, Hannes and Bilsen (2016) have used a combination of or mixed
method purposeful sampling to select participants in their study. Quinn
(2016) used a combination of typical case sampling and criterion sampling
and Benoot et al. (2016) used a mixture of intensity sampling, maximum
variation sampling and confirming/disconfirming case sampling to select
those participants who were the victims of sexual adjustment which in turn
has led to a cancer trajectory.

DATA SATURATION IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Decisions regarding the closure of further search of the sample in qualitative research
reside on two assumptions— data saturation and data sufficiency. The decision to
stop further data collection is guided by the purpose, quality, and synthesis of the
data collected by the researcher.

• Data Saturation: It is associated with the situation when a further collection

of data provides little in terms of ‘further themes, insights, perspectives or
information’ (Suri, 2011). In qualitative research open-ended, leading, and

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probing questions are used which leads to the generation of rich information
and data. Further, the sampling techniques in qualitative research are
purposeful in nature where chances of data saturation are very high, as the
researcher selects information-rich cases (Patton, 2002). Thus, when no
further new information generating researcher should stop data collection and
should look for selecting atypical cases to validate and give comprehensive
meaning to the findings achieved (Morse, 1991).
• Data Sufficiency: Paterson and her colleagues suggested that the data
collected in qualitative studies ‘should be sufficient to permit comparisons
among selected dimensions and constructs’ of the study (Paterson et al.,
2001, p. 37). Also, the results should be cohesive and reflect a synthesis
of other related works. As rightly noted by Suri (2011) that ‘the logic of
data sufficiency is guided by the synthesist’s perception of what constitutes
sufficient evidence for achieving the synthesis purpose’ (p.73). Lastly, the
researcher should also see that the data collected is sufficient to provide the
answer to the research question of the study.

SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION

Estimation of sample size in qualitative research depends on several factors. Morse

(2000) suggested that to reach a situation where data saturation point is achieved,
researchers should consider a number of factors such as the scope and nature of
the study, quality of data received, the amount of useful information obtained from
each respondent, the rounds of interview conducted per respondents, and the use
of shadowed data. These factors are discussed further:

• The Scope of the Study: The belief is that the broader the scope of the
research is the longer it will take to reach the saturation of data. Care should
be taken to narrow the topic of the study at the initial stage. But, it should not
be done at the expense of missing important aspects of the topic under study.
Narrowing the topic once the data collection is started will lead to biased
results.
• The Nature of the Topic: If the topic is familiar and clear, and the information
is easily accessible and available then fewer respondent will be needed. But,
if the topic is not obvious and unfamiliar, more respondents are required to
collect sufficient amount of data. Thus, one should make their topic clearer
and define it properly so that respondents can understand it easily and provide
more clear information.

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• The Quality of Data: The quality of data also guides on the number of
respondents required for the study. The quality of data depends on several
factors, for instance, whether the respondents have given sufficient time to
the interviewer and understands his objectives. Similarly, the ability of the
respondents to reflect and relate to the topic of the study determines the
quality of the data. The close association and experience of the respondents
on the phenomena also determines the quality of data. Thus, care should be
taken to select right informants and if the interviews results turn out to be
poor, strategies to conduct further rounds with new informants should be
planned. Also, researchers should try to be more probing without losing the
ethical considerations. Incomplete interviews can be supplemented with the
observation of the researchers but care should be taken to avoid personal
biases.
• The Shadowed Data: Sometimes participants along with their own
experience discusses the experience of others and how their own experience
differ or resembles from others, and why. The information reported about the
experiences of others is called shadowed data. Shadowed play a significant
role in the qualitative research as it provides the researcher with ‘some idea of
the range of experiences and the domain of the phenomena beyond the single
participant’s personal experience’ (Morse, 2000).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Qualitative research has always been the preferred method to explore new theories
and provide support to different phenomena. Both emic and etic perspectives are
provided through qualitative research. Sampling plays a crucial role in selecting the
information-rich cases. With the growth of research activity in recent years, each
topic tends to be examined by different researchers in diverse contexts, employing a
wide range of methods, invariably resulting in disparate findings on the same topic.
Making useable sense of such complex bodies of research can be an overwhelming
experience for most stakeholders. These stakeholders include policymakers,
administrators, educators, health professionals, funding agencies, researchers,
students, patients, various advocacy groups and the wider community. Research
syntheses can play an important role in disseminating research knowledge and in
shaping further research, practice and public perception. Hence, issues of ethical
representations (Suri, 2008) and methodological rigour in research syntheses are as
crucial as they are in primary research (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006)
There are several approaches to sampling. Each approach has a different purpose.
Samples have multiple purposes in the qualitative study and more than one qualitative

38
Sampling in Qualitative Research

sampling strategy can be employed. All such strategies may be used in the future
for analysis. There are other ways of collecting samples qualitatively, but they are
used to collect information-rich cases. Such cases are significant for the study and
may be analyzed in-depth. Sampling decisions are made after careful deliberations
regarding the evidence available, alternatives and limitations. The strategy should fit
the objectives of the study and within the resources of the researcher. The researcher
evaluates the best sampling strategy considering the relevance and credibility of
the study. The reasons need to be explicitly explained and any probable limitations
need to be chalked out. However, it should be realized that there is no ‘perfect
sampling strategy’.

CRITICAL QUESTIONS

1. How sampling of qualitative research varies from the sampling of quantitative

research?
2. Differentiate between theoretical and purposeful sampling.
3. Discuss different types of sampling strategies in purposeful sampling.
4. How is sample size estimated in qualitative techniques?
5. How is probing done in the qualitative method?

SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Answer 1: In qualitative research, samples are selected subjectively according to

the purpose of the study, whereas in quantitative research probability sampling
technique are used to select respondents.
Answer 2: Theoretical sampling is a part and parcel of grounded theory and
purposeful sampling is the sampling strategy used in other qualitative methods.
The initial stage of theoretical sampling has close resemblance with purposeful
sampling techniques.
Answer 3: Patton (2002) discussed 16 different strategies of purposeful sampling.
They are extreme or deviant case sampling, intensity sampling, maximum
variation (heterogeneity) sampling, homogeneous samples, typical case
sampling, stratified purposeful sampling, critical case sampling, snowball
or chain sampling, criterion sampling, theory-based or operational construct
sampling, confirming and disconfirming cases, opportunistic sampling,
purposeful random sampling, sampling politically important cases, convenience
sampling, combination or mixed purposeful sampling.

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 Sampling in Qualitative Research

Answer 4: Sample size in qualitative research depends on—data saturation and data
sufficiency. That is whether the collected data is sufficient enough to capture
the themes and theories of the study and whether no new information or theme
is emerging from the data.
Answer 5: Researchers use open-ended questions to collect in-depth information
about the issues of the study. Leading questions are used to fill the gaps in the
information and to encourage respondents to provide more information. The
researcher also tries to be sympathetic while handling sensitive issues and
shows interest to make the researcher comfortably.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Data Saturation: It is a situation which indicates that adequate data have been
collected to support the study.
Emic Perspective: Information or data from the perspective of the respondents/
participants of the study.
Etic Perspective: Information or data from the perspective of the researcher.
Information-Rich Cases: Information-rich cases are those respondents from
which researcher can obtain in-depth information about the issues of the research.
Purposeful Sampling: It is a non-probability sampling technique that is used in
qualitative research on the basis of characteristics of a population and the purpose
of the study.
Shadowed Data: It is the information provided by the participants, during
interviews, about the experience of their close associates which are related to the
issues of the study.
Theoretical Sampling: It is the process of collecting, coding, and analyzing data
simultaneously in the grounded theory method to generate a theory.

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