Leonardo da

Vinci obtained
the “Mona
Lisa” smile by
tilting the lips
so that the
ends lie on a
circle which

Unit touches the

outer corners
of the eyes.
The outline of the top of the head is
the arc of another circle exactly twice
as large as the first.

PLANE GEOMETRY
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
know more theorems special to triangles.
know basic theorems specific to quadrilaterals.
know theorems about circles and angles inside, on and outside a circle.
solve geometrical problems involving quadrilaterals, circles and regular
polygons.

Main Contents
6.1 Theorems on triangles
6.2 Special quadrilaterals
6.3 More on circles
6.4 Regular polygons
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 10

INTRODUCTION
Why do you study Geometry?
♦
♦ Geometry teaches you how to think clearly. Of all the subjects taught at high
school level, Geometry is one of the lessons that gives the best training in correct
and accurate methods of thinking.
♦
♦ The study of Geometry has a practical value. If someone wants to be an artist, a
designer, a carpenter, a tinsmith, a lawyer or a dentist, the facts and skills learned
in Geometry are of great value.
Abraham Lincoln borrowed a Geometry text and learned the proofs of most of the
plane Geometry theorems so that he could make better arguments in court.
Leonardo da Vinci obtained the “Mona Lisa” smile by tilting the lips so that the
ends lie on a circle which touches the outer corners of the eyes. The outline of the
top of the head is the arc of another circle exactly twice as large as the first. In the
same artist’s “Last Supper”, the visible part of Christ conforms to the sides of an
equilateral triangle.
Plane Geometry (sometimes called Euclidean Geometry) is a branch of Geometry
dealing with the properties of flat surfaces and plane figures, such as triangles,
quadrilaterals or circles.

6.1 THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES

In previous grades, you have learnt that a triangle is a polygon with three sides and is
the simplest type of polygon.
Three or more points that lie on one line are called collinear points. Three or more
lines that pass through one point are called concurrent lines.

Collinear points Concurrent lines

Figure 6.1

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

ACTIVITY 6.1
1 What do you call a line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to
the mid-point of the opposite side?
2 How many medians does a triangle have?
3 Draw triangle ABC with ∠ C = 90o, AC = 8 cm and CB = 6 cm. Draw the median
from A to BC . How long is this median? Check your result using Pythagoras
theorem.

4 Draw a triangle. Construct all the three medians. Are they concurrent? Do you
think that this is true for all triangles? Test this by drawing more triangles.
5 Is it possible for the medians of a triangle to meet outside the triangle?
Theorems about collinear points and concurrent lines are called incidence theorems.
Some such theorems are stated below.
Recall that a line that divides an angle into two congruent angles is called an angle
bisector of the angle.
A line that divides a line segment into two congruent line segments is called a bisector
of the line segment. When a bisector of a line segment forms right angle with the line
segment, then it is called the perpendicular bisector of the line segment.

Median of a triangle
A median of a triangle is a line segment drawn from any vertex to the mid-point of the
opposite side.

D
A

Figure 6.2

BD is a median of triangle ABC.

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Mathematics Grade 10

ACTIVITY 6.2
Copy ∆ABC in Figure 6.3.

A C

Figure 6.3

1 Construct all the medians of ∆ABC carefully.

2 i Mark the mid-point of BC as E.

ii Mark the mid-point of AC as F.
iii Mark the mid-point of AB as D.
3 Did the medians intersect at a point?
If your answer is yes, mark the point O.
4 Measure each of the following segments and determine the indicated ratios.
i a AO b OE AO : OE
ii a CO b OD CO : OD
iii a BO b OF BO : OF
5 How do you relate the ratios obtained in Question 4 above?
The above Activity helps you to observe the following theorem.

Theorem 6.1
2
The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point of the distance
3
from each vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.

Proof:-
Suppose AE and DC are medians of ∆ABC that are intersecting at point O.
(See Figure 6.4).

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Statement Reason
1 In ∆ABC, AE and DC are medians intersecting at 1 Given
point O.
2 Draw DE . 2 Construction
3 Draw EG parallel to DC with G on the extension of 3 Construction
AC
4 Draw EF parallel to AB with F on AC 4 Construction
5 Draw FH parallel to DC with H on AB 5 Construction
6 Draw line ℓ parallel to DC pasing through A. 6 Construction

7 AFED and CGED are parallelograms with common 7 Steps 3 and 4

side DE
8 Therefore, AF = DE = CG 8 Step 7
9 1 9 ∆ABC ∼ ∆DBE from
DE = AC = AF
2 step 1
10 AF = FC = CG 10 Steps 8 and 9
 
11 AG is trisected by parallel lines ℓ, HF , DC and EG. 11 Steps 3, 5 and 10
12 AE is trisected by ℓ, HF , DC and EG. 12 Step 11 and property
of parallel lines
B

D G
O
H C
F
A ℓ
Figure 6.4
1 2
Therefore, OE = AE , AO = AE.
3 3
2
You have proved that the medians DC and AE meet at point O such that OA = AE.
3
Your next task is to prove that the medians AE and BF intersect at the same point O.
With the same argument used above, let O ' be the point of intersection of AE and BF
2 2
whose distance from A is of AE that is AO ' = AE.
3 3
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Mathematics Grade 10

E
•
O'
A
F C

Figure 6.5
It follows that AO = AO ' and hence O = O′ as O and O′ are on AE.
Therefore, all the three medians of ∆ABC are concurrent at a single point O
2
located at of the distance from each vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
3
Example 1 In Figure 6.6, AN , CM and BL are medians of ∆ABC. If AN = 12 cm,
OM = 5 cm and BO = 6 cm, find BL, ON and OL.
Solution:
By Theorem 6.1,
C
2 2
BO = BL and AO = AN
3 3
2 2
Substituting 6 = BL and AO = × 12 L
3 3 N
So BL = 9 cm and AO = 8 cm. O•
Since BL = BO + OL,
OL = BL – BO = 9 – 6 = 3 cm. A B
M
Now, AN = AO + ON gives
Figure 6.6
ON = AN – AO = 12 – 8 = 4 cm
∴ BL = 9 cm, OL = 3 cm and ON = 4 cm
Note: The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of
the triangle.

Altitude of a triangle
The altitude of a triangle is a line segment drawn from a vertex, perpendicular to the
opposite side, or to the opposite side produced.
The altitudes through B and A for the triangles are shown in Figure 6.7.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

B A

C A C
C B A
Figure 6.7

ACTIVITY 6.3
1 What is meant by an angle bisector?
2 Any side of a triangle may be designated as a base.
How many bases may a triangle have?
3 How many altitudes can a triangle have?
4 By drawing the following types of triangle with their respective altitudes,
determine whether the altitudes intersect inside or outside the triangle.
a an acute-angled triangle; b an obtuse-angled triangle;
c a right-angled triangle.
5 Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the following triangles, and note
where the perpendicular bisectors intersect.
a an acute-angled triangle; b an obtuse-angled triangle;
c a right-angled triangle.
6 Draw any ∆ ABC. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB and
CB . Label their intersection as point O.
a Why is point O equidistant from A and B?
b Why is point O equidistant from B and C?
c Do you think that the perpendicular bisector of the side AC passes through
the point O? (Why?)
Activity 6.3 can help you to state the following theorem.

Theorem 6.2
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent
at a point which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.

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Mathematics Grade 10

Let ∆ ABC be given and construct perpendicular bisectors on any two of the sides. The
perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC are shown in Figure 6.8a. These perpendicular
bisectors intersect at a point O; they cannot be parallel. (Why?)
Using a ruler, find the lengths AO, BO and CO. Observe that the intersection point O is
equidistant from each vertex of the triangle.
Note that the perpendicular bisector of the remaining side BC must pass through the
point O. Therefore, the point of intersection of the three perpendicular bisectors is
equidistant from the three vertices of ∆ ABC.
B B

E E F

O O
• •
A C A C
D D
a b
Figure 6.8
Let us try to prove this result.
With O the point where the perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC meet, as
shown in Figure 6.8b, ∆AOD ≡ ∆COD by SAS and hence AO ≡ CO.
Similarly, ∆AOE ≡ ∆BOE by SAS and hence AO ≡ BO .
Thus, AO ≡ BO ≡ CO. It follows that O is equidistant from the vertices of ∆ABC .
Next, let F be the foot of the perpendicular from O to BC . Then, OF is the
perpendicular bisector of BC because ∆BOC is an isosceles triangle.
Therefore, the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of ∆ABC are concurrent.
Note: The point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle is called
circumcentre of the triangle.

Theorem 6.3
The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

To show that the three altitudes of ∆ABC meet at a single point, construct ∆A'B'C'
(shown in Figure 6.9) so that the three sides of ∆ A'B'C ' are parallel respectively to the
three sides of ∆ABC:

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Let EA , BF and C D be the altitudes of ∆ABC .

B
The quadrilaterals ABA'C, ABCB' and C' A'
AC 'BC are parallelograms. (Why?) D E
Since ABA'C is a parallelogram, AC = BA'.
(Why?) Again, since ACBC' is a parallelogram,
A C
AC = BC'. Therefore, BC' = BA' (Why?) and BF F
bisects A ' C ' .
Accordingly, BF is perpendicular to AC and so BF
is the perpendicular bisector of A ' C '. Similarly, one
can show that CD and AE are perpendicular B'
Figure 6.9
bisectors of A ' B ' and B ' C ' respectively.
Therefore, the altitudes of ∆ABC are the same as the perpendicular bisectors of the
sides of ∆A'B'C'. Since the perpendicular bisectors of any triangle are concurrent
(theorem 6.2), it is therefore, true that the altitudes are concurrent.
Note: The point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle is called orthocentre of
the triangle.

Angle bisector of a triangle

Theorem 6.4
The angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a point which is
equidistant from the sides of the triangle.

To show that the angle bisectors of ∆ABC meet at a single point, draw the bisectors of
∠A and ∠C, intersecting each other at O (Figure 6.10).
Construct the perpendiculars OA′, OB′ and OC ′ . B

Do these segments have the same length? Show B'

A'
that ∆OBB' ≡ ∆OBA' and conclude that O
∠ OBB' ≡ ∠OBA'.
C
Therefore, the bisector of ∠B also passes
through the point O. C'
Therefore, the angle bisectors of ∆ABC meet at a A
single point. Also their point of intersection is Figure 6.10

equidistant from the three sides of ∆ABC.

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Mathematics Grade 10

Note: The point of intersection of the bisectors of the angles of a triangle is called
the incentre of the triangle.
Example 2 In a right angle triangle ABC, ∠C is a right angle, AB = 8 cm and
CA = 6 cm. Find the length of CO where O is the point of intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of ∆ABC. B

Solution: The perpendicular bisector of CA is parallel to CB .

E O
Hence, O is on AB .
Therefore, AO = 4. (By theorem 6.2, AO = BO) C A
D
By theorem 6.2, O is equidistant from A, B and C Figure 6.11

Therefore, CO = AO = 4 cm.

Group Work 6.1

Work in a small group on one or more of the following
statements. There will be a class discussion on these facts, so
each one should be attempted by at least one group.
Task: Check that the following statements hold true for any type of triangle by carrying
out the construction carefully.
Materials required: ruler, protractor and compasses
Method: construction and measurement
1 The medians of any triangle are concurrent.
2
2 The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point the distance from each
3
vertex to the mid-point of the oppostie side.
3 The altitudes of any triangle are concurrent.
4 The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent at a point
which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
5 The angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a point which is equidistant
from the sides of the triangle.
6 Given any triangle, explain how you can find the centre of the circle:
a inscribed in the triangle (incentre).
b circumscribed about the triangle (circumcentre).

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Altitude theorem
The altitude theorem is stated here for a right angled triangle. It relates the length of the
altitude to the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle, to the lengths of the segments of the
hypotenuse.

Theorem 6.5 Altitude theorem

In a right angled triangle ABC with altitude CD to the hypotenuse AB,
AD CD
=
DC DB

Proof:-
Consider ∆ABC as shown in Figure 6.12 ∆ABC ∼ ∆ACD . . . AA similarity
So, ∠ABC ≡ ∠ACD
Similarly, ∆ABC ∼ ∆CBD . . . AA similarity
So, ∠ABC ≡ ∠CBD. C
It follows that ∠ACD ≡ ∠CBD.
By AA similarity, ∆ACD ∼ ∆CBD.
AD CD
Hence = … (∗)
CD BD
A B
AD CD D
Equivalently, =
DC DB Figure 6.12
The following are some forms of the altitude theorem.
From (∗), (CD)2 = (AD) (BD)
or (AD) (DB) = (CD) (DC)
This can be stated as:
The square of the length of the altitude is the product of the lengths of the
segments of the hypotenuse.
Example 3 In ∆ABC, CD is the altitude to the hypotenuse AB, AD = 9 cm and
BD = 4 cm. How long is the altitude CD ? See Figure 6.12.
Solution Let h = CD. From the Altitude Theorem, (CD)2 = (AD) (BD)
Substituting, h2 = 9 × 4 = 36 cm 2
So, h = 6 cm.
The length of the altitude is 6 cm.
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Mathematics Grade 10

Menelaus'' theorem
Menelaus' theorem was known to the ancient Greeks almost two thousand years
ago. It was named in honour of the Greek mathematician and astronomer Menelaus
(70 - 140 AD).

Theorem 6.6 Menelaus' theorem

If points D, E and F on the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of ∆ABC
BD CE AF
(or their extensions) are collinear, then × × = −1 . Conversely,
DC EA FB
BD CE AF
if × × = −1, then the points D, E and F are collinear.
DC EA FB

Note: 1 For a line segment AB, we use the convention: AB = −BA.

AF
2 If F is in AB , then = r > 0.
FB
In Figure 6.13, let D divide BC in the ratio r, E divides CA in the ratio s and F ′ divides
AB in the ratio t,
BD CE AF
i.e., r = , s= and t = .
DC EA FB C
We see from the figure that D divides BC and E
D H
divides CA internally, but F divide AB externally.
I
Assume that D, E and F are collinear. E

Draw AG , BH , CI perpendicular to DF . G

Then, ∆ CEI ∼ ∆AEG (why?), F B

A
CE CI CE CI
So, = ⇒− = . Figure 6.13
AE AG EA AG
Similarly, ∆AFG ∼ ∆BFH and ∆BDH ∼ ∆CDI
AF AG BD BH AF AG BD BH
So, = , = ⇒− = , − = .
BF BH CD CI FB BH DC CI
 BD   CE   AF   − BH  −CI  − AG 
Hence, rst =      =    = −1
 DC   EA   FB   CI  AG  BH 
 BD  CE  AF 
Therefore     = −1
 DC  EA  FB 

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

It is also possible for all three of D, E and F C

to divide their respective sides externally,
as you can see by drawing a figure. In this
case, r, s, t are all negative. Otherwise the
D
preceding proof will remain unchanged.
E
Therefore, rst = –1 in this case also. It is not
possible to have an even number of external
divisions, so rst = –1 in each of the possible
F′
cases. A B
To prove the converse of Menelaus' Figure 6.14
theorem, assume that rst = –1.

Extend DE until it intersects AB say at a point F'. Let r' be the ratio in which F ′ divides
AB , then r'st = –1 (Why?).
Hence, r' = r (Why?)
Since F is the only point that divides AB in the ratio r, F = F'. This implies that D, E
and F are collinear.

Exercise 6.1
1 In Figure 6.15, AD ≡ DC , AE ≡ EB, F is the intersection of CE and BD. Prove
1
that EF = EC.
3
A

A
R
E D B
F

B C P Q
Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16
2 In Figure 6.16, RP and RQ are the bisectors of the equal angles APB and AQB,
respectively. If RP = RQ, prove that A, R, B lie on a straight line.
Hint: Join P and Q.
3 If two medians of a triangle are equal, prove that the triangle formed by a segment
of each median and the third side is an isosceles triangle.
4 Prove that the segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and is half as long as the third side.
5 a Let A (0, 0), B (6, 0) and C (0, 4) be vertices of ∆ABC.
i Find the point of intersection of the medians of ∆ABC.
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Mathematics Grade 10

2
ii Show that the point obtained in i is
of the distance from each vertex
3
to the mid-point of the opposite side.
b Repeat 5a for ∆DEF where D (0, 0), E (4, 0) and F (2, 4) are the vertices.
6 In right angled triangle ABC shown in Figure 6.17, CD is altitude to the
hypotenuse AB . If AC = 5 units and AD = 4 units, find the length of
a BD b BC
B
B
D

4 h
h1
P h3
h2
A
C 5 A C
Figure 6.17 Figure 6.18
7 Altitude triangle for equilateral triangle: In Figures 6.18, ∆ABC is an
equilateral triangle with altitude of length h and an interior point P. Three
altitudes of lengths h1, h2 and h3 are drawn from P to the sides of the triangle.
Show that h = h1 + h2 + h3.
Hint: Compare the area of ∆ABC with the sum of the areas of
∆ APC , ∆ APB and ∆BPC.
In problems 8 – 10, the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, r, s, t have the meanings which
have in the statement of Menelaus' theorem.
8 In Figure 6.19, D and D' are symmetrical about the mid-point of BC. E and E', F
and F' are also symmetrical about the mid-points of their corresponding sides.
Show that D', E' and F ' are collinear if D, E and F are collinear.
A
F E'

F' E

B C
D D'
Figure 6.19

9 In the proof of the converse part of Menelaus' theorem, assume that DE meets

AB at some point F'.
 
a Prove that if DE // AB , then rs = 1.
 
b Prove that if rst = –1, then DE is not parallel to AB.
 
c Prove that if rs = 1, then DE // AB.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

10 In Figure 6.20 below, D divides BC in the ratio r and D' divides CB in the same
ratio r. E is the mid-point of CA . D, E, F are collinear and D', E, F' are also
collinear. Show that FA = BF'
C

D′
E
D

F′ A F
B
Figure 6.20

6.2 SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS

In this section, we consider the following special quadrilaterals: trapezium,
parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus and square.
Keep in mind the mathematical definitions of each of the above quadrilaterals.

ACTIVITY 6.4
1 Discuss parallel lines based on what you see in your classroom.
2 State the parallel lines postulate.
3 Discuss what is meant by “equiangular quadrilateral” and “equilateral
quadrilateral”?
4 Define the following quadrilaterals in your own terms.
a parallelogram b rectangle c square
5 What is an altitude of a parallelogram? A B

6 In Figure 6.21,
i indicate a pair of adjacent sides. D

ii indicate opposite vertices of the quadrilateral.

C
iii Join two opposite vertices. Figure 6.21
What do you call this line segment?
7 What is a diagonal of a quadrilateral? How many diagonals does a parallelogram
or rectangle have?
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Mathematics Grade 10

Trapezium
Definition 6.1
A trapezium is a quadrilateral where only two of the sides are parallel.
In Figure 6.22, the quadrilateral ABCD is a A B
trapezium. The sides AD and BC are non-
parallel sides of the trapezium ABCD.
Note that if the sides AD and BC of
trapezium ABCD are congruent, then the D C
trapezium is called an isosceles trapezium. Figure 6.22

Parallelogram
Definition 6.2
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides
are parallel.

In Figure 6.23, the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. A

B
AB // DC and AD // BC

D
C
Figure 6.23

ACTIVITY 6.5
1 Draw a quadrilateral ABCD. Let P, Q, R and S be the mid-points
of its sides. Check, by construction and measurement, that
PQRS is a parallelogram.
2 Draw a trapezium ABCD with AB = 2 cm, BC = DA = 3 cm and DC = 4 cm.
a Indicate and measure the base angles of trapezium ABCD.
b Draw the diagonals DB and AC and then measure their lengths. Also,
compare the lengths of the two diagonals.
3 Draw a parallelogram ABCD with AB = 3 cm and BC = 8 cm.
a Mark points on AB that divide it into three congruent parts. Through these
points, draw lines across ABCD parallel to BC . Why do these lines divide
ABCD into three smaller parallelograms?

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

b Mark points on BC that divide it into four congruent segments. Through

these points, draw lines across ABCD parallel to AB . How many small
parallelograms does this make?
c Draw the diagonals of all the smaller parallelograms and show that these
diagonals also form parallelograms.
Properties of a parallelogram and tests for a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram are
stated in the following theorem:

Theorem 6.7
a The opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.
b The opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.
c The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
d If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
e If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
f If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Proof of a and b:- B C

Given: Parallelogram ABCD
To prove: AB ≡ CD and BC ≡ DA

A D
Figure 6.24

Statement Reason
1 Draw diagonal AC 1 Through two points there is exactly one
straight line.
2 AC ≡ CA 2 Common side.
3 ∠CAB ≡ ∠ACD and 3 Alternate interior angles of parallel lines.
∠ACB ≡ ∠CAD
4 ∆ ABC ≡ ∆CDA 4 ASA postulate.
5 AB ≡ CD and BC ≡ DA , and 5 Corresponding parts of congruent triangles
∠ABC ≡ ∠CDA

Can you show that ∠BAD ≡ ∠DCB?

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Mathematics Grade 10

Proof of c:- B C
Given: Parallelogram ABCD with
diagonals AC and BD
intersecting at O.
O
To prove: AO ≡ OC and BO ≡ DO .
A D
Figure 6.25
Statement Reason
1 AB ≡ CD 1 Theorem 6.7a
2 ∠CAB ≡ ∠ACD and ∠ABD ≡ ∠CDB 2 Alternate interior angles
Hence,
∠OAB ≡ ∠OCD and ∠ABO ≡ ∠CDO
3 ∆AOB ≡ ∆ COD 3 ASA postulate
4 AO ≡ CO and BO ≡ DO 4 Corresponding parts of congruent
triangles.
Proof of f:-
B C
Given: A quadrilateral ABCD with
∠A ≡ ∠C and ∠B ≡ ∠D .
To prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.

A D
Figure 6.26

Statement Reason
o
1 m(∠A) + m(∠B) + m(∠C) + m(∠D) = 360 1 The sum of the interior angles of a
quadrilateral is 360o
2 m(∠A) = m(∠C) and m(∠B) = m(∠D) 2 Given
3 2m (∠A) + 2m (∠D) = 360o 3 Steps 1 and 2
4 m(∠A) + m(∠D) = 180o 4 Simplification
5 Therefore, AB // DC 5 ∠A and ∠D are interior angles on
the same side of transversal AD .
6 m ( ∠A ) + m ( ∠B ) = 180o 6 Step 2 and 4.
7 Therefore, AD // BC 7 ∠A and ∠B are interior angles on
the same side of transversal AB .
8 ABCD is a parallelogram 8 Definition of a parallelogram
Steps 5 and 7.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Rectangle
Definition 6.3
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one of its angles is a right angle.

In Figure 6.27, the parallelogram ABCD is a rectangle whose angle D is a right angle.
What is the measure of each of the other angles of the rectangle ABCD?
A B
Some properties of a rectangle
i A rectangle has all properties of a parallelogram.
ii Each interior angle of a rectangle is a right angle. Figure 6.23
iii The diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.
D C
Figure 6.27

Rhombus
Definition 6.4
A rhombus is a parallelogram which has two congruent adjacent sides.

A B
In Figure 6.28, the parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus.
Some properties of a rhombus
i A rhombus has all the properties of a parallelogram.
ii A rhombus is an equilateral quadrilateral.
iii The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each D C
other. Figure 6.28
iv The diagonals of a rhombus bisect its angles.

Square
Definition 6.5
A square is a rectangle which has congruent adjacent sides.

In Figure 6.29, the rectangle ABCD is a square. A B

Some properties of a square

i A square has the properties of a rectangle.
ii A square has all the properties of a rhombus. D C
Figure 6.29

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Mathematics Grade 10

Group Work 6.2

1 What are some similarities and differences between a

parallelogram, a rectangle and a square?
2 If ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = 3x – 4, BC = 2x + 7 and CD = x + 18, what
type of parallelogram is ABCD?
3 Discuss the relationship among the four triangles formed by the diagonals of a
rhombus.

Theorem 6.8
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are congruent and are perpendicular
bisectors of each other, then the quadrilateral is a square.

Proof:-
A B
Given: AC ≡ BD ; AC and BD are
perpendicular bisectors of each other.
To prove: ABCD is a square. •
o
Let O be the point of intersection of AC and BD .
D
Figure 6.30 C

Statement Reason
1 AC ≡ BD , AC and BD are 1 Given
perpendicular bisectors of each other.
2 AO ≡ BO ≡ CO ≡ DO 2 Step 1

3 ∠AOB ≡ ∠BOC ≡ ∠COD ≡ ∠DOA 3 All right angles are congruent

4 ∆AOB ≡ ∆BOC ≡ ∆COD ≡ ∆DOA 4 SAS Postulate
5 ∠CBD ≡ ∠ADB and 5 Corresponding angles of congruent
∠DCA ≡ ∠BAC triangles
6 BC // AD and AB // CD 6 Alternate interior angles are
congruent
7 ABCD is a parallelogram 7 Definition of a parallelogram
8 ABCD is a rectangle 8 Diagonals are congruent
9 ABCD is a square 9 Definition of a square,
AB ≡ CD and Step 4

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Exercise 6.2
1 ABCD is a parallelogram, P is the mid-point of AB and Q is the mid-point of CD .
Prove that APCQ is a parallelogram.
2 The mid-points of the sides of a rectangle are the vertices of a quadrilateral. What
kind of quadrilateral is it? Prove your answer.
3 The mid-points of the sides of a parallelogram are the vertices of a quadrilateral.
What kind of quadrilateral is it? Prove your answer.
4 Prove each of the following:
a If the diagonals of a parallelogram are congruent, then the parallelogram is a
rectangle.
b If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other and one angle of the
quadrilateral is a right angle, then the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
c If all the four sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is
a rhombus.
d The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
5 In each of the following statements, sufficient conditions to be a parallelogram are
stated. Prove this in each case.
a If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
b If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is congruent and parallel, then
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
c If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is
a parallelogram.
6 Draw a parallelogram ABCD. Extend AB through B to P so that AB = BP; extend
AD through D to Q so that AD = DQ. Prove that P, C and Q all lie on one
straight line. (Hint : Draw BD )
7 M is the mid-point of the side BC of a parallelogram ABCD. DM and AB
produced meet at N. Prove that AB ≡ BN .
8 If ABCD is a parallelogram with M and N the mid-points of
DC and AB respectively, prove that AM ≡ CN .
9 ABCD is a parallelogram with AD produced to F and CB produced to E such
that DF ≡ BE . Prove that AECF is a parallelogram.

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Mathematics Grade 10

6.3 MORE ON CIRCLES

In this section, you are going to study circles and the lines and angles associated with
them. Of all simple geometric figures, a circle is perhaps the most appealing. Have you
ever considered how useful a circle is? Without circles there would be no watches,
wagons, automobiles, steamships, electricity or many other modern conveniences.
Recall that a circle is a plane figure, all points of which are C
X
equidistant from a given point called the centre of the circle.
•
As you recall from Grade 9, in Figure 6.31, PQ is a chord of B
A O
the circle with centre O. AB is a chord (diameter) 
AXC is an Q
arc of the circle. P
Figure 6.31
If A and C are not end-points of a diameter, 
AXC is a minor arc.

∠BOC is a central angle. AXC or arc AXC is said to subtend ∠AOC or ∠AOC
intercepts arc AXC.

ACTIVITY 6.6
1 Draw a circle and a line intersecting the circle at two points and
another line intersecting at one point. Draw a line that does not
intersect the circle.
2 If the length of a radius of a circle is r, then what is the length of its diameter?
3 Referring to Figure 6.32, answer each of the following questions:
a Name at least three chords, two secants and two tangents.
b Name three angles formed by two intersecting chords.
c Name an angle formed by two intersecting tangents.
d Name an angle formed by two intersecting secants.

G
C

E B
K
F
J O
I

M L D
P H
Q A
Figure 6.32
4 Construct:
a a central angle of 75o in a circle. b a central angle of 120o in a circle.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

5 How large is a central angle that is subtended by a 3 cm chord in a circle of radius

3 cm?
6 What is the measure of a semi-circle as an arc?
7 Is the statement ‘the measure of an arc is equal to the measure of the
corresponding central angle’ true or false?

6.3.1 Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines

Intersecting Inside and On a Circle
R
We now extend the discussion to angles whose vertices do
not necessarily lie at the centre of the circle.
In a circle, an inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex •
P O Q
lies on the circle and whose sides are chords of the circle.
In Figure 6.33, angle PRQ is inscribed in the circle. We •
S
also say that ∠PRQ is inscribed in the arc PRQ and Figure 6.33 P
 ).
∠PRQ is subtended by arc PSQ (or PSQ
Measure of a central angle: Note that the measure of a • •X
O
central angle is the measure of the arc it intercepts.
 ). Q
So, m ( ∠ POQ) = m ( PXQ
Figure 6.34

Theorem 6.9
The measure of an angle inscribed in a circle is half the measure of the arc
subtending it.

B
Proof:-
Given: Circle O with ∠B an inscribed angle
intercepting 
AC . •
O
1
To prove: m ( ∠ABC ) = m ( 
AXC ) , where A C
2
X B
X is a point as shown in Figure 6.35. Figure 6.35
To prove theorem 6.9, we consider three cases. O
Case 1: Suppose that one side of ∠ABC is a
diameter of the circle with centre O. A C
X
Figure 6.36

247
Mathematics Grade 10

Statement Reason
1 Draw radius OB 1 Construction.
2 OC ≡ OB 2 Radii of the same circle.
3 ∠OBC ≡ ∠OCB 3 Base angles of an isosceles triangle.
4 ∠AOC ≡ ∠OCB + ∠OBC 4 An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles.
5 m( ∠AOC) = 2m(∠ABC ) 5 Substitution.
6 But m(∠AOC ) = m ( 
AXC ) 6 ∠AOC is a central angle.
7 2m ( ∠ABC ) = m ( 
AXC ) 7 Substitution.
8 1 8 Division of both sides by 2.
m ( ∠ABC ) = m(
AXC )
2
1 B
Therefore, m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC )
2
Case 2: Suppose that A and C are on opposite
sides of the diameter through B, as
shown in Figure 6.37.
A C
Y D X
Figure 6.37

Statement Reason
1
1 m ( ∠ABD ) = m (
AYD) 1 Case 1
2
1 )
2 m ( ∠DBC ) = m ( DXC 2 Case 1
2
1 1
3 m( ∠ ABD) + m( ∠DBC ) = (  )
AYD) + m ( DXC 3 Addition
2 2
1 4
4 ∴ m ( ∠ABC ) = m ( 
AXC ) Substitution
2
1 B
Therefore, m ( ∠ABC ) = m (
AXC )
2
O•
Case 3: Suppose that A and C are on the same
side of the diameter through B as shown
in Figure 6.38. • • C
D Y A X
Figure 6.38

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Statement Reason
1 )
1 m ( ∠DBC ) = m ( DAC 1 Case 1
2
1 )
2 m ( ∠DBA ) = m ( DYA 2 Case 1
2
1  ) – 1 m( DYA
)
3 m ( ∠ DBC) – m ( ∠ DBA) = m ( DAC 3 Addition
2 2
1
4 ∴ m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXC ) 4 Substitution
2
1 
Therefore, m ( ∠ ABC) = m ( AXC ) in all cases and the theorem holds.
2 P
 ) = 110o.
Example 1 In Figure 6.39, m ( PXQ
Find the measure of ∠ PRQ. •X
Solution: By theorem 6.9, we have R
Q
1  ) = 1 (110o) = 55o Figure 6.39
m ( ∠ PRQ) = m ( PXQ
2 2

Corollary 6.9.1
An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.

B
Proof:-
In Figure 6.40, ∠ ABC is inscribed in semi-circle ABC.
∠ ABC is subtended by arc ADC, which is a semi-circle. A • C
O
The measure of arc ADC is 180o or π radians.
D
1
By theorem 6.9, m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
ADC ) Figure 6.40
2
1 π
= (180o) = 90o or radians.
2 2

Corollary 6.9.2
An angle inscribed in an arc less than a semi-circle is obtuse.

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Mathematics Grade 10

Proof:-
B
1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m (  ADC )
2
But m ( 
ABC ) < length of a semi-circle C
A
 ) < 180o
m ( ABC
Therefore, ( 
ADC ) > 180
o
D
1 1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m (  o
ADC ) > (180 ) Figure 6.41
2 2
m ( ∠ ABC) > 90o. So, ∠ ABC is an obtuse angle.

Corollary 6.9.3
An angle inscribed in an arc greater than a semi-circle is acute.

Theorem 6.10
Two parallel lines intercept congruent arcs on the same circle.
E A F
E A F
A B

•O •O •O

C D
B C
D M P N G B H

a b c
Figure 6.42

Proof:-
To prove this fact, you have to consider the following three possible cases:
 
a When one of the parallel lines EF is a tangent line and the other BC is a
secant line as shown in Figure 6.42a.
 
b When both parallel lines AB and CD are secants as shown in Figure 6.42b.
 
c When both parallel lines EF and GH are tangents as shown in Figure
6.42c.
Case a:
 
Given: A circle with centre O, EF and BC are two parallel lines such that
 
EF is a tangent to the circle at A and BC is a secant.
To prove: 
AB ≡ 
AC

250
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Statement Reason
1 Draw diameter AD 1 Construction.
2 AD ⊥ EF and AD ⊥ BC 2 A tangent is perpendicular to the diameter drawn
to the point of tangency and also EF // BC is
given.
3  ≡ CD
BD  3 Any perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a
chord bisects the chord and the arc subtended by it.
4 
AB ≡ 
AC 4 
ABD ≡ 
ACD (semicircles) and step 3.
Proofs of case b and case c are left as exercises.

Theorem 6.11
An angle formed by a tangent and a chord drawn from the point of
tangency is measured by half the arc it intercepts.

P A
Given: Circle O with ∠ ABC formed by


tangent t and chord AB at B, the point of •
O
contact.
•X
•
Y



1
To prove: m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXB ) • t
2 B C




Figure 6.43

Statement Reason
1 Draw AP parallel to t. 1 Construction.
2 ∠ PAB ≡ ∠ ABC 2 Alternate interior angles of parallel lines.
1
3 )
m ( ∠ PAB) = 2 m ( PYB 3 theorem 6.9.

4  ≡ 
But PYB AXB 4 theorem 6.10.
1
5 ∴ m ( ∠ ABC) = m(
AXB ) 5 Substitution from steps 2 – 4.
2

Theorem 6.12
The measure of an angle formed by two chords intersecting inside a
circle is half the sum of the measures of the arc subtending the angle
and its vertically opposite angle.

251
Mathematics Grade 10

Proof:-
 
Given: Two lines AB and CD intersecting at P Y
inside the circle.
1 1 
To prove: m ( ∠ BPD) = m( 
AXC ) + m( BYD ). •
2 2 Z

Figure 6.44

Statement Reason
1 Draw a line through A such that AE // CD 1 Construction
Corresponding angles formed
2 m ( ∠ BPD)= m ( ∠ BAE) 2 by two parallel lines and a
transversal line.
1 )
3 m ( ∠ BAE) = m ( BDE 3 theorem 6.9.
2
4  
AXC ≡ DZE 4 theorem 6.10.
1 )
∴ m ( ∠ BPD) = m ( BDE
2
5 5 theorem 6.11.
1  1 
= m ( BYD ) + m ( DZE )
2 2
1 ) + 1 m (
6 m ( ∠ BPD) = = m ( BYD AXC ) 6 Substitution and step 4.
2 2
1
Therefore, m ( ∠ BPD) =  m (   )
AXC ) + m ( BYD
2   S R

Example 2 In Figure 6.45, m ( ∠ MRQ) = 30o, and

m ( ∠ MQR) = 40o.
M
Write down the measure of all the other angles in
the two triangles, ∆ PSM and ∆ QMR. What do
you notice about the two triangles?
P Q
Solution: m ( ∠ QMR) = 180o – (30o + 40o) (why?)
Figure 6.45
= 180o – 70o = 110o
1 )
m ( ∠ RQS) = m ( RS
2
1 )
Therefore, 40o = m ( RS
2
 ) = 80o
∴ m ( RS

252
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

1 )
m ( ∠ PRQ) = m ( PQ
2
1 )
Hence, 30o = m ( PQ
2
 ) = 60o
∴ m ( PQ
1 )= 1
m ( ∠ PSQ) = m ( PQ (60o) = 30o
2 2
1 )= 1
m ( ∠ RPS) = m ( RS (80o) = 40o
2 2
The two triangles are similar by AA similarity.
Example 3 An angle formed by two chords intersecting within a circle is 48o, and
one of the intercepted arcs measures 42o. Find the measures of the other
intercepted arc.
Solution: Consider Figure 6.46.
1 42o
) + 1 m (
m ( ∠ PRB) = m ( PB AQ ) (by theorem 6.11)
2 2
1 1
48o = (42o)+ ( 
AQ )
2 2 48o

⇒ 96 = 42 + m ( 
o o
AQ )

∴54o = m ( 
AQ )
Figure 6.46

Remark: The following result is sometimes called the product or rectangle

property of a circle.

If two chords intersect in a circle as shown in Figure 6.47, then (AP) (PB) = (XP) (PY).
Hint for proof:

1 ∠ XAP ≡ ∠ BYP and ∠ AXP ≡ ∠ YBP (why?)

2 ∆PAX ∼ ∆PYB (why?)
3 AP PX (why?)
=
YP PB
4 ∴ (AP) (PB) = (YP) (PX) (why?)

Figure 6.47

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Mathematics Grade 10

Example 4 In Figure 6.48, calculate the radius of the circle. C

Solution: Let the radius of the circle be r units long. A 2 B

4 P 4
Then, OD = r and PD = 2r – 2.
Since (AP) (PB) = (CP) (PD), you have •O

4 × 4 = 2 (2r – 2) r
16 = 4r – 4
r=5 D
Figure 6.48

Group Work 6.3

1 In Figure 6.49, AB and PQ are parallel, m (BOQ) = 70o and
O is the centre of the circle. What is the measure of ∠AOP ?
A
A B
D
O o
• 70 O•
P Q C B

Figure 6.49 Figure 6.50

2 In Figure 6.49, if PO = 5 units and m PQ ( )

 = 120 , find the length of PQ .
o

3 In Figure 6.50, if central angle ∠ AOB is a right angle.

a What are the degree measures of ∠ ACB and ∠ ADB?
b Find the degree measure of ∠CBO, if m (∠CAO) = 20°.

Exercise 6.3
1 In Figure 6.51, AB is a diameter. O is the centre of the circle. If OC // BD and
m ( ∠ ABD) = 60o, find m ( ∠OCD ).
C D
Y


o M L
60 N
A • B

•

O O


X


Figure 6.51 Figure 6.52
254
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

2 Prove that, if an angle inscribed in an arc of a circle is a right angle, then the arc is
a semicircle.
3
is an arc of 28o, and YN
In Figure 6.52, MX  is an arc of 50o.
a What is the degree measure of ∠ YLN ?
b If ML = 4 units, LX = 5 units and LN = 7 units, find YL.
4 In Figure 6.52 of Question 3, would it be possible for ∠ MLX to be a 30o angle

to be 40o? If so, what would be the measure of YN
and for the measure of MX ?
5 In Figure 6.53, O is the centre of the circle. If m ( ∠ AOB) = 40o and
m ( ∠ COD) = 60o, find
a m (∠ AQB) b m( ∠ APB)?
F P
C
B
Q
z
P M C
x y
A D
O

A E
Figure 6.53 Figure 6.54
6 In Figure 6.54, if m ( ∠ FAM) = 40 and m ( ∠ CPE) = 50o, what is the degree
o

measure of ∠ EYC ?
7 a In Figure 6.55, the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD lie on the circle O. Such a
quadrilateral is called cyclic quadrilateral.
i What is the sum of the measure of arcs ABC and ADC ?
ii Prove that opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

o
60
P
S
Figure 6.55 Figure 6.56
b In Figure 6.56, is there a circle containing P, Q, R and S?

255
Mathematics Grade 10

8 In Figure 6.57, find the values of x and y given that O is the centre of the circle
and m ( ∠ AOC) = 160o

x
R
S
s r
y
t 35o
U

40o
P Q
50o
Figure 6.57 Figure 6.58 Figure 6.59
9 In Figure 6.58, calculate the angles marked p, q, x and y.
10 Find the values of the angle marked x, y, s, r and t as shown in Figure 6.59.

6.3.2 Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines

Intersecting Outside a Circle
B
What happens if two secant lines intersect outside a circle? In
  A
Figure 6.60, AB and XY intersect at P outside the circle. They C

intercept arcs BY and AX. Draw the chord AC parallel to XY . P Y
X
Can you see that the measure of ∠ XPA is half the difference
between the measures of arcs BY and AX? Can you prove it? Figure 6.60

This is stated in theorem 6.13.

Theorem 6.13
The measure of the angle formed by the lines of two chords intersecting
outside a circle is half the difference of the measure of the arcs they
intercept.

The product property, (PA) (PB) = (PX) (PY) is also true B

when two chords intersect outside a circle. In this case, the A
proof is similar to the proof of the product property given
Y
in section 6.3.1. P
X
Draw AX and BY . Two similar triangles are formed. Figure 6.61
By considering corresponding sides, we see that
(PA) (PB) = (PX) (PY).
Can you point out the similar triangles, in Figure 6.61 and put in the other details?
256
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Theorem 6.14
The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant drawn to a
circle from a point outside the circle is equal to one-half the difference
of the measures of the intercepted arcs.

A
Proof:-
Given: Secant PBA and tangent PD intersecting at P. B •X

1
To prove: m ( ∠P ) = [m (   )]
AXD ) − m ( BD P
2 D

Figure 6.62

Statement Reason
1 Draw BD 1 Construction.
An exterior angle of a triangle is
2 ∠ABD ≡ ∠BDP + ∠DPA 2 equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles of a triangle.
3 ∠ABD – ∠BDP ≡ ∠DPA ≡ ∠P 3 Subtraction.
1
m( ∠ABD ) = m(
AXD ) and
2
4 4 theorem 6.9 and theorem 6.11.
1 
m( ∠ PDB) = m( BD )
2
m ( ∠ ABD) – m ( ∠ BDP)
5 1 1 5 Substitution.
= m ( )
AXD ) − m ( BD
2 2
1 1
6 ∴ m ( ∠P ) = m (  )
AXD ) − m ( BD 6 Substitution.
2 2

Theorem 6.15 A
If a secant and a tangent are drawn from a point C
outside a circle, then the square of the length of the
P B
tangent is equal to the product of the lengths of
line segments given by
(PA)2 = (PB) (PC). Figure 6.63

257
Mathematics Grade 10

Proof:-
Given: A circle with secant PC and tangent PA as in Figure 6.64
To prove: (PA)2 = (PB) (PC) C

Draw AB and CA . Then ∆PCA ∼ ∆PAB (show!) B O•

PC PA
Hence, = and (PA)2 = (PB) (PC)
PA PB P
A
Example 5 In Figure 6.65, from P secants PA and PC Figure 6.64

are drawn so that m ( ∠ APC) = 30o; chords AB and

A
CD intersect at F such that m ( ∠AFC ) = 85o. Find
the measure of arc AC, measure of arc BD and F D
measure of ∠ABC . C
B P
Solution: Let m (  )=y
AC ) = x and m ( DB
Figure 6.65
1 1
Since m ( ∠AFC ) = m (  AC ) + m ( BD )
2 2
1
85o = (x + y)
2
x + y = 170o . . . . . . . . . (1)
1 1
Again as m ( ∠APC ) = m (  )
AC ) − m ( BD
2 2
1
30o = (x – y)
2
x – y = 60o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Solving equation 1 and equation 2 simultaneously, we get
x + y = 170o
x – y = 60o
2x = 230o
x = 115o
Substituting for x in equation 2,
115o – y = 60o
y = 55o
Therefore, m (  o  ) = 55o.
AC ) = 115 and m ( DB
1 1
m ( ∠ ABC) = m (  AC ) = (115o) = 57.5o.
2 2

258
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

Group Work 6.4

1 AB is a diameter of a circle centre O. C is a point on

the circumference. D is a point on AC such that OD
bisects ∠AOC. Prove that OD is parallel to BC .
 
2 In Figure 6.66, suppose lines PA and PX are tangents to a circle. Prove that
1 1
m ( ∠APX ) = (measure of major arc AX) − (measure of minor arc AX)
2 2
1 1
or m ( ∠P ) = m ( ACX ) − m (  ABX )
2 2
Hint: Draw a line through A parallel to PX
A

C
B •
P O

X
Figure 6.66
3 Suppose a geostationary satellite S orbits at 35,000 km above earth, rotating so
that it appears to hover directly over the equator. Use Figure 6.67 to determine the
measure of the arc on the equator visible to this geostationary satellite.

X 11o
Q
Equator S
Satellite

Earth
Figure 6.67

Exercise 6.4
1 If the measure of arc AQ is 30o and the measure of arc BR is 60o, what is the
measure of ∠P ? Refer to Figure 6.68.
R
Q
•O
P
A B

Figure 6.68

259
Mathematics Grade 10

2 In Figure 6.69 AP is a tangent to the circle. Prove that ∠ CAP ≡ ∠ABC.
A

B
C
P

Figure 6.69

3 In Figure 6.70, CD is a diameter and AB is bisected by CD at P. A square with

side AP and a rectangle with sides C P and PD are drawn. Prove that the areas
of the square and the rectangle are equal.
C
A B
P
O

A P C

P D

Figure 6.70
  
4 In Figure 6.71, AC , CE and EG are tangents to the circle with centre O, at B, D
and F respectively. Prove that CB + EF = CE.

C D E

•
B O F
A G

Figure 6.71

5 Use the circle in Figure 6.72 with tangent PT , secants PE , PC and chord BD to
find the lengths of GB and EF and PT , if
CG = 4 units, GA = 6 units, DG = 3 units, PF = 9 units and PA = 8 units.

260
 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

B
C A P
G B
D F P
R
E A
T C Q

Figure 6.72 Figure 6.73

6 In Figure6.73, m(∠BPC) = 48 , m( ∠BRC ) = 68 and m( ∠BCR ) = 62o. Calculate
o o

the measures of angles of ∆ ABC.

7 The diagonals AC and BD of the parallelogram ABCD are of lengths 20 cm and
12 cm respectively. If the circle BCD cuts CA at F, find the length of AF .
8 In Figure 6.74, BP = 6 cm, DC = 10 cm and CP = 8 cm. Calculate the lengths of
the chord AB and the tangent PT .
A T W
Z
D
B
C Y
P X
Figure 6.74 Figure 6.75

9 In Figure 6.75, Y is the mid-point of XZ and WX is tangent to the circle. Find WX
in terms of XY. Explain your reasoning.

6.4 REGULAR POLYGONS

A polygon whose vertices are on a circle is said to be inscribed in the circle. The circle
is circumscribed about the polygon.
In Figure 6.76, the polygon ABCDE is inscribed in the circle or the circle is
circumscribed about the polygon.
Q
A
P
E
•O •O
R
D T
B
C
S
Figure 6.76 Figure 6.77
A polygon whose sides are tangent to a circle is said to be circumscribed about the
circle. In Figure 6.77, the pentagon PQRST is circumscribed about the circle. The circle
is inscribed in the pentagon.
261
Mathematics Grade 10

ACTIVITY 6.7
1 What is a regular polygon? Give examples.
2 Draw three circles of radius 5 cm. Circumscribe a quadrilateral
about the first circle, a triangle about the second, and a 7-sided
polygon about the third.
3 Circumscribe a circle about a square.
4 Draw a circle such that three of the four sides of a rectangle are tangent to it. Give
reasons why a circle cannot be inscribed in the rectangle of unequal sides.
5 Show that a circle can always be circumscribed about a quadrilateral if two
opposite angles are right angles.
6 Show that, if a circle can be circumscribed about a parallelogram, then the
parallelogram is a rectangle.
7 What is the measure of an angle between the angle bisectors of two adjacent
angles in a regular polygon of 3, 5, 10, n sides?
8 What is the measure of an angle between the perpendicular bisectors of two
adjacent sides of a regular polygon of 3, 7, 10, n sides?
9 Draw a square with side 5 cm. Draw the inscribed and circumscribing circles.

6.4.1 Perimeter of a Regular Polygon

You have studied how to find the length of a side (s) and perimeter (P) of a regular
polygon with radius “r” and the number of sides “n” in grade 9. The following example
is given to refresh your memory.
Example 1 The perimeter of a regular polygon with 9 sides is given by:
180o 180o
P = 9 × 2r sin = 9d sin , where d = 2r is diameter
9 9
= 9d sin 20o ≈ 3.0782d
Example 2 Find the length of a side and the perimeter of a regular quadrilateral with
radius 5 units.
180o 180o
Solution: s = 2r sin P = 2nr sin
n n
180o 180o
s = 2 × 5 sin = 10 sin 45o P = 2 × 4 × 5 sin = 40 sin 45o
4 4
2 2
= 10 × = 40 ×
2 2
∴ s = 5 2 units. ∴ P = 20 2 units.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

6.4.2 Area of a Regular Polygon A B

Draw a circle with centre at O and radius r. Inscribe in it a a

regular polygon with n sides as shown in Figure 6.78. r r
Join O to each vertex. The polygonal region is then •O
divided into n triangles. ∆AOB is one of them.
360o
∠AOB has degree measure . Figure 6.78
n
Recall that the formula for the area A of a triangle with sides a and b units long and ∠C
included between these sides is:
1
A = ab sin (∠C)
2
Hence, area of ∆AOB is
1 1 2 360o
A = r×r sin (∠AOB) = r sin
2 2 n
Therefore, the area A of the polygon is given by
1 360o
A = nr2 sin (why?)
2 n
Theorem 6.16
The area A of a regular polygon with n sides and radius r is
1 360 o
A = nr 2 sin .
2 n

This formula for the area of a regular polygon can be used to find the area of a circle. As the
number of sides increases, the area of the polygon becomes closer to the area of the circle.

ACTIVITY 6.8
A B
Square ABCD is inscribed in a circle of radius r.
a What is the measure of angle AOB? r
b Find the area of the square ABCD. •
O
c Find the area of the square, if r = 10 cm.
D C
Figure 6.79
Example 3 Show that the area A of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle with
3 3 2
radius r is r .
2

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Mathematics Grade 10

1 2 360o 1 360o
Solution: A= nr sin = × 6 × r 2 sin = 3r2 sin 60o
2 n 2 6
2 3 3 3r 2
A = 3r × = sq units.
2 2

Exercise 6.5
1 Find the area of a regular nine-sided polygon with radius 5 units.
2 Find the area of a regular twelve-sided polygon with radius 3 units.
3 Prove that the area A of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle with radius r is
3 3r 2
A= . Use this formula to find the area of an equilateral triangle inscribed
4
in a circle with radius:
a 2 cm b 3 cm c 2 cm d 2 3 cm.
4 Prove that the area A of a square inscribed in a circle with radius r is A = 2r2. Use
this formula to find the area of a square inscribed in a circle with radius:
a 3 cm b 2 cm c 3 cm d 4 cm.
5 Show that all the distances from the centre of a regular polygon to the sides are
equal.
s s
A 2 P 2 B

a C
r r
s
r
2
O • a
Q
s
r 2
D.
Figure 6.80
6 Use Figure 6.80 given above to prove the formula for the apothem a:
180o
a = r cos .
n
180o
7 Use the formula a = r cos to calculate the apothems of the following regular
n
polygons inscribed in a circle of radius 12 cm:
a triangle b quadrilateral c hexagon d nonagon.

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

8 Show that a formula for the area A of a regular polygon with n sides, apothem a
1
and perimeter P is: A = aP.
2
Use this formula to calculate the area of a regular;
a triangle b quadrilateral c hexagon d octagon.
Give your answer in terms of its radius.
9 a Show that another formula for the area A of a regular polygon with n sides,
radius r and perimeter P is:
1 180o
A= Pr cos .
2 n
b Show that the ratio of the area of two regular n-sided polygons is the square
of the ratio of their radii.
180o
c Use the formula for the apothem and s = 2r sin to show that the ratio of
n
the areas of two regular polygons with the same number of sides is the ratio
of the squares of the lengths of corresponding sides.
d Can you prove the result in c above without using any of the formulae of
this section?
10 A circular tin is placed on a square. If a side of the square is congruent to the
diameter of the tin, calculate the percentage of the square which remains
uncovered. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

Key Terms
altitude concurrent lines plane geometry
apothem Euclidean Eeometry product property
arc incentre quadrilateral
bisector incircle rectangle
central angle inscribed angle regular polygon
centroid major arc rhombus
chord median semi-circle
circle minor arc square
circumcentre orthocenter trapezium
circumcircle parallelogram
collinear points perpendicular

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Mathematics Grade 10

Summary
2
1 The medians of a triangle are concurrent at a point of the distance from each
3
vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
2 The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent at a point
called circumcenter which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
3 The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent at a point called the orthocentre of the
triangle. If points D, E and F on the sides BC , CA and AB respectively of ∆ABC
BD CE AF
(or their extensions) are collinear, then × × = −1. Conversely,
DC EA FB
BD CE AF
if × × = −1, then the points D, E and F are collinear.
DC EA FB
4 A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has only two sides parallel.
5 A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are
parallel.
6 A rectangle is a parallelogram in which one of its angles is a right angle.
7 A rhombus is a parallelogram which has two congruent adjacent sides.
8 A square is a rectangle which has congruent adjacent sides.
9 In a circle, an inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex lies on the circle and
whose sides are chords of the circle. A

1
10 In Figure 6.81, m ( ∠ APB) =
2
(
m 
AXB ) P •X
A

B
Figure 6.81 - X

11 An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle. |

P B
12 An angle inscribed in an arc less than a semi-circle is obtuse. Figure 6.82
13 An angle inscribed in an arc greater than a semi-circle is acute. B
C
1
14 In Figure 6.82, m (∠APB ) = m (
AXP ) . X • •Y
2 P
1  1  A
15 In Figure 6.83, m (∠BPD) = m( AXC ) + m( BYD ) D
2 2
and (AP) (PB) = (CP)(PD) Figure 6.83

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 Unit 6 Plane Geometry

16 In Figure 6.84: B
1 A
a ) − 1 m (
m ( BPD ) = m ( BD AC )
2 2 P D
1  ) − 1 m (QC
) C
b m ( DPQ ) = m ( DQ
2 2
c (PA) (PB) = (PC) (PD) •
Q
d (PQ)2 = (PC) (PD) Figure 6.84
17 The length of a side s and perimeter P of a regular polygon with n sides and radius
r are:
180 o 180 o
s = 2r sin P = 2n r sin P = ns
n n
18 The area A of a regular polygon with n sides and radius r is
1 2 360 o
A= nr sin .
2 n

Review Exercises on Unit 6

1 The points E and F are the mid-points of side AB and AD of parallelogram
1
ABCD. Prove that area (AECF) = area (ABCD). (See Figure 6.85)
2
D C

A
E B
Figure 6.85

2 Two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at right angles at a point inside a

 and 
circle. If m (∠BAC) = 35o, find the measures of ∠ABD, CB AD.
3 In Figure 6.86, O is the centre of the circle. Calculate x and y.
P C
y A B P
A
E r
•O D •
130 o
F O
A C Y
x X
B B
Figure 6.86 Figure 6.87 Figure 6.88

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Mathematics Grade 10

4  ) = 15 and m ( CD
In Figure 6.87, if m (∠A) = 10o, m ( EF  ) = 95o, find m (∠B) .

5 From any point outside a circle with centre O and radius r, a line is drawn cutting
the circle at A and B. Prove that (PA) (PB) = (PO)2 – r2, as shown in Figure 6. 88
6 Two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect when produced at a point P outside
the circle and PT is tangent from P to the circle.
Prove that (PA) (PB) = (PC) (PD) = (PT)2.
P
D
C B

A T

Figure 6.89
7 A chord of a circle of radius 6 cm is 8 cm long. Find the distance of the chord
from the centre.
8 M N is a diameter and Q R is a chord of a circle, such that MN ⊥ QR at L (as
shown in Figure 6.90). Prove that (QL)2 = (ML).(LN).
M C
6
Q R B
L 2
A
D
13

E
N
Figure 6.90 Figure 6.91
 
9 Secants CA and CE intersect a circle at A, B, D and E as shown in Figure 6.91. If
the lengths of the segments are as shown, find the length of CD .
 
10 AOB, COD are two straight lines such that AB = 20 cm, CD = 19 cm, AO = 6 cm,
CO = 7 cm. Prove that ACBD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
11 ABXY is a parallelogram of area 18 cm2, AB = 6 cm, AY = 4 cm and C is a point
on YX or extended such that BC = 5 cm. Find:
a the area of ∆ ABC b the distance from B to AY .
c the distance from A to CB

268