Water Quality and Irrigation Water Standards

Water Quality and
Irrigation Water
Standards
Prepared By: Samnan Kadri ( M.E.- W.R.E.)
(210280733002)
L.D. College Of Engineering,
Ahmedabad
FUNCTIONS OF IRRIGATION WATER:
2 7/2/2022 REFERENCE BOOK : IRRIGATION AND WATER POWER ENGINEERING BY B.C. PUNMIA
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION WATER:
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Literature review 1: INDEX-BASED ASSESSMENT OF SUITABILITY OF WATER QUALITY FOR
IRRIGATION PURPOSE UNDER INDIAN CONDITIONS
Journal: Environ Monit Assess

Publisher: Springer
Authors: Surjeet Singh & N. C. Ghosh & Suman Gurjar & Gopal Krishan & Sumant Kumar & Preeti Berwal.
Need of the study:

The present irrigation water quality standards being followed in India have been set by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) and Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in the year 2000. These standards are solely based on four parameters,
namely electrical conductivity, sodium percentage, sodium absorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate, which are quite
subjective and many times are not capable to exactly decide the quality of irrigation water particularly when there are large
variations in the source water quality.

Objectives of this research paper:
• In the present paper, an indices-based approach is presented for categorization of irrigation water quality.
• These indices are mathematical equations that transform water quality data into a numeric value, which describes
the quality of irrigation water. The proposed irrigation water quality index (IWQI), which is based on 12
parameters, classifies the water into five categories, viz. excellent, good, medium, bad, and very bad in the
same manner as given by the CPCB and CGWB. In order to give proper rating to various parameters of the
index, weights are computed using Saaty’s analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-based multiple criteria decision
analysis (MCDA) approach.
• This approach minimizes the subjectivity in assessment of weights and improves understanding of water quality
issues by generating an overall index to describe the status of water quality. The proposed index will be
beneficial for the water management authorities in ensuring safe water to the stakeholders.

Methodology
• The methodology for the development of water quality indices for irrigation is defined in brief as follows:
(i) Selection of water quality parameters,
(ii) Development of sub-indices function,
(iii) Assignment of parameter weights, and
(iv) Aggregation of sub-indices to generate an overall index.
(I) SELECTION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS:

• In India, CPCB and CGWB(2000) standards govern the quality of water for the irrigation use. Based on these
standards, four parameters, namely electrical conductivity, sodium percentage, sodium absorption ratio, and
residual sodium carbonate are considered to control the quality of irrigation water. For all these parameters, a
class categorization criterion is used to assess the quality of irrigation water into five classes. These classes
include excellent, good, medium, bad, and very bad.
• The classification criteria are presented in Table . In the present paper, the scope of Table is further extended
and a number of governing parameters are enhanced to 12. These parameters have been selected based on
natural and anthropogenic pollution, which include EC, Na%, SAR, RSC, pH, chloride, nitratenitrogen, boron,
arsenic, cadmium, fluoride, and iron. Sub-indices functions are developed for all these parameters.

Methodology
(ii) DEVELOPMENT OF SUB-INDICES FUNCTION :
• Sub-indices functions are the mathematical relations that transform the values of various parameters into indices
score.
• These scores are then converted to a common scale based on their relative importance to affect the irrigation
water quality.
• The sub-indices functions are then developed based on the irrigation quality standards given by CPCB and
CGWB (2000) and FAO (1985) and their concentrations to meet in a particular range. For this purpose,
mathematical expressions are fitted for each parameter to obtain the sub-index equations as given in Table 2
such that the corresponding variation between the ranges of parameters and indices is uniform to produce
reliable estimate of indices.

Methodology
(iii) Assignment of parameter weights:
• Since the quality of water for the irrigation use depends on several inter-related parameters, the assessment of
suitable weights is possible using a set of multiple parameters using a multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA).
The MCDA tools are widely considered useful in resolving conflicts related to the decision-making process
(Javanbarg et al. 2012).
• Saaty’s AHP (SAHP) is the most commonly used MCDA tool that uses hierarchical structures to represent a
problem and then develop priorities for the alternatives based on the judgment of the user (Saaty 1980).
SAATY’S AHP METHOD:
• The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is a multicriteria decision-making approach that constructs a matrix of
pair-wise comparisons between the factors responsible for any process. These factors are scaled from 1 to 9, 1
indicates that the two factors are equally important and 9 indicate that the one factor is more important than
the other. Reciprocal of 1 to 9 (1/1 and 1/9) shows that one is less important than the other is.
• Table describes Saaty’s rating scale and the allocation of the weights for the identical parameters depend on
their relative importance and participatory group of decision makers. In order to fill the comparison matrix, a
comparison of each parameter with all other parameters is done.

Methodology
SAATY’S AHP METHOD:
• Thediagonal elements of the matrix are always unity. If the judgment value in the comparison matrix is to the
left side of the diagonal element, then actual judgment value is used to fill the upper triangular matrix. If the
judgment value is to the right side of the diagonal element, then reciprocal is used. The lower triangular matrix
is filled by taking reciprocal of the upper triangular matrix. The comparison matrix is constructed by deciding
the relative importance of each parameter by an expert group of five members from the related research
area. In this manner, the whole comparison matrix is prepared.
• Making use of this comparison matrix, priority vector is computed which is the normalized Eigen vector of the
matrix. The priority vectors help to compute the weight for different parameters. In the present work, 12
parameters that govern the irrigation water quality are selected for construction of AHP matrix.

Methodology
(III) AGGREGATION OF SUB-INDICES—IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY INDEX:
• The indices developed above are on individual parameter based. One particular index is developed for each parameter.
To compute an overall quality index, the influence of each individual parameter needs to bring on a common single scale.
For this purpose, irrigation water quality index (IWQI) can be developed using a weighing scheme. In the present paper,
the following weighted average aggregation equation is proposed:
• where W is the sum of all the weights of water quality parameters (Σwi), wi is the weight of the ith water quality
parameter, and Yi is the sub-index value of the ith water quality parameter.

Literature review 2: IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY—A CONTEMPORARY
PERSPECTIVE
Journal: Water
Publisher: MDPI
Authors: Arindam Malakar , Daniel D. Snow , and Chittaranjan Ray.
INTRODUCTION:
• Irrigation is the controlled use of multiple water sources in a timely manner for increased or sustained crop production.
• Irrigation comprises of the water that is applied by an irrigation system during the growing season and also includes
water applied during field preparation, pre-irrigation, weed control, harvesting, and for leaching salts from the root
zone.
• Agricultural production of food needs to increase by an estimated 60% by 2050 to ensure global food security.
• Therefore, it is of utmost importance to access our current state of knowledge and explore the effects of irrigation
water quality on crops.
• Groundwater exploitation (withdrawal for irrigation) can release naturally occurring geogenic contaminants, such as
arsenic, from the solid phase to groundwater, while wastewater reuse can concentrate pesticides, pharmaceuticals and
other emerging contaminants in irrigation water.

CONVENTIONAL MEASURES OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY:
• Taylor et al. reported that irrigation water pH was one of the main factors for wheat growth in Punjab, India.
• A subsequent work reiterated that alkaline elements such as sodium play a crucial role in continued use of
water for irrigation of cropland and quantified the maximum amount that may be tolerated.
• The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) conducted further studies and reported that sodium, boron
and electrical conductivity are the best general measures for judging the suitability of water for irrigation.
• In 1967, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) developed a quantitative assessment of irrigation
water quality, including new formulas for maximum permissible quantity of chloride and electrical conductivity
based on infiltration rate, evapotranspiration rate, irrigation frequency and duration.
• Color, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), pH, specific conductance, odor and foam characterized the quality
of water.
• Colorless, odorless, foamless water with minimum turbidity, TDS below 1000 mg/L at circumneutral pH and
specific conductance below 1.5 mmhos/m is generally considered to be of good quality for irrigation purposes.
• A higher TDS is not recommended for most crops as it can impact the salinity of soil and pore water will
become highly concentrated when taken up by roots via osmosis.
• Excessive dissolved solids content, or salinity of irrigation water, has historically been the primary characteristic
determining water suitability for irrigation.

CONVENTIONAL MEASURES OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY:
• Colourless, odourless, foamless water with minimum turbidity, TDS below 1000 mg/L at circumneutral pH and
specific conductance below 1.5 mmhos/m is generally considered to be of good quality for irrigation
purposes.
• The proportion of sodium to calcium and magnesium is the primary factor controlling the hydraulic conductivity
of water in soil.
• Long-term irrigation of soils with elevated sodium concentrations relative to calcium and magnesium,
bicarbonate, carbonate, and TDS will be limiting soil aggregate formation, which reduces infiltration and
makes less water available to crops.

IMPACT OF CONTEMPORARY IRRIGATIONWATER QUALITY ISSUES ON SOIL AND CROP
QUALITY
3.1 Emerging Contaminants: Organic Pollutants
3.1.1. Pharmaceuticals:
• Plant uptake of a wide variety of pharmaceutical groups like NSAIDs, antihistamine, -blockers, calcium channel
blockers, antiepileptics, steroid hormones, antidepressants, antineoplastic agents, anti-itch compounds, x-ray
contrast agents, lipid-lowering agents, benzodiazepines, tranquilizers and veterinary drugs from soil and
contaminated water has been observed and studied.
3.1.2. Antibiotics:
• Recent studies have demonstrated that plants can take up antibiotics (like amoxicillin, ketoconazole, lincomycin,
oxytetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines).
• The implications to human health due to the presence of antibiotics in food crops is not clear, but other potential
adverse impacts include allergic reactions, disruption of digestive function and chronic toxic eects as a result of
prolonged low-level exposure.

QUALITY
3.1.3. Steroids:
• 17-estradiol, 17-estradiol, estriol, testosterone, androstenedione and progesterone that occur in animal waste and
wastewater have been documented as accumulating in soil.
3.1.4. Agrochemicals:
• Leaching of nitrate from fertilizer over application to groundwater below is well reported, and accumulation of
reactive nitrogen is also thought to initiate mobilization of other geogenic contaminants.
3.1.5. Cyanotoxins and Mycotoxins:

• Cyanobacteria also referred to as blue-green algae, naturally occur in all freshwater ecosystems [100]. Warmer
temperatures coupled with high nutrient concentrations are thought to favor conditions for algae blooms to form in
surface water.
• There is evidence for human health effects through consumption of plants contaminated with cyanotoxins by
irrigation using surface water sources impacted by cyanotoxins.
• Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal toxins (chemicals), which can cause a variety of adverse health effects
to both humans and livestock. A few mycotoxins are known or suspected carcinogens.
QUALITY
3.2 Biological Contaminants: Bacteria, Virus and Antibiotic Resistance
3.2.1. Pathogens:
• Pathogens are biological organisms that may influence modern-day irrigation water quality. Pathogen contamination is
generally related to surface water sources, but groundwater may also be under threat if it is recharged with
wastewater sources.
• Several different types of pathogens have been detected in diverse irrigation water sources including bacteria (e.g.,
Salmonella and Escherichia coli), protozoa (e.g., Cryptosporidium and Giardia), as well as viruses (e.g., noroviruses)).
• Subsurface drip may have the lowest risk as the water is generally applied at the root zone, unlike other methods (e.g.,
sprinkler irrigation) where the edible portions of crops can come in contact with contaminated water.
3.2.2. Antibiotic Resistance:

• Antibiotic resistance is defined as the sum of all genes directly or indirectly contributing to antibiotic resistance both in
the clinics and the environment . Aquatic ecosystems are regarded as a primary reservoir of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria (ARB) . Wastewater treatment plants enrich ARB and their resistance determinants as it favors exchange of
antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) among bacteria and selection of resistant strains.
• In a recent study, it was found that multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria were found to be more prevalent in surface
waters than in treated wastewater.
3.3. Inorganic Contaminants: Geogenic Source and Nanomaterials:

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Water Quality and

Journal: Environ Monit Assess

Need of the study:

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(I) SELECTION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS:

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SAATY’S AHP METHOD:

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SAATY’S AHP METHOD:

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3.1.5. Cyanotoxins and Mycotoxins:

3.2.2. Antibiotic Resistance:

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