IFUGAO STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Criminal Justice Education Ethics

CHAPTER I
Introduction to Philosophy

Learning Outcome:

1. Discuss the meaning of Philosophy

2. Identify and discuss the nature of Philosophy
3. Summarize the origin of Philosophy
4. Analyze the significance and value of Philosophy
5. Trace the origin of Philosophy
6. Differentitae the attitudes, significance, values and types of Philosophy
7. Compare and contrast the branches Philosophy
8. Difine Ethics and its importance

Lesson Proper

ntroduction
This module aims to analyze the nature of F and values in ethics. It discusses the in-
terplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or environment,
as well as the process of value experience, including the difference between values and
moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the nature of morality and the
mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature of mores, including
the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The module also examines
the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with the wide range of values and
moral values, including the nature and basis of the choices that we make.
Lesson 1
Introduction

This module aims to sketch the definition of philosophy as well as its major
branches. Specifically, it will address the quest for the concrete and subjective definition of
Philosophy deemed as the “queen of all sciences”. This unit will also introduce you the
nature and scope of philosophy and of its branches, as well as their primary concerns and
loci. It aims to lead you to an understanding of the uniqueness of philosophy in relation to
other disciplines in the academe and develop in you an appreciation of the significance of
philosophy not merely in your lives as students but in your struggle to become well-
integrated human person.

Defining philosophy demands not just a simple construct of ideas, but it requires a
reflective, contemplative, and concrete answer. Conventionally, the term “philosophy” is
defined as the love of wisdom. Primarily, philosophy is concerned with the questions of how
one should live or ethics, what sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures or
simply called as metaphysics, what counts as genuine knowledge and what are the correct
principles of reasoning and others. However plain and direct it is, it isn’t simply a matter of
knowledge and skill acquisition and understanding of the nature of life, knowledge, and

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reality in general, rather, it also includes any exercise of intelligence and validate the
trinkets of curiosity through the use of philosophical reasoning and reflective questions in
search for the absolute truth and in the quest of life’s meaning. Further, by curiosity, the
concern of inquisitiveness and interest are taken into paramount consideration towards
better understanding of things and of reality. Respectively, in the etymological framework of
the term “philosophy”, philo means “love” and Sophia means “wisdom”, hence, love of
wisdom. This is the gist by which philosophy is defined, though. In here, love is an
intellectual desire- a desire of the mind to continuously know and search for the truth.
Additionally, love simply means recognizing our emptiness in terms of knowledge, by
which it is the reason in order for us to perpetually search the truth—on which “truth”
refers to the quiddity and ‘why’ of things and the principles that govern reality. Similarly,
wisdom, however, requires more than just a bunch of acquired knowledge. It is a knowledge
that involves understanding the value of one’s knowledge and realizing the implications of
one’s knowledge and its uses for oneself and others with some purpose or value in mind.
This paradigm demonstrates the inseparableness of love and wisdom and the sense of
philosophy in general- to have passion and commitment to the pursuit and seizing the
truth.

Traditionally, however, philosophy is defined as a science that studies beings in their

ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of human reason alone. And when
we speak of “being” or “beings” in philosophy in this context, we mean all things that exist,
material or immaterial. An example of beings are “stones”, “trees”, “persons”, “cars”, air,
water; and the notions of “God”, “soul”, “spirit”. All of these are beings, and philosophy
studies their ultimate causes, reason, and principles through the aid of reason alone.
In other words, philosophy is concerned with the reason and principles that account for
everything that exists. Thus, some of the basic questions in philosophy are:
a. What is the origin of the world, of everything that exists?
b. Why do these things exist, rather than not exist at all?
c. Is there God? If so, how can we justify the goodness of God in the face of evil?
d. What is the meaning and purpose of life? Why do we have to suffer?
If one is suffering from an unbearable pain, such as cancer, is it morally right to
resort to euthanasia or assisted suicide? These are just some of the questions that
philosophy attempted to address. And in doing so, philosophy uses reason as a tool, which
can be expressed in many forms, such as the ability to reflect, question, articulate one’s
thought, and analyze certain phenomenon or event. In short, philosophy attempts to
understand things in a critical and logical manner.
It is important to note, however, that philosophers do not agree on a single definition
of philosophy. In fact, philosophers differ in their basic understanding of philosophy. For
example, Karl Jaspers, a famous German existential philosopher, understands philosophy

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as a discipline in which questions are more important than answers because answers
themselves will, in turn, become questions.
There are various desirable descriptions of Philosophy. These are as follows:
a. Philosophy is a search for meaning or a quest for understanding.
b. Philosophy is a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths.
c. Philosophy is a study of principles of conduct.
d. Philosophy seeks to establish standards of evidence to provide rational methods of
resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments.
e. Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other
individuals and other cultures.
f. Philosophy enhances one's ability to perceive the relationships among the various
fields of study.
g. Philosophy deepens one's sense of the meaning and variety of human experience.

Every aspect of human experience brings out questions to which its techniques and
theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of
any vocation. Indeed, Philosophy is in a sense inescapable since life confronts every
thoughtful person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by
philosophical assumptions. To a large extent one can choose how reflective one will be in
clarifying and developing one's philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is for
the philosophical questions life presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-
solving capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive
powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence
impoverishes many lives such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many
different kinds of people, lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation 'of
human behavior, and intellectual zest. In these and other ways, the study of philosophy
contributes immeasurably in both academic and other endeavors in life, (Serrano & Placido
2017).
Lesson 2 - What are the major branches of Philosophy?
After addressing the question “what is philosophy?”, let us now discuss the major
branches of philosophy. Philosophy is normally divided into four major branches, namely:
Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic, and Ethics.
1. Metaphysics
Metaphysics comes from the two Greek words meta, which means “beyond” or “after”
and physika, “physical” or “nature”. Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics means
the study of things beyond the physical, that is, concepts or things that cannot be
experienced, such as the concepts of God, freedom, and soul.
Metaphysics is commonly understood as the foundation of philosophy. In fact,
Aristotle calls it the “first philosophy”. Originally, the Greek word metaphysika, which

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literally means “after physics”, actually designated that part of Aristotle’s works, which
came after those chapters that dealt with physics. However, it was misappropriated later by
the Medieval commentators on classical texts as that which is beyond the physical. Thus,
over time, metaphysics has been understood as the study of that which exists beyond the
physical. Metaphysics is subdivided into two, namely, General Metaphysics and Special
Metaphysics. General Metaphysics is also referred to as Ontology. Under Special
Metaphysics, we have Cosmology, Psychology or Anthropology, and Natural Theology or
Theodicy.
Ontology is derived from the two Greek words onto, which means “being” or “that
which is”, that is, everything that exists; and logos, which means “knowledge” or “study”.
(Note, however, that the term logos in ancient Greek scholarship have different
connotations. For example, Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE,
understands Logos as reason or the underlying principle of all that is.) Ontology, therefore,
is the specific branch of philosophy that studies beings in their ultimate causes, reasons,
and principles through the aid of reason alone. In other words, Ontology studies the first
principles or the essence of all things.
Some of the basic questions in ontology are:
a. What is being?
b. Why do things exist, rather than not exist at all?
c. What is the meaning and nature of reality?
d. What is the underlying principle of all that exist?
e. Is there nothing?

The following are categories of special metaphysics:

1. Cosmology, from the Ancient Greek words kosmos, which means the “world” and
logos, meaning “study”, is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that studies the world (or
universe), including its origin, dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws that
govern its order.
Some of the basic questions in cosmology are:
a. What is the origin of the world?
b. What is the basic material of which the world is formed?
c. How do things arise?
d. In what consists its (the world) fundamental form or principle of order?
e. Is the world or universe infinite?

2. Psychology comes from the two Greek words psyche, which means “soul” (but
loosely understood as mind) and logos, study. Thus, psychology is the specific sub-branch
of philosophy that studies the soul or mind. Broadly constructed, though, psychology is the

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study of the nature and dynamics of the human person as a whole, with emphasis on the
way the person’s mind functions and the way she behaves.
Some of the questions in psychology are:
a. What is the nature of the human person?
b. Is there such thing as human nature?
c. What is the meaning and purpose, if any, of life?
d. Is there life after death?
e. How do we account for the existence of sufferings in the world?

3. Theodicy (Natural theology) is derived from the Greek word theos, which means
God. The word theodicy was coined by the famous 18th century German philosopher
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in his 1710 work titled Théodicée. Broadly construed, Theodicy is
the study of God. But specifically, Theodicy is concerned with the justification of the
goodness of God in the face of the existence of evil in the world.
Some of the questions in Theodicy are:
a. Is there God?
b. What and who is God, if He exists at all?
c. How do we prove the existence of God?
d. If God exists, how do we justify the existence of evil and suffering in the world?
e. Does a belief in God really necessary?

2. Epistemology
Epistemology comes from the two Greek words episteme, which means knowledge,
and logos which means study. It is formally defined as the study of the nature and scope of
knowledge and justified belief. Specifically, it analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it
relates to similar notions, such as truth, belief, and justification.
Some of the basic questions in epistemology are:
a. What is knowledge?
b. What do we know?
c. How is knowledge acquired?
d. What is the structures and limits of knowledge?
e. What makes justified beliefs justified?

3. Logic

The third major branch of philosophy is Logic. Logic comes from the Greek word
logos, which, as I already mentioned, has different meanings. It is defined as the science of
correct thinking or the study of the principles and criteria of a valid argument. More

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specifically, logic attempts to distinguish sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad
reasoning.
Some of the basic questions in logic are:
a. What is correct reasoning?
b. What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
c. How can we detect a fallacy in an argument?
d. What are the criteria for determining the validity of an argument?
e. What are the types of logic?

4. Ethics

Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or habit.
Broadly construed, ethics is the morality of human actions. Ethics, therefore, is concerned
with questions of how human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a
right conduct and the good life. It is important to note that ethics is not the same with
morality. This is because ethics denotes the theory of right action and the greater good,
while morality indicates practice, that is, the rightness or wrongness of a human action.
Some of the questions in ethics are:
a. What is a right conduct as that which causes the realization of the greatest good?
b. How do we determine a right conduct? In other words, what makes a right
conduct right?
c. What is a good life and can we attain it?
d. What is the difference between human act and actions that are based on instinct?
e. What do people think is right?

Approaches or divisions of Ethics

1. Normative Ethics - it takes more practical task, which is to arrive at moral

standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. It also includes a consideration of the
importance of human freedom, and a discussion of the limits of a human’s responsibility
for moral decisions and for the consequences of actions. This is the traditional way of doing
ethics.

2. Metaethics - investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they
mean. It focuses on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in
ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves.

3. Applied Ethics - involves examining specific controversial issues, such as

abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital
punishment, or nuclear war.

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Lesson 3 - Ethics in Relation to Philosophy (Serrano & Placido, 2017)

Ethics as one of the major branches of Philosophy, is sometimes referred to as Moral
Philosophy. It should be noted that Philosophy, in general, considers reflection as an
indispensable method of philosophizing. Without undergoing reflection, any philosophical
endeavour would be considered as lame and blind. In Ethics, as an important part of
Philosophy, we are invited and challenged to reflect on how we ought to make our existence
meaningful guided by various ethical theories and principles
Ethics, then, as Philosophy, can deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions
about life: its main purpose, its proper importance, its real value, and its right direction.
When we engage in Philosophy, we learn proper and important intellectual skills. We
develop how to think rigorously about fundamental questions; understand and evaluate
conflicting views; express ideas clearly and consistently; and reason out in the proper way.
Ethics also offers us better perspectives for thinking, expressing and acting especially when
we are confronted with ethical dilemmas and moral issues.
Paul Tillich, a theologian and: a philosopher, emphasized that goodness without
knowledge is weak; knowledge without goodness is dangerous. Before we can build a better
and just society, we first need to build a better man. All that is necessary for the triumph of
evil is that good people do nothing. Our purpose is not to make a living but a worthy, well-
rounded, and useful life. Ethics is not just a subject; it is a life in itself as genuine
philosophy is all about life.
Lesson 4 - Importance of Philosophy
Much of what is contributed by philosophy can be applied in virtually any endeavour.
This is so because philosophy touches on so many subjects and, especially, because many
of its methods and ideas are functional and useful in any field.
The following are some of the importance and uses of Philosophy:
1. For acquiring persuasive powers
2. For better communication skills
3. For enhancing better writing skills
4. For Problem-solving

Lesson 5 - Early Philosophers

1. ARISTOTLE ON ETHICS
Aristotle arrives at the idea that “the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue” is
the best life for human beings through the “human functions” argument. If, says Aristotle,
human beings have a function or work (ergon) to perform, then we can know that

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performing that function well will result in the best part of life. The work or function of an
eye is to see and to see well. Just each part of the body has a function, says Aristotle, so
too must the human being as a whole have a function. This is an argument by analogy. The
function of human being is logos or reason, and the more thoroughly one lives the life of
reason, the happier one’s life will be (Kraut, 2014).

So, the happiest life is a practice of virtue, and this is practiced under the guidance
of reason. Example of caracter virtues would be courage, temperance, liberality, and
magnanimity (Roty, 1984). One must habitually practice this virtues inorder to be
courageous, temperate and so forth.

Friendship is also necessary part of the happy life. There are three types of
friendship: 1.) friendship of excellence, a mark of good friendship is that friends “live
together” that is that friends spend a substantial amount of time together, since a
substantial time apart will likely weaken the bond of friendship. 2.) friendship of
pleasure, the most changeable form of friendship since the things we find pleasurable or
useful tend to change over lifetime. 3.) friendship of utility, if the frienship is merely one
of utility, then that friendship will likely dissolve when it is no longer useful.

Aristotle also made mention of telos. A telos is derived from the Greek word for
“end”, “purpose”, or “goal”. It is an end of purpose, in a fairly constrained sense used by
philosophers such as Aristotle. It is the root of the term “teology”, roughly the study of
purposiveness, or the study of objects with the view to their aims, purposes, or intentions.

2. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS ON VIRTUE

Thomas’ broad account of virtues as excellences or perfections of the various human

powers formally echoes Aristotle, both with regard to the nature of a virtue and many
specific virtues.

The moral Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) involves a merger or at

least two apparently disparate traditions: Aristotelian eudaimonism and Christian theory.
On the one hand, Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or bad depending
on whether it contributes to or deters us from our proper human end-the telos or final goal
at which all human actions aim. That telos is eudaimonia, or “happiness”, is understood
in terms of completion , perfection, or well-being. Achieving happiness, however, requires a
range of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to understand the nature of
happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent way.

On the other hand, Aquinas believes that we ca never achieve complete or final
happiness in this life. For him, final happiness consists in beatitude, or supernatural union
with God.

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The two-fold distinction of happiness:

1. Natural Virtues - pertains to the happiness of this life that is “proportionate” to human
nature. And it is divided into:

A. Moral virtues - are the habits that perfect the various powers concerned with
human appetites, including rational appetite, conferring upon them an aptness for the
right use of those appetites (Hankley, 1987).

B. Intellectual Virtues - perfect the intellect and confer an aptness for the good
work of the intellect which is the apprehension of truth.

The cardinal natural virtues are Prudence - is an intellectual virtue since it bears upon the
goal of truth in the good ordering of action. Justice - it is a virtue of the rational appetite or
will, Courage - in addition, because there are two specific powers of the generic sensitive
appetite, the concupiscent and the irascible, and courage pertains to irascible and
Temperance - pertains to concupiscent.

2. Theological Virtues - pertains to the beatitudo that is not appropriate to human

nature, the supernatural life with God. This also pertains to Faith, Hope, and Love.
They bear upon eternal beatitude and are simply infused by God’s gift or grace. They
ca not be acquired by human effort.

In addition, the infused natural virtues spring from Charity as its effects, and thus
bear upon its object, which is the love of God and the love of neighbor in God. A primary
example for Thomas is Misericordia which is the virtue that pertains to sufferring with
others and acting to alleviate their suffering. Thomas explicitly but unconvincingly claims
that Aristotle recognized it.

3. THALES – He proposed that everything could be explained in terms of “WATER”. That in

every change there is always the component of ‘WATER” in it (a universal solvent)

4. ANAXIMANDER – He proposed the “APEIRON” or the UNLIMITED or INDETERMINATE.

This is in disagreement with Thales because he observed that in the case of things that are
dry water could not be the ultimate cause. It is this INDETERMINATE that encompasses
everything which cannot be experienced by itself. What is distinct here is that Anaximander
moves beyond sense of perception.

5. ANAXIMENES – He rejects the “unlimited” of Anaximander with the reason that we

cannot say any definite thing about such a principle even if it is the principle of sensible
reality. He then proposed ‘AIR’ because like water, it has the capacity to take different
forms of material expression. But more importantly, AIR gives life to living beings and is the

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formative force breathes existence to inanimate beings. Anaximenes explains that

individual things are distinguishable through the process of condensation or rarefaction of
air. Very fine air is fire; very condensed air is stone; wind, clouds, water and earth (this
order gives the stages that indicate increasing condensation)

6. HERACLITUS – believed that to see the world in terms of its constant patterns of change
is central.

7. DEMOCRITUS – suggested that the world is composed of ATOMS.

8. PYTHAGORAS – claimed that everything is ultimately mathematical, orderly and

harmonic (INCLUDING THE SOUL) .

9. PARMINEDES and his student ZENO – argued that only that which is UNCHANGING is
really real, so that changing sensible world is unreal.

*** What is very important to note is the development from Thales to Anaximenes (and the
other thinkers). Thales focuses on the natural rather than the supernatural explanation
and he suggests that reality is different from appearance. Anaximander moves beyond
Thales for he describes ultimate reality is an abstract manner, in terms not tied to our
sensible experience. Anaximenes, on the otherhand has two significant advances. First his
doctrine of condensation and rarefaction makes things quantifiable and provide a
mathematical basis of talking about nature. Second,
living beings are distinguished from inanimate beings by virtue of rarefaction of air that
defines them, not some supernatural soul or mystical force; and the condensation and
rarefaction of air is what explain their activity……. All these thinkers gave a RATIONAL
rather than a mythical explanation of reality and this makes them philosophers.

CHAPTER 2
THE MORAL AGENT

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

1. Recall rules they have to follow;

2. Explain why they have to follow rules;
3. Explain the difference between the moral and non-moral standards;
4. Detect a moral dilemma; and
5. Explain why only human beings can be ethical

Lesson Proper

Introduction

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ntroduction
This module aims to analyze the nature of mores and values in ethics. It discusses the in-
terplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or environment,
as well as the process of value experience, including the difference between values and
moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the nature of morality and the
mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature of mores, including
the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The module also examines
the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with the wide range of values and
moral values, including the nature and basis of the choices that we make.
The term moral agency is used with different degrees of stringency depending upon
what one regards as its qualifying conditions. The Kantian sense is the most stringent.
Since there are different senses of moral agency, answers to questions like ‘Are collective
moral agents?’ depend upon which sense is being used. From the Kantian standpoint,
agents such as psychopaths, rational egoists, collectives and robots are the best only quasi-
moral, for they do not fulfill some of the essential conditions of moral agency. Kantian (“are
the set of universal moral principles that apply to all human beings, regardless of context
or situation. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, calls the principles Categorical
Imperatives, which are defined by their morality and level of freedom”).

This chapter will try to discuss why rules are very important?, why do we have
rules?, key concepts of moral agent, key features of morality, man as moral agent, and
what are the standards and dilemmas.

Lesson 1
Key Content

Lesson 1.1 What is MORALITY?

Morality can be defined as the standards that an individual or a group has about
what is right or wrong, or good or evil. Morality is not imposed from outside, but innate and
can even be unconscious. We have a fundamental urge to connect. Ultimately, it’s our
moral qualities that force us to live in harmony with the unconscious; doing so is the
highest form of morality.

Morality is an informal public system applying to all rational persons, governing

behavior that affects others, and has the lessening of evil or harm as its goal. It is also a
complex concepts and philosophical beliefs by which an individual determines whether his
or her actions are right or wrong. A “moral” may refer to a particular principle, usually as
informal and general summary of a moral principle, as applied in a given human situation
(Darwall, 2006).

Lesson 1.2 Key Features of Morality

To understand morality in its true sense, let us identify the six (6) features:

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1. People experience a sense of moral obligation and accountability. One can not
doubt successfully a phenomenon of his own existence - namely, his moral
experience. Even the secularists like Kai Nielsen recommend that one “ought to” act
or follow some rules, policies, practices, or principles (Neilsen, 1973)

2. Moral values and moral absolutes exist. It is hard to deny the objective reality of
moral values - actions like rape, torture, and child abuse are not just socially
unacceptable behavior but are moral abominations. (Craig, 1994). Some actions are
really wrong in the same way that some things like love and respect are truly good.
There are moral absolutes-truths that exist and apply to everyone.

3. Moral law does exist. When we accept the existence of goodness, we must a firm
a moral law on the basis of which to differentiate between good and evil.

4. Moral law is known to humans. Moral law is also called Law of Nature because
early philosophers thought that generally speaking, everybody knows it by nature.

5. Morality is objective. Morality is absolute - there is a right and real wrong that is
universally and immutably true, independent of whether anyone believes it or not.

6. Moral judgments must be supported by reasons. Moral judgment are different

from mere expressions of personal preference - they require backing by reasons, and
in the absence of such reasons, they are merely arbitrary.

Lesson 1.3 Man as a Moral Agent

A moral agent is being that is “capable of acting with reference to right and wrong”. a
moral agent is anything that can be held responsible for behavior or decisions. “It is moral
agents who have rights and responsibilities, because it is moral agents whom we take to
have choices and the power to choose”.

A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the power of choosing, and scope to act
according to his choice; one to whom the Supreme Governor has given a cognizable law,
with its proper sanction, by which to regulate his volitions and actions, and who is place in
circumstances which present no physical obstructions, either to obedience or disobedience.
A moral agent must be a living creature, as they must be able to comprehend
abstract moral principles and apply them to decision making. They must have “self-
consciousness, memory, moral principles, other values, and the reasoning faculty, which
allow him to devise plans for achieving his objectives, to weigh alternatives, and so on”.

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In order to be a moral agent who make decisions about justice and takes action
based on those decisions, one must live in the society with others who they consider to
have moral rights.

Lesson 1.4 Aristotle and Moral Responsibility

Aristotle was the first to discuss moral responsibility. He stated that it is “sometimes
appropriate to respond to an agent with praise or blame on the basis of his/her actions
and/ or dispositional traits of character”. he discusses that “only a certain kind of agent
qualifies as moral agent and is thus properly subject to ascriptions of responsibility,
namely, one who possesses a capacity for decision”. Also according to him, a decision is a
particular kind of desire resulting from deliberation, one that expresses the agent’s
conception of what is good”.

Lesson 2
Standard and Dilemmas

Lesson 2.1 Differences Between Moral and Non-Moral Standards

A moral standard refers to the norms which we have about the types of actions
which we believe to be morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral
standards deal with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human
beings.

Developing a moral compass in children is a responsibility that should be shared by

the family, educational institutions and the community at large. Each one them has a role
to play in instilling personal ans collective values ans supporting the development of the
individual’s ability to judge what is right and wrong and to know how to act accordingly.

It is important to remember that the moral development of young people depends on

the ethical capacities of the adults who interact with them in a daily basis-especially
parents, but also teachers, members of their extended family and other adults in the
community. Every young person needs both a role model to inpire them and an
environment that holds up good values and celebrates them.

Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical

considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature
lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette,
fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules.
Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and
ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending on
some factors like as follows:

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1. Etiquette - refers to the norms of correct conduction polite society or, more
generally, to any special code of social behavior or courtesy. The rules of etiquette are
prescriptions for socially acceptable behavior. If you want to fit in, get along with
others, and be taught well of by them, you should observe the common rules of
politeness or etiquette.
2. Statutes - are laws enacted by legislative bodies. The law that defines and
prohibits theft is a statute. Congress and state legislatures enact statutes. People
sometimes confuse legality and morality, but they are different things. On one hand,
breaking the law is not always or necessarily immoral. On the other hand, the legality
of an action does not guarantee that it is morally right.

Lesson 2.2 How Are Moral Standards Formed?

Moral standards are influence by a variety of factors such as the moral principles we
accept as part of our upbringing, values passed on to us through heritage and legacy, the
religious values that we have imbibed from childhood, the values that we showcased during
the period of our education, the behavior pattern of those who are around us, the explicit
and implicit standards of our culture, our life experiences and more importantly, our
critical reflections on these experiences. Moral standards concern which is very closely
linked to human well-being.

Most, if not all, people have certain moral principles or a moral code that they
explicitly or implicitly accept. Because the moral principles of different people in the same
society overlap, at least in part, we can also talk about the moral code of society, meaning
the moral standards shared by its members.

Lesson 2.3 Characteristics of Moral Standards

The following six (6) characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them
from non-moral standards:

1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benifits. Moral standards deal
with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit human beings. It is not
the case with many non-moral standards. For instance, following or violating some
basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not necessarily affect one’s life or
well-being.

2. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values. Moral standards have

overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral standard states that a person
has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she is supposed to do that even if
it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with self-interest.

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3. Moral standards are not established by authority figures. Moral standards are
not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or persons such as
nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be considered in the
process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards can not be changed
nor nullified by the decisions or particular authoritative body. One thing about this
standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or adequacy of the
reason that are considered to support and justify them.

4. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability. It means that everyone

should live up to moral standards. To be more accurate, however, it entails that
moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly similar situation. If one
judges that act A is morally right for a certain person P, then is is morally right for
anybody relevantly to P. This characteristic is exemplified in the Golden Rule, “Do
unto others if you want others do unto you ( if you were in there shoes)”.

5. Moral standards are bases on impartial considerations. Moral standard does

not evaluate standards on the basis of interests of a certain person or group, but one
that goes beyond personal interests to a universal standpoint in which each person’s
interests are impartially counted as equal. Impartiality is usually depicted as being
free of bias or prejudice. Impertiality in morality requires that we give equal and/or
adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties.

6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.
These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imparatives (such as,
‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’).

Lesson 2.4 Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more
actions and have moral reasons for choosing each actions. What is common to the two well-
known cases is conflict. The crucial features of a moral dilemma are these: the agent is
required to do each of two or more actions; the agent can do each of actions; but the agent
cannot do both or all of the actions. The agent thus condemned to moral failure; no matter
what she does, she will do something wrong (or fail to do something that ought to do).
(Lemons, 1987).
A moral dilemma is a situation where:

1. you are presented with two or more actions, all of which you have the ability to perform.
2. There are moral reasons for you to choose each of the actions.

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3. You cannot perform all of the actions and have to choose which action, or actions when
there are three or more choices, to perform.

Lesson 2.5 Moral Dilemmas in the Organization

Ethical dilemmas in the workplace are quite common, and they are not easy to
answer. Even when organizations have great policies and procedures and follow the laws
and regulations, there is still a high risk of unethical behavior.

Here are some other common missteps:

1. Senior leaders fall to “walk the talk” - they are guilty of modeling in appropriate behavior.
2. Leaders often have an irrational sense of entitlement, feeling “ I should be allowed to do
this” or “I deserved this.”
3. Individuals may begin cutting corners due to misplaced incentives.
4. Individuals may also feel the need to be obedient to authority, even when they are being
asked to do something they feel is wrong.
5. Individuals also have the need for closure, which can lead to conflict avoidance.
6. Defensive? “logic” is prevalent. This manifest that every one is doing it, so why not me?

Lesson 2.6 Moral Dilemmas in the Health Care Service

Given scenario:
Kara is a doctor working in a hospital. Due to an accident in the building next door,
there are deadly fumes rising up through the hospital’s ventilation system. In a certain
room of the hospital are four of her patients. In another room there is one of her patients. If
she does nothing the fumes will rise up into the room containing the four patients and
cause their deaths.

The only way to avoid the deaths of these patients is to hit a switch that will cause
the fumes to bypass the room containing the four patients. As a result of doing this, the
fumes will enter the room containing the single patient (against her will). If she does this,
the woman will die, but the other four patients will live.

Question to ponder?
Should Kara hit the switch in order to save four of her patients?

CHAPTER 3
FREEDOM AND MORALITY

Learning Outcome:

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At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss moral acts,

2. Put into practice Kant’s definition of freedom and morality,
3. Analyze the relationship of culture to morality,
4. Trace the historical origins and evolution of Filipino Values System; and
5. Evaluate the relevance and application of Filipino Values System
ntroduction
This module aims to analyze the nature of mores and values in ethics. It discusses the in-
terplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or environment,
as well as the process of value experience, including the difference between values and
moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the nature of morality and the
mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the nature of mores, including
the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our culture. The module also examines
the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with the wide range of values and
moral values, including the nature and basis of the choices that we make.

Lesson Proper

Lesson 1: Freedom and Moral Acts

Introduction
In Kant philosophy, freedom is define as a concept which is involved in the moral
domain, in the question: what should I do?
In summary, Kant says that the moral law is only that I know myself as free person.
Kantian freedom is closely linked to the notion of autonomy, which means law itself: thus,
freedom falls obedience to the law that I created myself. It is therefore, respect its
commitment to compliance to oneself.
Lesson 1.1 Kant’s Morality and Freedom
To act freely is to act autonomously. To act autonomously is to act according to a law
I give myself. Whenever I act according to the laws of nature, demands of social convention,
when I pursue pleasure and comfort, I am not acting freely. To act freely is not to simply
choose s means to a given end. To act freely is to choose the end itself, for its own sake.
This is the central to Kant’s notion of freedom. For Kant, acting freely
( autonomously) and acting morally are one and the same thing.
Kant’s notion of moral law and the connection between morality, freedom and reason:

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1. Duty vs. Inclination (morality) - Only the motive of duty, acting according to the law I
give myself confers moral worth to an action. Any other motive, while possibly
commendable, cannot give an action moral worth.
2. Autonomy vs. Heteronomy (freedom) - I am only free when my will is determined
autonomously, governed by the law I give myself. Being part of nature, I am not exempt
from its law and I’m inclined or compelled to act according to those laws (act
heteronomously).
3. Categorical vs. Hypothetical Imperatives (reason) - Kant acknowledges two ways in
which reason can command the will, two imperatives. ( If I want to stay out jail, I must be
a good citizen and not rob banks). Hypothetical imperative is always conditional.

Lesson 1.2 What is Categorical Imperative?

This question can be answered from the idea of law that binds us as rational beings
regardless of any particular ends.
Here are two (2) main formulation of the Categorical Imperative:
1. Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law. “Maxim” is a rule, a principle that gives reason to action. This is a
“univesalizing test” that checks whether my action puts my intersts and circumstances
ahead of everyone else’s. My action will fail the test if it results in a contradiction.
2. “act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the
person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.” For
Kant, human existence has in itself an absolute value - it is in itself and the only ground of
a posible categorigal imperative.
[

Lesson 1.3 The Role of Freedom in Morality

The personal aspect of morality - which might more properly be called ethics - is
about the cultivation of virtue: the development of character traits so that choosing the
good becomes a matter of habit. But a person, in order to be truly virtous, must be free to
cultivate the virtues, or not.
There is no virtue in being temperate when you are being forced not to indulge. There
is no virtue in being charitable when someone is forcing you to give up what is yours.
Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it cannot be coerced.
A virtues man can also be a free man.

Lesson 1.4 Freedom: The Foundation of Moral Act

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Freedom is humans’ greatest quality and it is a reflection of our creator. Freedom is

the power rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act, to do this or that and so to perform
deliberate actions on one’s own responsibility. Having freedom means having responsibility.
Every acion you choose further determines our character. Are animal free? Do they have
freedom? What separates human from animals? Reason: (intellect) and will (moral action).

Lesson 1.5 Freedom and Free Will

There are many possible limits to our freedom: both external and internal. External
freedom is a freedom from factors outside ourselves that limit or destroy our freewill.
Internal freedom is a freedom from interior factors that limit our free will.
Lesson 1.6 Requirement of True Freedom
True freedom is dependent upon truth, “You will know the truth and the truth will
set you free” (John 8:32) Example, lying to a teacher or to a friends. True freedom is
oriented toward the good. We should not understand freedom as the possibility of doing
evil. Evil enslaves us and diminishes our ability to be free. True freedom requires
responsibility. There is no such thing as irresponsible freedom.

Lesson 1.7 Human Acts vs. Acts of Human

Human acts make use of his knowledge and free will. Example: love your enemy,
pray to God, sacrifice for others. Acts of human do not make use of his intellect or will
knowledge. His action is natural. Example: are breathing, blinking, and sneezing.
True freedom liberates us to develop our God-given talents in a responsible way so we
can live our lives for others and for God. True freedom serves what is good, just and true.
A person is responsible for his voluntary acts. By progress in virtue, in knowledge of
good, and in self-discipline, he gains greater mastery. Man’s responsibility and imputability
can be lessened or nullified by ignorance, fear, habits, or inordinate attachment or other
factors.
Whenever man deliberately chooses, he is the “father of his acts”. these freely chosen
acts can be morally evaluated as good or evil.

Lesson 2: CULTURE AND MORALITY

Introduction
In a review essay on morality and culture, Mary Douglas pointed out that there exists
little communication between anthropologists writing on morals and the (Western) moral
philosophers. Anthropological findings enter the ethical discussions as ‘exotic examples.”
She expects this situation to last for quite sometime.

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There are two conversations that are parallel: one the philosophers’, about the
rational foundation of ethics, another the anthropologists’, about the interaction between
moral ideas and social institutions. The conversations, as they are set at the present time,
seems will never converge.
This module will try to know better what is morality in terms of culture, what are the
influence of culture in moral development?, some advantages and dis advantages of culture
to morality and the likes.

Lesson 2.1 What is Culture?

Culture is derived from the Latin word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or
cultivation. Culture as cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of
his own social group. He is endowed with certain innate qualities to make use. According to
Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor “culture is that complex whole which include knowledge,
belief, law, art, moral custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired as a member of
society.
On the other hand, sociologists defined culture as the entire way of life followed by
people, and everything learned and shared by people in society. According to Landis (1992),
culture is a complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions
and knowledge common to members of society.

Lesson 2.2 The influence of Culture in Moral Development

Culture has been with us since the dawn of human existence. Significant as it is, a
culture considerably shapes its members on how they live and relate within themselves and
with other cultures. (Bretzke, 2004).
Culture is a social environment in which a person is born and wherein he or she lives
together with other persons. Hence, culture has a great impact in the development of a
human person in varied ways; may it be in physical, knowledge, thought, relationship,
religious or moral development.
Moreover, culture is a person’s social heritage that has been passed from one
generation to the next basically through the relationship that binds the society together. It
necessarily says on what are the things a member of the society must do, what to do and
how to do things. It teaches and conditions members on how to relate and live with the
other members of the society and even the people out of their own culture.
In general, culture plays a vital role in the development of the human person. In
every aspect of the human person, the cultural background can be very visible. In
particular, culture has an essential influence on the moral development of the human
person since morality is just one of the cultural aspects.

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Lesson 3: Dynamics of Culture

Introduction

The cross-cultural relationship is the idea that people from different cultures can
have relationship that acknowledge, respect and begin to understand each other’s diverse
lives. People with different backgrounds can help each other see posibilities that they never
thought were there because of limitations, or cultural prescriptions, posed by their own
traditions.
The concept of cultural relativism as we know and use it today was etablished as an
analytic tool by German - American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20 th century.
We recognize that the many cultures of the world have their own beliefs, values, and
practices that have developed in particular historical, political, social, material, and
ecological contexts and that it makes sense that they would differ from our own and that
none are necessarily right or wrong or good or bad, then we are engaging the concept of
cultural relativism.

Lessons 3.1 Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to
make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture. The goal of this is promote
understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one’s own culture. Using
the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no culture is superior than
another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, and so on.

Lesson 3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism

Hereunder are the advantages of cultural relativism:

1. It is a system which promotes cooperation.
2. It creates a system where equality is possible.
3. People can pursue a genuine interest.
4. Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural relativism.
5. It preserves human culture.
6. Cultural relativism creates a society without judgement.
7. Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural relativism.
8. We can create personal moral codes based on societal standard with ease.
9. It stops cultural conditioning.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. It creates a system that is fueled by personal bias.

2. It would create chaos.

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3. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity.

4. It could promote of lack of diversity.
5. It draws people away from one another.
6. It could limit moral progress.
7. It could limit humanity’s progress.
8. Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into truth.

Lesson 4: The Filipino Way

Introduction

Our culture is a big reflection of our great and complex history. It is influenced by
most of the people we have interacted with. Filipino culture is unique compared to other
Asian countries, and beliefs applied every day in the life of the Filipinos reveal how rich and
blessed the culture of people have.

Lesson 4.1 The Filipino Customs and Traditions

What is it about the Philippines that makes it different from the rest of the world?
Well, for one thing, it is all about their culture. Example: “mano po” mano is a Spanish
word for “hand” while po is used at the end of the sentence when addressing elders or
superiors.

These are some traits that other people can’t take away from Filipinos:

1. Having close family ties.

2. The Bayanihan.
3. Courtship (harana)
4. Religion
5. Superstition
6. Marriage and Wedding Customs
7. Death
8. Society
9. Christmas in the Philippines
10. Fiestas
11. Living with Parents

Lesson 4.2 Characteristics of Filipino Culture

Here are some characteristics of the Filipinos that set them apart from any other
culture and society: (Dumaraos, 2018)

1. The Filipino people are very resilient.

2. Filipinos take pride in their families.
3. Filipinos are very religious.
4. Filipino are very respectful.

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5. Filipino help one another.

6. Filipinos value traditions and culture.
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
8. Filipinos love arts and architectures.
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people.

Lesson 4.3 Filipino Family Values

The family is the center of the social structure and includes the nuclear family,
aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such as godparents,
sponsors, and close family friends. People get strength and stability from their family. As
much, many children have several godparents.

The Filipino family consists of many traditional values that have been treasured and
passed on for many generations already. These values are incredibly beneficial.

Hereunder are the following traditional values:

1. Paggalang (Respect)
2. Pakikisama (Helping others)
3. Utang na Loob (Debt of Gratitude)
4. Pagpapahalaga sa Pamilya (Prioritizing Family)
5. Hiya (Shame)
6. Damayan System
7. Compassionate
8. Fun - Loving Trait

Lesson 4.4 Social Values of Filipinos

The great majority of the Philippine population is bound together by common values
and a common religion. Philippine society is characterized by many positive traits. Among
these are:

1. High regard for amor propio (self - esteem)

2. Smooth interpersonal relationships
3. Personal alliance system
4. The compadre system
5. Utang - na - loob
6. Suki relationship
7. Friendship

Lesson 4.5 Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

1. Passivity and lack of initiative

2. Colonial mentality
3. Kanya - kanya syndrome

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4. Extreme personalism
5. Extreme family centeredness
6. Lack of discipline
7. Lack of self-analysis and reflection
8. Ningas cogon
9. Gaya - Gaya Attitude

ASSESSMENT

1. Prove that freedom of the will exists by giving an example. Why is the freedom of the will
of man a conerstone of Ethics?

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