Prof Ed 322 The Teacher and the School Curriculum

Module IV Different Curriculum Development Models

KAUTIN S. KULANO, EdD

Subject Professor / Compiler

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Chapter 4: Different Curriculum Development Models

Objectives:
a. Analyze different curriculum models
b. Examine the strengths and weaknesses of curriculum, and
c. Discuss how these curriculum development models can be applied in
Philippine context.
Linear Model of Curriculum Development

The linear model of curriculum development prescribes a rational step-by-step

procedure for curriculum development starting with objectives.
A. Tyler’s Rational Linear Model
Ralph Tyler at the University of Chicago developed the first model of
curriculum development. This model was presented in the book Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler argued that curriculum
development should be logical and systematic.
His model as shown in Figure 3, presents a process of curriculum
development that follows a sequential pattern starting from objectives to
content, learning experiences and evaluation.

Society Students Subject Matter

Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Objectives

Selecting Learning Experiences

Organizing Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Figure 1: Tyler’s Rational Model

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 Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum workers should respond to
four basic questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these educational experiences be organized?
4. How can we determine these purposes are being attained?
Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources:
society, students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study
these resources carefully in order to develop a curriculum. Tyler also pointed out the
importance of philosophy of education and psychology of learning to screen the
objectives that are included in the curriculum.
B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model

A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her
model in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her
model is a modified version of Tyler’s Model. Taba argued that curriculum
development should follow a sequential and logical process, and she suggested for
more information input in all phases of curriculum development. Taba also claimed
that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements. In her model, Taba outlined
seven steps that shouldbe followed when developing a curriculum:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning experiences
7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it.
Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made
successful if there was a diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum
workers in understanding the needs of the learners. It would also help in
the selection of the goals and objectives and in the selection of contents
Taba pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what
learning is to follow.

C. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

Allan Glatthorn developed the standards-based curriculum

development model. The model was intended for developing curriculum
standards for any discipline from basic education to higher education. As
shown in Table 2, Glatthorn identified three phases to be followed in
developing a standards-based curriculum. This model is an example of linear
model. It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum development activities
to develop standards.

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 Table 2: Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

Phase 1. Develop standards.

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards, using multiple
sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4. Use data to develop final draft of standards, divided into Essential
Standards and Enrichment Standards.

Phase 2. Develop benchmarks.

1. Review decisions about content emphases.
2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will
not be benchmarked).
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified- by taskforce or by
teachers.
4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided,
and secure teacher review; revised benchmarks if needed.

Phase 3. Develop final products

1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce scope and sequence
chart.
2. Decide on curriculum guide content.
3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives

Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rationale curriculum

development models. The model is rational and descriptive, stressing the
development of standards at the first activity in curriculum development. The model
recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in developing curriculum
standards. This model also recognizes teachers’ inputs in the development of
standards, which are often in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the
top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation.

D. Understanding by Design Model (UBD)

The Understanding by Design Model (UBD) was developed by Wiggins
and McTighe (2002). It has become a byword in the Philippine educational
system because it was used design the basic curriculum in school year 2010-
2011 before the K-12 Education Curriculum was implemented.
The model is also called as the backward Design for putting emphasis
on starting with the goals and objectives in designing curriculum. The model
puts emphasis on designing curriculum to engage students in exploring and
deepening their understanding of important ideas and design of assessments
(Wiggins& McTighe, 2002) Figure 2 shows the three stages in backward
design process.

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 Stage 1:
Identify Stage 2: Determine
desired acceptable
Stage 3: Plan
evidence
the learning
experiences and

Figure 2: Stages in Backward Design Process

E. Systematic Design Model

Robert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in

the early 1960s. Since then, it has undergone major revisions but its structure
is unchanged (Diamond, 1998). The model as shown has two basic phases:
(1) project selection and design and (2) production, implementation, and
evaluation. Like some of the previous models, it follows a linear process of
curriculum development. Diamond (1998) explained that ideally, some actions
must precede others, and certain decisions should not be made until all
relevant facts are known. It is imperative that all data must be complete
before proceeding to the next step.

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 Phase 1: Project Selection and Design

Project-Specific Factors

Curriculum Projects
-Accreditation requirements
-Credit restrictions
Basic Planning Inputs -Fiscal and staff constraints
(Project Specific) -Effectiveness of existing programs
-Field of Knowledge Course Projects
-Student Knowledge, attitudes -Goals
and Priorities -Time
-Social needs -Resources
-Research -Student factors
-Educational Priorities -Related Research
Project Selection -Grading and scheduling options
- establishing
needs
- ensuring success Ideal sequence Operational Sequence

Phase 2: Production, Implementation, and Evaluation by each Unit

Design Evaluation Instruments and Procedures

Determine Select Evaluate and Produce and Coordinate Implement,

objectives Instructiona Select Existing Field-test new logistics for Evaluate
l Formats materials and evaluate Implementatio and Revise
materials

Figure 3. Systematic Design Model

F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum

Murray Print published his model book Curriculum Development and
Design in 1988. His model, as shown prescribes a sequential and logical
approach to curriculum development to provide a useful and easy-to-
understand process in developing curriculum

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 Aims, Goals, Objectives Content

Implementation and

Modification

Curriculum Presage Standard Analysis Learning Activities

Instructional Evaluation Monitoring and

Feedback, Curriculum

Phase 1: Organization Phase 2: Development Phase 3: Application

Figure 4: Print’s Curriculum Development Model

The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of curriculum

workers involved in the development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this
phase, it is important to pose the following questions that may influence curriculum
development.
1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything do they
represent?
2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?
3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’
thinking?

The answer to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of
curriculum that will be developed.

The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum.
The procedure is cyclical, which begins with situational analysis, and continues
with the aims, goals, and objectives, content, learning activities and
instructional evaluation, and then continuing to situational analysis again.

The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates three
major activities: (1) implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring of, and
feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the provision of feedback data to the
presage group.

Print’s model should establish a stronger link between the curriculum

presage and the situational analysis. The model gives an impression that
curriculum presage has no direct effect or relationship with situational analysis.
Curriculum presage is part of curriculum analysis since the various curriculum
workers are also part of the context or environment of the curriculum.

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 Activity 1: Do the task given below on the linear curriculum model.

1. Review and reflect on the linear curriculum model

2. Identify the possible strengths and weaknesses of each model when applied to
the Philippine context.

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 Cyclical Model of Curriculum Development
The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of
curriculum development. Cyclical models usually start with situational analysis that
serves as the basis for all the succeeding process.
A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum
Development
An example of cyclical model for curriculum development was
developed by Nicholls and Nicholls (1978). The model emphasizes the
cyclical nature of curriculum development. According to the proponents of this
model, curriculum development is a continuous process.
The model prescribes the logical and interdependent stages that are in a
continuous curriculum development process. The model starts with a
situational analysis in which curricular decisions are made, followed by the
selection of objectives and the succeeding phases.

Situational Analysis

Selection of Objectives Evaluation

Selection and Organization of Selection and Organization of

Content Methods

Figure 5: Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model

The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational

analysis as part of the model is a valuable principle inn curriculum development. It
enables the curriculum workers to understand better the context in which the
curriculum is developed. By starting with situational analysis, curriculum workers will
be able to collect data and the needed information from various curriculum sources
and influences that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and objectives.
Thus, if applied in college settings, faculty members need to conduct situational
analysis before planning their syllabi and curriculum plans. This will make it possible
for the curriculum to be relevant and responsive to the needs of the students and the
school.
The model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology in developing the
curriculum. These disciplines are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and
objectives, contents, learning experiences, and evaluation. The importance of these
three disciplines in developing curriculum is also recognized in the model of Tyler
(1949).
The model has the potential to be used in any educational setting either school-
based or on national level. The cyclical nature of the model also enables the
curriculum workers in making the necessary charges and adjustments in the total

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 curriculum. This attribute of the model is helpful for teachers, administrators, and
education boards to address curricular issues and propose innovations and changes
whenever needed. The model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) advocates a curriculum
development activity that involves continuous improvement.
There is a little weakness found in this model. The possible problem that may
occur is that many curriculum workers are used to develop curricular allowing a linear
model in the Philippine, for example, curriculum development follows the top down
approach where many curricular decisions are made in the national level. The goals
and contents of the curriculum are set by the state. In the context of higher
education, there is a tendency for teachers not to follow this model because of the
tedious job of conducting situational analysis before developing any syllabus or
curricular plan.

B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development

In his influential book, Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented
a cyclical process in which each statement of the curriculum is related and
interdependent. Although this model is also rational in nature, each phase is a
logical development of the preceding one. One cannot proceed to the next
phase unless the preceding phase is done. Wheeler also emphasized the
importance of starting from the development of aims, goals, and objectives.

1. Aims, Goals, and 2. Selection of Learning

Objectives Experiences

5. Evaluation 3. Selection of Content

4. Organization and Integration of

Learning Experiences and Content

Figure 6: Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning was developed by
Stark, Lowther, Bentley, ryan, Martens, Genthon, Wren, and Shaw in 1990 as
part of their study conducted at the University of Michigan National Center for
Research to improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. This model
appeared in the book Shaping the College Curriculum written by Stark and
Latucca and published in 1997.

Content influences encompass faculty members’ background and

associated disciplinary and educational beliefs. Contextual influences refer to

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 the influences outside of the instructor’s immediate control that caused
adjustments in the course plans such as student characteristics or
instructional resources. Form includes the processes that are followed when
designing courses (Stark & Latucca, 1997).

The Contextual Filters model present a cyclical view of curriculum

development. After making course decisions, the planners can check with the
content considerations and contextual filters. It describes the reality of how
college faculty members design their courses. Hence, it is very much
applicable for designing higher education courses.

Content and Background Considerations (Content)

Influence of Faculty Faculty Views of Purposes of

Background and Academic Fields Education
Characteristics Espoused by
Faculty Members

Contextual Filters (Context)

Goals, Students, Schedules, Campus

Services, Resources

Course Decisions (Form) Feedback

Select Content, Arrange adjustment
Content Choose Process

Figure 7: The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The model is based on a research conducted by the proponents on how

faculty members in several higher education institutions in the United States plan
their curriculum. Several curriculum influences such faculty background and
educational beliefs are recognized in the model. The influence and the special role of
faculty members in curriculum planning and development are recognized as a main
factor in curriculum development in higher education.
This model is very teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic freedom,
faculty members may plan the curriculum based on their own convenience The
model can be improved by putting students as part of the content influences. In many
curriculum models, students are viewed as significant source of curriculum.
Considering the fact that most college faculty members do not have pedagogical
training, the model failed to elaborate how content and process are arranged. This
could have been very useful for faculty members, especially for neophyte instructors,
who do not have background knowledge on education.

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 Activity 2: Reflect on and address the following

1. Review the cyclical curriculum development models.

2. Identify the possible strengths and weaknesses of each model when applied in Philippine
context.

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 Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development
The dynamic models how curriculum workers develop curricula in various
educational contexts. The dynamic curriculum models are usually used in school-
based settings.
A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development
Decker walker developed a model for curriculum development and first
published in 1971. Walker contended that curriculum developers do not follow
the prescriptive approach of the rationale-linear sequence of curriculum
elements when they develop curricula. In his model, Walker was particularly
interested on how curriculum workers actually do their task in curriculum
development. Walker was able to identify three phases, which he termed
platform, deliberation, and design.

(Beliefs, Theories, Conceptions, Points of View, Aims, Objective)

Platform

Deliberation
(applying them to practical situations, arguing about,
Accepting, refusing, changing, adapting)

Curriculum Design

Figure 8: Walker’s Naturalistic Model

In Platform phase, Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them
their individual beliefs, knowledge and values. They have their own ideas about how
to do their task and they are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first
phase is similar to the idea of Print (1993) of a curriculum presage. Deliberation
phase, on the other hand, involves identifying which facts are needed for means and
ends, generating alternatives and considering the consequences of these
alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing the alternative costs and
consequences, and choosing the best alternative for curriculum task they are about
to do. The third phase, which is the design, involves planning, decision-making, and
actual development of the curriculum.
Walker’s model is dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It
reflects the realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It
recognizes the role and influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum
development.
The model, being dynamic, can be confusing to other curriculum workers who are
not aware of the necessary processes of curriculum development. If this model is
applied in the Philippines, where most teachers are implementers of curriculum
developed by other educators, this model may not have value to them.

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 Another weakness of Walker’s model is a strong tendency of the curriculum
development to be stuck in phase 2. According to Print (1993), too much discussion
may lead to analysis-paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process
of curriculum development. Probably, the model can be elaborated more on the
design processes involved in Phase 3 to help teachers and neophyte curriculum
workers do their task.
B. Skillbeck’s Curriculum Development Model
In 1976, Skillbeck came a model for developing a school-based
curriculum in Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum
development. When using this model, curriculum workers may start from any
phase. However, as shown, each phase in interrelated and follows a
systematic sequence. Skillbeck’s model includes a situational analysis that
involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners. The results
of the situational analysis strong bases for making curricular decisions for all
the succeeding phases of curriculum development.

Situational Analysis

Goal Formulation

Program Building

Interpretation and Formulation

Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment,

Recommendation

Figure 9: Skillbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published

the book The Educational Imagination where he presented his idea on how
curriculum development should be done. Eisner (1979) believed that there is
a need to develop a new theory that recognizes the artistry of teaching that is
helpful in helping teachers develop those arts. In his book, Eisner outlined
how this artistic approach can also be used in curriculum development.

Table 1: Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development

1. Goals and their priorities

The need to consider less, well-defined objectives.
The need for deliberation in talking through priorities.
2. Content of Curriculum
Options to consider in selecting curriculum

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 Caveats about the null curriculum
3. Types of learning opportunities
Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events
that will be of significance to students.
4. Organization of learning opportunities
Emphasis on nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse
student outcomes
5. Organization of content areas
Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content
6. Mode of presentation and mode of response
Use of number of modes of communication to widen educational
opportunities for students
7. Types of evaluation procedure
Use of comprehensive range of procedures at different stages of the
process of curriculum development

In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressed
an artful process of arriving at a consensus about curricular priorities by involving the
participants. Engaging the participants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform
or Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation. In selecting the content of the curriculum,
Eisner (2002), considered the three sources of curriculum: individual, society, and
subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949). On selecting learning opportunities,
Eisner strongly favored providing students with a variety of learning opportunities.
Accordingly, educational imagination must transform goals and contents into high
quality experiences for students (Eisner, 2002).
The model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development
workers in developing a curriculum. The model emphasizes the importance of having
well-defined goals and objectives in curriculum. It recognizes the varied activities that
teachers do in the school to attain the goals of the curriculum.

D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

The author developed this model as one of the major outputs in his
doctoral dissertation in the University of the Philippines, Diliman. It is intended
to help curriculum workers develop curriculum that is relevant and appropriate
to the Philippine context (Pawilen, 2011).

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 Curriculum Sources 1.Situational Analysis

- Learners
- Society
- Discipline 2.Selection of Goals and Objectives

3. Development of Curriculum Standards

a. Developing a comprehensive set of standards
b. Aligning standards with several criteria
c. Securing teachers’ input
Curriculum Influences d. Validating of standards by experts
e. Developing final curriculum standards
- External
- Internal
- Organizational 4. Selection of Contents or Subject Areas

5. Selection and Organization of learning

Experiences

6. Implementation

7. Evaluation

Figure 10: Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum

development and decision-making in the macro level. Power (1995)
suggested two levels of curriculum development: macro level, which includes
the general or overall process of curriculum development, and the micro level,
which focuses on specific phase or phases or on specific context like school-
based curriculum development.

There are three sources in the model. These three sources are the
learners, society, and disciplines. These curriculum sources are based on the
model of ralph Tyler (19490. The learner as a curriculum source is very
important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning styles, thinking styles,
culture, socio-economic status, gender, and other variables are significant
data for developing curriculum. Understanding the nature of learners is helpful
for curriculum workers in making appropriate choices in curriculum decision-
making (Print, 1993).

As shown in the model, the curriculum sources are considered vital in

conducting situational analysis. Curriculum sources provide necessary data in

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 determining the goals and objectives of curriculum. These curriculum sources
are also valuable in making decisions on the development of curriculum
standards.

Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of

the curriculum and decision-making in the micro level. The idea of curriculum
influences was adopted from the model of Stark and Latucca (1997).
Accordingly, these curriculum influences can be grouped into three:
external,internal, and organizational.

By nature, curriculum sources and influences serve as bases for

selecting and making decisions about the various elements of curriculum
intent, content, learning experiences and evaluation.

Processes for developing Curriculum Under Pawilen’s Model

1. Situational Analysis- the first phase; starts with analyzing the context in
which the curriculum is developed. The situational analysis includes a
study of the different curriculum sources ( students, society, and
disciplines or subject matter), and careful examination of the different
curriculum influences (internal, external, and organizational) that affect
curriculum development.

2. Selection of Goals and Objectives- results from situational analysis.in

some cases, if the government or the university prescribes curriculum
goals and objectives, such features will be considered as part of the
internal or external influences that will be studied in the situational
analysis.

3. Development of Curriculum Standards- takes place after the situational

analysis and selection of goals and objectives. The first phase of
Glatthorn’s model (1998) was modified to simply the task for developing
curriculum standards: (1) develop a comprehensive of content standards
by examining various curriculum sources and influences; (2) align the
standards to several criteria; (3) secure the input to revise and improve
the standards;(4) ask experts to validate the standards; and (5) develop
the final draft of standards, divided into content standards, skills
standards, and values standards.

4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas- phase where the developed

curriculum are used to select subjects or courses to be included in the
curriculum.

6. Selection and Organization of learning Experiences- includes

selecting learning activities, organizing instructional plans, and select
instructional materials to be used in implementing the curriculum.

7. Implementation- involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by

faculty members. It is where the actual teaching and learning take place.

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 8. Evaluation- the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the
curriculum, including the design and selection of all the curriculum
elements, are evaluated. After the result of the evaluation, the curriculum
development process will go back to situational analysis to reexamine the
needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum
sources and influences.

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 Activity 3: Review and reflect on the following:

1. Review the dynamic curriculum development models.

2. Identify the possible strengths and weaknesses of each model when applied to the
Philippine context.

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 Analysis of Different Curriculum Development Models
Figure 11 provides the summary of the results of the analysis of the
different curriculum development models in relation to the two different dimensions
suggested by Print (1993). All the curriculum development models are based on
curriculum researches and are based on certain theories of curriculum. Each model
is unique depending on the curriculum theory advocated by the proponents It is the
role of the curriculum developers to select a model based on their context (Print,
1993).

PRESCRIPTIVE
Tyler’s Model Contextual Filters Model
Taba’s Grassroots Model Nicholls & Nicholls Model
Understanding by Design Model Pawilen’s Model
Systematic Design Model
Print’s Model
RATIONAL/OBJECTIVES
DYNAMIC/INTERACTION
Standards-based Model Walker’s Model
Wheeler’s Model
Eisner’s Model

DESCRIPTIVE

Figure 11: Summary of the Analysis of Curriculum Model

The linear models (Standards-based Curriculum Development Model,

Understanding by Design, systematic Design Model, and Print’s Curriculum
Development Model) provide a direct and time-efficient approach to curriculum
development. These modules simplify the process of curriculum development such
that curriculum will find it easy to follow. The linear models are highly prescriptive and
rational. They state precisely where to start in the curriculum development process.
Usually, they start with a situational analysis or selecting objectives.

The cyclical model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) and the Contextual Filters
Model of Course Planning Model present an interrelated procedure for developing
curriculum. These models are prescriptive by starting with situational analysis; yet,
they are also dynamic.

The dynamic models of Eisner (1979), Walker (1971), and Pawilen’s model (2011)
are less rigid in application and they can be used in school-based curriculum
development. These two models reflect the reality how institutions and teachers
develop curricula. Eisner’s (1979) model is prescriptive; yet, it is also descriptive,
while walker’s (1971) model is highly dynamic and descriptive.

Each model of curriculum development is based on a curriculum theory

developed by various authors and scholars believe about the nature of curriculum
and the process of curriculum development. Each has its own rightful claim.

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 Activity 4: Do the tasks below.

a. What are the common processes found in all curriculum development models?
b. Identify one unique characteristics represented by each model.
c. In the Philippines context, what would you suggest to be considered when we
develop curricula for our educational system? What are the common processes
found in all curriculum development models?
d. Identify one unique characteristics represented by each model.
e. In the Philippines context, what would you suggest to be considered when we
develop curricula for our educational system?

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 References

Curriculum Development, Bilbao, P. ,Iringan, T., Javier, R., Lucido, P.,

Lorimar Publishing House, Quezon City

The Teacher and the School Curriculum: A Guide to Curriculum Development

Practice, First Edition., Pawilen, G.,

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