CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Learning Objectives: By the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Differentiate between various curriculum development models (Linear, Cyclical, and

Dynamic).
2. Analyze the stages and features of prominent curriculum models such as Tyler’s, Taba’s,
and Pawilen’s models.
3. Understand and apply the backward design process in curriculum development.
4. Critically evaluate curriculum development processes, particularly using the framework
suggested by Print (1993).

Curriculum development is a systematic process for improving the education system and
curriculum. It involves planning, implementing, and evaluating educational programs and courses.
The goal of curriculum development is to enhance the learning experience for students by
providing them with the knowledge, skills, and values they need to succeed.

Curriculum development involves:

Defining learning outcomes: Determining what students should know and be able to do
by the end of the course or program
Selecting content: Choosing topics to teach
Planning activities: Designing learning activities to meet the learning outcomes
Assessing learning: Determining how to evaluate whether the learning outcomes have
been achieved
Reviewing and revising: Continuously improving the curriculum based on needs and
demands

I- Different Curriculum Development Models:

A. Linear Models

Linear models in curriculum development are characterized by their structured and sequential
nature. They follow a logical, step-by-step process that begins with identifying objectives and
moves through the selection of content and learning experiences to evaluation. These models are
often described as prescriptive, guiding educators to move from one phase to the next in a
predetermined order. However, linear models are sometimes critiqued for being too rigid, as they
may not easily accommodate changes during the process. Below is a detailed explanation of the
key linear models:

Tyler’s Rational Linear Model

Tyler’s model, one of the most influential in curriculum development, was introduced in the
1949 book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. It is based on four fundamental
questions that guide curriculum design:
 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (Objectives)
2. What educational experiences can be provided to attain these purposes? (Learning
experiences)
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? (Organization)
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Evaluation)

Tyler’s model emphasizes setting clear objectives at the outset and organizing learning
experiences to achieve those objectives. The model concludes with an evaluation phase to
determine whether the objectives were met.

Strengths:

 Clarity and Focus: Provides a clear structure for curriculum development by setting
specific objectives.
 Objective-driven: Ensures alignment between goals, content, and evaluation, offering a
systematic approach.

Weaknesses:

 Overly rigid: Critics argue that the model’s strict emphasis on objectives may limit
flexibility in addressing unforeseen changes or learner needs.
 Teacher-centered: Places more focus on what teachers do than on the learner’s
experience, reducing adaptability for diverse learning styles.
Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model

Hilda Taba proposed a curriculum model that begins at the classroom level, known as the
Grassroots Model. Unlike Tyler’s top-down approach, Taba’s model involves teachers in
curriculum development, arguing that they are in the best position to identify and address the
needs of students. Her model involves inductive reasoning, meaning it starts with specific
teaching-learning experiences and builds toward generalizations and broader curriculum goals.

Key Steps in Taba’s Model:

1. Diagnosis of needs: Understanding the learners’ needs.

2. Formulation of objectives: Defining specific goals based on needs.
3. Selection of content: Identifying content that aligns with objectives.
4. Organization of content: Structuring content in a logical sequence.
5. Selection of learning experiences: Choosing activities that match objectives.
6. Organization of Learning Experiences: Teaching Strategies for Cognitive, Affective
and Psychomotor Development
7. Evaluation: Assessing both the process and the results.

Strengths:

 Teacher involvement: Encourages grassroots participation by teachers, making the

curriculum more responsive to learners' needs.
 Inductive approach: Provides flexibility by allowing specific teaching experiences to
shape broader curriculum goals.

Weaknesses:

 Complexity: The model’s inductive nature can make it more difficult to manage in large-
scale or standardized educational settings.
 Time-consuming: Requires significant teacher input, which may not be feasible in all
contexts.

Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

The Standards-based Curriculum Development Model focuses on aligning curriculum with

externally defined standards, such as national or state academic standards. The key premise is
that the curriculum should ensure that all students meet a set of predetermined competencies or
outcomes.

Steps in Standards-based Curriculum:

1. Identification of Standards: Start with specific academic standards that students are
expected to meet.
 2. Designing curriculum around standards: Content, skills, and assessments are aligned
to meet these standards.
3. Assessment of student achievement: Assessment is typically standardized and tied
directly to the defined competencies.

Strengths:

 Uniformity: Provides clear benchmarks for student achievement and ensures consistency
across different schools and districts.
 Accountability: Ensures that students meet minimum educational standards, which can
improve overall educational outcomes.

Weaknesses:

 Inflexibility: May limit teachers’ ability to adapt to the unique needs of their students or
to incorporate innovative teaching methods.
 Narrow focus: Some critics argue that it leads to “teaching to the test,” where instruction
becomes overly focused on preparing students for standardized assessments rather than
fostering deeper learning.

Understanding by Design (UbD) Model

UbD, developed by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, is a backward design model that starts with
the end in mind. Educators first identify the desired learning outcomes (what students should
understand and be able to do), then work backward to design assessments and instructional
strategies.

Stages in the Backward Design Process:

1. Identify desired results:

Begin by defining the
knowledge, skills, and
understandings that students
should acquire.
2. Determine acceptable
evidence: Develop
assessments and criteria for
measuring whether students
have achieved the desired
results.
3. Plan learning experiences
and instruction: Create
activities, lessons, and
teaching strategies that will
help students achieve the
goals set in stage one.
Strengths:

 Goal-oriented: Ensures that instruction is focused on achieving specific, clearly defined

outcomes.
 Alignment: By designing assessments before planning instruction, teachers ensure that
their teaching strategies are closely aligned with the desired results.

Weaknesses:

 Complexity: Backward design requires careful planning, which can be time-consuming.

 Teacher expertise: It requires teachers to have a deep understanding of both content and
assessment practices, which may not always be available.

Systematic Design Model

The Systematic Design Model is heavily based on instructional design principles. This model
focuses on a detailed analysis of learner needs and the systematic development of learning
experiences to meet those needs. It is particularly useful in designing instructional materials and
training programs.

Steps in the Systematic Design Model:

1. Analyze learner needs: Identify the knowledge gaps and learning preferences of
students.
2. Define goals and objectives: Set clear learning outcomes based on the analysis.
3. Design instruction: Develop learning activities and materials that align with the
objectives.
4. Implement instruction: Deliver the curriculum in a structured way.
5. Evaluate outcomes: Assess the effectiveness of the instruction in achieving the learning
goals.

Strengths:

 Detailed planning: Provides a comprehensive, systematic approach that addresses

learner needs and program goals.
 Effectiveness: Particularly effective in training and professional development settings
where clear, measurable outcomes are required.
Weaknesses:

 Resource-intensive: Requires extensive data collection and analysis, which may not
always be feasible in traditional classroom settings.
 Limited flexibility: Like other linear models, it may not accommodate changes during
implementation.

Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Murray Print’s model is a structured, systematic approach that focuses on three main
components: goals, content, and evaluation. It is designed to ensure that curriculum development
is goal-oriented and that both the content and the evaluation process are aligned with these goals.

Steps in Print’s Model:

1. Set goals: Identify clear educational goals or objectives for the curriculum.
2. Select content: Choose relevant content that aligns with these goals.
3. Develop evaluation strategies: Create assessment tools to measure whether the
curriculum has achieved its goals.

Strengths:

 Structured and clear: Offers a clear framework that emphasizes the alignment between
goals, content, and evaluation.
 Assessment-focused: The emphasis on evaluation ensures that the curriculum’s
effectiveness is regularly assessed and improved.

Weaknesses:

 Prescriptive: The model can be seen as overly rigid, with less flexibility for creative or
adaptive teaching practices.

B. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

Cyclical models in curriculum development emphasize the idea that curriculum design is not a
one-time, linear process, but rather an ongoing, iterative cycle. These models are characterized by
continuous feedback, reflection, and revision. As new information emerges, whether from
assessment data, changing educational contexts, or shifting learner needs, the curriculum is
revisited and adapted to maintain its relevance and effectiveness.

In cyclical models, the process begins with an initial design phase (often involving needs
assessment and goal-setting), moves to implementation, and then enters an evaluation stage.
However, rather than ending at evaluation, the process loops back to the beginning, encouraging a
constant cycle of reflection and refinement.

Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development

Key Features:

 Cyclical Nature: The Nicholls and Nicholls model is based on the idea that curriculum
development does not follow a rigid beginning-to-end process but rather cycles through
planning, implementation, evaluation, and then back to planning.
 Focus on Revision: Each phase of the process—overview, planning, implementation,
and review—feeds into the next cycle, ensuring that the curriculum remains dynamic and
responsive.
 General Overview: The cycle starts with a general understanding of the educational
goals, societal needs, and learner characteristics.
 Iterative Improvement: After implementation, the curriculum is assessed based on
feedback, and adjustments are made before repeating the cycle.

Example: In a primary school math curriculum, after implementing the initial design and
conducting assessments, teachers may find that certain students struggle with specific concepts,
such as fractions. Based on this evaluation, they revisit the planning phase, adjusting the
curriculum to include more scaffolding and support for these concepts, ensuring the curriculum
evolves to better meet student needs.

Strengths:

 Continuous Improvement: The cyclical nature encourages regular revision based on

real-world feedback, keeping the curriculum relevant and effective.
  Flexibility: Allows the curriculum to evolve based on the changing needs of students,
teachers, and society.
 Focus on Context: Encourages educators to constantly reassess the social and cultural
context and adapt the curriculum accordingly.

Weaknesses:

 Resource-Intensive: Requires time and resources for ongoing evaluation and revision.
 Complexity: The cyclical process can be difficult to manage, particularly in large-scale
systems with numerous stakeholders.

Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

Key Features:

 Cyclical Process: Like the Nicholls model, Wheeler’s model emphasizes that curriculum
development is a continuous process. However, Wheeler adds a stronger emphasis on
feedback loops, making it a more explicitly iterative model.
 Five Stages: Wheeler’s model consists of five stages:
1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives: The curriculum starts with clear learning
outcomes.
2. Selection of Learning Experiences: Learning activities are chosen to meet these
objectives.
3. Selection of Content: Content is chosen that aligns with both the objectives and
the learning experiences.
4. Organization of Learning and Content: Learning experiences and content are
organized to facilitate effective learning.
5. Evaluation: The final stage is evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum,
feeding back into the initial stage of defining goals and objectives.
 Feedback Loops: Evaluation results are not just used to measure student achievement
but are fed back into the next cycle to refine goals, content, and learning experiences.

Example: In higher education, a university might use Wheeler’s model to revise a business
administration curriculum. After each semester, student performance data and feedback are used
to adjust the course content or instructional methods. For example, if students consistently
struggle with financial modeling, the course might be redesigned to provide additional resources
and practice opportunities in this area.

Strengths:

 Emphasis on Feedback: Wheeler’s model builds on the importance of feedback from

various stakeholders—students, teachers, and administrators—to improve the curriculum.
 Structured Yet Flexible: While there is a clear structure, the cyclical nature ensures that
the model adapts to changes in educational goals and student needs.

Weaknesses:
  Implementation Challenges: Continuously adjusting curriculum based on feedback can
be logistically difficult and time-consuming, especially in large institutions.
 Dependence on Evaluation Quality: The success of this model relies heavily on the
effectiveness and accuracy of the evaluation process.

The Contextualized Filters Models of Course Planning

Key Features:

 Context-Sensitive Design: This model is built on the idea that curriculum planning must
be sensitive to the broader educational, social, and cultural contexts in which it is
implemented.
 Flexibility: Unlike more rigid models, the Contextualized Filters Model recognizes that
curricula must be adaptable to different settings. It emphasizes the use of “filters” to
ensure that the curriculum aligns with the specific needs and realities of the learning
environment.
 Multidimensional Approach: The model filters decisions through various dimensions,
including:
1. Educational Context: The specific characteristics of the educational institution,
such as its mission, resources, and student demographics.
2. Social and Cultural Context: Broader societal influences, such as cultural
values, political pressures, and economic conditions, are taken into account.
3. Learner Context: The specific needs, abilities, and backgrounds of the students
are central to the curriculum design.

Example: A vocational school in a rural area may use the Contextualized Filters Model to design
a curriculum for agricultural training. While considering national agricultural standards, the
curriculum planners would also account for the specific needs of the local community, such as
the types of crops grown in the region and the available farming technologies. This localized
approach ensures that the curriculum is relevant to the learners and their future job market.

Strengths:

 Highly Adaptive: This model excels in diverse and changing environments, where
curricula must be tailored to meet specific educational, social, or cultural needs.
 Real-World Relevance: By considering multiple contexts, this model ensures that the
curriculum remains relevant and meaningful to the learners and their broader community.

Weaknesses:

 Complexity: The model’s adaptability can lead to a highly complex curriculum

development process, as it requires constant adjustment to changing contexts.
 Resource Demands: The need to continuously filter decisions through multiple contexts
can be resource- and time-intensive, especially in settings with limited capacity.
Conclusion and Comparison of Cyclical Models

Cyclical models highlight the importance of continuous improvement in curriculum

development. Rather than seeing curriculum design as a fixed process, cyclical models like those
of Nicholls and Wheeler view it as a fluid, ongoing cycle that incorporates feedback and
reflection. Each model presents unique strengths and challenges.

 Nicholls and Nicholls emphasize a general iterative process with a focus on context and
review, making it adaptable but resource-intensive.
 Wheeler’s Model builds on Nicholls by adding a more structured approach with explicit
feedback loops, emphasizing the importance of evaluation and refinement.
 The Contextualized Filters Model extends the cyclical approach by explicitly
incorporating broader societal and cultural factors, making it especially useful in di verse
educational settings but challenging due to its complexity.

These models are invaluable in ensuring that the curriculum remains current, effective, and
aligned with the needs of learners and the demands of society.

C. Dynamic Models

Dynamic models of curriculum development place a strong emphasis on flexibility, adaptability,

and responsiveness. Unlike linear or cyclical models, dynamic models are not strictly bound by
predetermined steps or sequences. They focus on adjusting the curriculum based on real-world
changes, emerging student needs, or shifts in the educational environment. These models
encourage continuous interaction between teachers, students, and the context in which education
takes place, allowing for creative and contextual solutions.

Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development

Key Features:

 Deliberative Process: Walker’s model is centered around a collaborative, deliberative

approach. Curriculum development is not seen as a process that happens in isolation by a
single entity, but as an interactive activity involving multiple stakeholders such as
teachers, administrators, students, and even the community.
  Platform, Deliberation, Design: The model is divided into three stages:
1. Platform: Establishing the beliefs, values, and assumptions that will guide the
curriculum. This includes stakeholder discussions on educational philosophy,
student needs, and societal expectations.
2. Deliberation: Engaging in open discussions and debate about possible curriculum
goals, methods, and content. Stakeholders share their views and come to a
consensus on the curriculum direction.
3. Design: Once agreement is reached, the curriculum is designed and implemented
based on the shared vision.

Example: In a school planning to introduce a new environmental science curriculum, Walker’s

model would involve gathering input from teachers, students, environmental experts, and
community members. The platform stage would clarify the educational goals (e.g., promoting
environmental awareness), while the deliberation stage would involve discussing which specific
environmental issues (e.g., climate change, waste management) should be included. Finally, the
curriculum design would reflect this consensus, leading to its implementation.

Strengths:

 Collaborative and Inclusive: Involves multiple stakeholders, ensuring that diverse

perspectives are considered in the curriculum design.
 Responsive to Change: The deliberative nature allows for flexibility and adaptability, as
the curriculum can be modified based on real-world developments or changing student
needs.

Weaknesses:
  Time-Consuming: The deliberative process can be lengthy, as reaching a consensus
among stakeholders may take time.
 Potential Conflicts: With so many voices involved, there is a risk of conflict or
disagreement, which could slow down or derail the process.

Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

Key Features:

 Contextual and Responsive: Skilbeck’s model emphasizes that curriculum development

should be directly responsive to contextual and environmental factors. This includes
considering the local, national, and global contexts, as well as the specific needs of
learners.

 Five Phases: The model follows five phases, but the process is not linear; it is dynamic
and allows for moving between stages as needed:
1. Situational Analysis: Analyze the specific context in which the curriculum will
be implemented, including the needs of students, the educational setting, and
external factors such as societal changes.
2. Goal Formulation: Based on the situational analysis, formulate the goals and
aims of the curriculum.
3. Program Building: Develop the actual content, teaching strategies, and learning
experiences.
4. Interpretation and Implementation: Implement the curriculum, ensuring that
teachers understand and interpret the goals and content appropriately.
5. Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment, and Reconstruction: Evaluate the
curriculum’s effectiveness, gather feedback, and make adjustments to improve the
program.

Example: In developing a vocational training curriculum for a rural community, Skilbeck’s

model would start with a situational analysis, considering the local economy, job opportunities,
and student backgrounds. Based on this analysis, the goals of the curriculum might focus on
equipping students with skills in agriculture or small-scale entrepreneurship. As the curriculum is
implemented, ongoing monitoring and feedback from students, teachers, and employers would
allow for adjustments to ensure the training remains relevant to the community’s evolving needs.

Strengths:

 Highly Adaptive: The model’s focus on contextual analysis ensures that the curriculum
is tailored to the specific needs and realities of the learners.
 Ongoing Revision: By including feedback and reconstruction as integral parts of the
process, the curriculum remains flexible and can evolve over time.

Weaknesses:

 Complexity: The dynamic nature of the model can make it more complex and difficult to
manage, especially in large educational systems.
 Dependence on Accurate Analysis: The success of the curriculum depends heavily on
the accuracy and depth of the situational analysis.

Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Key Features:

 Creativity and Flexibility: Eisner’s model departs from traditional, structured

approaches and instead views curriculum development as an artistic process. He argues
that curriculum design should be guided by creativity, intuition, and flexibility, allowing
for the unique needs and experiences of both teachers and students.
 Focus on Aesthetic Learning: Eisner emphasizes the importance of the arts in
education, arguing that curriculum should foster creativity, critical thinking, and
emotional intelligence, rather than merely focusing on rote learning and standardized
testing.
 Educator as a Curriculum Artist: Teachers are seen as artists who design learning
experiences in a flexible and responsive manner, tailoring the curriculum to their specific
classrooms.

Example: In a high school arts program, Eisner’s model would encourage teachers to design
lessons that foster creativity and personal expression. Rather than adhering strictly to a pre-set
curriculum, teachers might allow students to explore different mediums (painting, sculpture,
digital art) and themes, based on their interests and experiences. The teacher’s role is to guide
and facilitate this process, adapting the curriculum in response to the students’ evolving artistic
projects.

Strengths:
  Fosters Creativity: The model encourages innovation and creativity in both curriculum
design and teaching practices, making learning more engaging for students.
 Teacher Empowerment: Teachers are empowered to adapt and personalize the
curriculum to suit their students’ needs and interests.

Weaknesses:

 Lack of Structure: Some educators may find the lack of structure challenging, as it
requires a high level of creativity and intuition that not all teachers may feel comfortable
with.
 Difficult to Standardize: This approach may be difficult to implement in educational
systems that require standardized outcomes and assessments.

Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Key Features:

 Context-Sensitive: Developed specifically for the Philippine educational context,

Pawilen’s model is designed to be responsive to the unique needs of Filipino learners and
the country’s educational landscape.
 Learner-Centered: The model places a strong emphasis on the needs, interests, and
backgrounds of learners. It advocates for a curriculum that is flexible and adaptable,
ensuring that students’ learning experiences are meaningful and relevant to their cultural
and social contexts.
 Integration of Local and Global Perspectives: Pawilen’s model encourages the
integration of both local knowledge and global competencies, ensuring that students are
prepared for both local community engagement and international opportunities.

Example: In the development of a K-12 curriculum in the Philippines, Pawilen’s model would
guide educators to design a curriculum that integrates both traditional Filipino values and
knowledge (such as local history, languages, and customs) with global skills like digital literacy
and critical thinking. For instance, a lesson on local environmental conservation practices could
be paired with discussions on global environmental challenges like climate change, making the
learning both locally relevant and globally informed.

Strengths:

 Culturally Relevant: By focusing on the specific context of the Philippines, the model
ensures that the curriculum is culturally relevant and sensitive to local needs.
 Balanced Approach: It balances the development of both local and global competencies,
preparing students to succeed in both their immediate community and the wider world.

Weaknesses:
  Context-Specific: While highly effective in the Philippine context, the model may not be
directly applicable to other educational settings without significant adaptation.
 Implementation Challenges: Ensuring that teachers are trained and equipped to
implement such a context-sensitive and learner-centered curriculum can be a challenge,
especially in under-resourced areas.

Conclusion and Comparison of Dynamic Models

Dynamic models of curriculum development emphasize the importance of flexibility,

adaptability, and creativity in the design and implementation of curricula. Each model offers
distinct strengths and challenges:

 Walker’s Model promotes collaboration and deliberation among stakeholders, ensuring

that the curriculum is responsive to multiple perspectives, but it can be time-consuming.
 Skilbeck’s Model emphasizes contextual analysis and adaptability, making it highly
responsive to the specific needs of learners and their environment, though its complexity
may pose challenges.
 Eisner’s Artistic Approach celebrates creativity and flexibility, encouraging teachers to
take an intuitive, artistic approach to curriculum design, but its lack of structure may be
difficult for some educators to navigate.
 Pawilen’s Model is tailored to the Philippine context, focusing on cultural relevance and
balancing local and global competencies, though its context-specific nature may limit its
broader applicability.

These models are essential in creating curricula that are not only relevant and effective but also
capable of evolving to meet the changing needs of students and society.

II. Process for Developing Curriculum under Pawilen's Model

Pawilen’s model for curriculum development is a dynamic, context-sensitive approach

specifically designed to suit the Philippine educational system, but its principles can be applied
in broader contexts. This model emphasizes the need to tailor curriculum development to the
local context and the needs of learners. It follows a systematic process that ensures each stage is
aligned with the goals of education, the learner’s needs, and the local environment.

1. Situational Analysis

Definition: Situational analysis is the first step in Pawilen’s model, where curriculum developers
conduct a thorough examination of the context in which the curriculum will be implemented.
This includes analyzing the characteristics of the learners, the socio-cultural and economic
conditions of the community, available resources, and the overall educational environment.

Key Considerations:
  Learner Profile: Understanding the age, prior knowledge, learning styles, and socio-
economic background of the students.
 Community Context: Analyzing the local community’s needs, values, and resources that
could impact the curriculum.
 Educational Trends: Taking into account national and global trends in education, as
well as any legal or policy frameworks governing education (e.g., the K-12 curriculum in
the Philippines).

Example: In a rural farming community in the Philippines, a situational analysis might reveal
that many students come from agricultural backgrounds. This would influence curriculum
developers to integrate agricultural science and sustainable farming practices into the curriculum,
making education more relevant to the learners' future careers and community needs.

2. Selection of Goals and Objectives

Definition: After conducting a situational analysis, the next step is to define clear and specific
goals and objectives. Goals are broad educational aims, while objectives are more specific,
measurable outcomes that students should achieve by the end of the learning process.

Key Considerations:

 Alignment with National Standards: Ensuring that goals align with national or regional
educational standards.
 Relevance to Learners: The objectives should address the identified needs of the
learners from the situational analysis.
 Clarity: Objectives must be clear, measurable, and achievable within the time frame of
the course.

Example: In an agricultural science course for high school students, a goal might be to develop
students' practical skills in sustainable farming. A specific objective could be for students to
demonstrate the ability to plan and execute an organic vegetable garden by the end of the
semester.

3. Development of Curriculum Standards

Definition: Curriculum standards are clear benchmarks that outline what students are expected to
know and be able to do at each stage of their education. These standards help to ensure
consistency and quality in educational outcomes.

Key Considerations:

 National Framework: Standards should align with any national education frameworks
or requirements (e.g., DepEd’s learning competencies in the Philippines).
 Subject-Specific: Developing standards specific to each subject area or discipline.
 Developmentally Appropriate: Ensuring that standards are appropriate for the students'
developmental levels.
Example: In a mathematics curriculum, a standard might specify that by the end of Grade 5,
students should be able to solve problems involving multiplication and division of fractions,
ensuring that this competency is uniformly taught across all schools in the region.

4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas

Definition: After setting objectives and standards, the next step is to choose the content or
subject matter that will help students achieve the desired learning outcomes.

Key Considerations:

 Relevance: The content should be relevant to the goals of the curriculum and the
learners' context.
 Breadth and Depth: Balance between covering a broad range of topics and providing in-
depth exploration of key concepts.
 Integration: Content should be integrated across different subjects where possible to
promote interdisciplinary learning.

Example: In a curriculum designed for junior high school students studying environmental
science, the content might include topics such as climate change, waste management, and
renewable energy. These topics could be integrated with social studies to examine the societal
impacts of environmental issues.

5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences

Definition: Learning experiences are the activities and instructional methods used to engage
students with the content. Organizing these experiences in a logical sequence is key to ensuring
that students progress toward the learning objectives.

Key Considerations:

 Active Learning: Learning experiences should be interactive and student-centered,

allowing for hands-on and experiential learning.
 Scaffolding: Activities should build on prior knowledge and progressively increase in
complexity.
 Variety: Include a mix of individual work, group projects, and practical applications to
address diverse learning styles.

Example: In a biology class focused on ecosystems, learning experiences might include field
trips to local nature reserves, lab experiments on plant growth, and group discussions on
conservation practices. These experiences are organized to move from basic concepts (e.g., what
is an ecosystem) to more complex tasks (e.g., developing a local conservation plan).

6. Implementation
Definition: Implementation refers to putting the designed curriculum into practice in real
classrooms. This phase involves training teachers, providing necessary materials, and
establishing a support system to ensure that the curriculum is delivered effectively.

Key Considerations:

 Teacher Training: Teachers must be equipped with the knowledge and skills to deliver
the curriculum.
 Resource Allocation: Ensuring that schools have the necessary textbooks, technology,
and other materials.
 Support Systems: Establishing mechanisms for ongoing support and feedback for
teachers during implementation.

Example: In implementing a new ICT curriculum, teachers might need training on the use of
specific software or coding platforms. Additionally, the school may need to invest in new
computers and internet infrastructure to ensure that students can effectively engage with the
content.

7. Evaluation

Definition: The final step in Pawilen’s model is evaluation. This involves assessing both the
effectiveness of the curriculum in meeting its goals and objectives and the impact on student
learning. Evaluation also serves as feedback for continuous improvement of the curriculum.

Key Considerations:

 Formative and Summative Evaluation: Using both ongoing assessments (formative)

and final assessments (summative) to gauge student progress and curriculum
effectiveness.
 Feedback Mechanisms: Collecting feedback from teachers, students, and administrators
to identify areas for improvement.
 Data-Driven Decisions: Using assessment data to inform future revisions of the
curriculum.

Example: After a year of implementing a new literacy curriculum, evaluation might include
analyzing student reading scores, gathering teacher feedback on instructional materials, and
conducting student surveys on their engagement with the content. Based on this data, curriculum
developers might decide to revise certain lessons or add more resources for struggling readers.

III. Analysis of Different Curriculum Development Models Suggested by Print (1993)

In his 1993 analysis, Murray Print outlined several curriculum development models that focus
on systematic and structured approaches to curriculum design. His work provides a framewor k
for understanding how different models can be applied in various educational contexts. Here’s an
analysis of some of the key models he discussed:

1. Objectives Model

Overview: This model, rooted in the work of Ralph Tyler, focuses on clearly defined objectives
that guide the entire curriculum development process. The objectives are usually aligned with
desired learning outcomes and are used to determine both content and assessment.

Strengths:

 Clarity: Provides clear, measurable goals for student learning.

 Accountability: Ensures that educators can evaluate whether students meet the specified
objectives.

Weaknesses:

 Narrow Focus: This model can be too rigid and focused on pre-specified outcomes,
leaving little room for flexibility or creativity.

2. Process Model

Overview: The process model emphasizes the means or methods by which learning occurs,
rather than focusing solely on the end goals. It encourages exploration, inquiry, and the
development of critical thinking skills, often through experiential learning.

Strengths:

 Flexibility: Allows for adaptation based on student needs and interests.

 Holistic Learning: Encourages deeper understanding through engagement with the
learning process.

Weaknesses:

 Lack of Specificity: Without clearly defined outcomes, it can be difficult to assess

student progress.

3. Situational Model
Overview: Similar to Skilbeck’s model, the situational model emphasizes the need for
curriculum to be responsive to the specific context in which it is implemented. It focuses on
external factors such as cultural, political, and social influences.

Strengths:

 Contextual Relevance: Ensures that the curriculum is relevant to the local community
and societal needs.
 Adaptability: Flexible enough to adjust to changing conditions and emerging needs.

Weaknesses:

 Complexity: Requires continuous adjustment and may be challenging to implement in

large-scale systems with limited resources.

By analyzing these models, Print highlights the importance of choosing the right approach based
on the educational context. Each model offers unique strengths and is suitable for different
situations, ranging from structured environments with clearly defined objectives to more
dynamic, fluid contexts where flexibility is key

ACTIVITY:
Apply your understanding of curriculum models by designing a lesson plan tailored to one of the
models studied.

Instructions:

1. Choose one curriculum model (Tyler, Taba, or Wheeler) that you feel is most effective for lesson
planning.

2. Based on your chosen curriculum model, design a detailed lesson plan for a 60-minute class session.
Ensure the lesson plan aligns with the structure and principles of the selected model.

Your lesson plan should include the following:

Subject/Topic: Specify the subject and topic to be taught.

Grade Level: Identify the target grade or year level.
Learning Objectives: Write clear and measurable objectives.
Content: List the topics and key points to cover.
Teaching Strategies: Describe methods and techniques to be used, ensuring alignment with the
selected model.
Materials: Provide a list of materials/resources required.
Assessment: Include formative or summative assessments that fit the chosen model's approach.
3. Explain how the lesson reflects the chosen curriculum model's principles and processes.

Rubric for Assessment:

Alignment with Curriculum Model (40%): Lesson plan reflects the principles and structure of
the selected model.
Clarity and Completeness (40%): All lesson plan components are well-articulated and
comprehensive.
Creativity and Relevance (20%): Lesson is engaging, innovative, and suitable for the specified
grade level and subject.

Reflection Question:
How does applying a curriculum model influence your approach to lesson planning and teaching?