Math 418 Spring 2017

Homework 2

√ √ √ √
8.2.5. Let R = Z[ −5], and let I2 = (2, 1 + −5), I3 = (3, 2 + −5), and I30 (3, 2 − −5)
be ideals of R.

(a) Claim: I2 , I3 , and I30 are not principal ideals.

Proof: By Example 2 in Section 8.1, I3 is not principal. Suppose by way of√ contradic-
tion that I2 were principal. Then there would exist γ ∈ R such that (2, 1+ −5) = (γ).
Then there would exist α and β in R such that

2 = αγ,
√
1 + −5 = βγ.
√
We can apply the field norm N (a + b −5) = a2 + 5b2 , which is multiplicative, to each
of these equations, to see
4 = N (α)N (γ),
6 = N (β)N (γ).
The first equation implies that N (γ) = 1, 2, or 4. The second implies that N (γ) =
1, 2, 3, or 6. Hence N (γ) can be only 1 or 2.
It is not possible that N (γ) = 2, since the equation a2 + 5b2 = 2 has √ no integer
solutions. If N (γ) = 1, then γ = ±1. Hence (γ) = R. Since (γ) = (2, 1 + −5), √ this
would imply that for every z ∈ R, there exist x, y ∈ R so that√z = 2x + (1 + −5)y.
In particular,√there must exist√x, y ∈ R so that
√ 1 = 2x + (1 + −5y. Mutiplying both
sides by 1 − −5, we see 1 − −5 = 2(1 − −5)x + 6y. There do not exist x, y ∈ R
satisfying this equation, since the right hand side has even coefficients and the left
hand side does not. Hence γ does not exist, and I2 is not principal.
Now suppose by way of√contradiction that I30 were principal. Then there would exist
δ ∈ R such that (3, 2 − −5) = (δ). Then there would exist α and β in R such that

3 = αδ,
√
2 − −5 = βδ.

We can apply the field norm to each of these equations, to see

9 = N (α)N (δ),

1
 9 = N (β)N (δ).
The equations imply that N (δ) = 1, 3, or 9. As there are no integer solutions to the
equation 3 = a2 + 5b2 , N (δ) can be only 1 or 9. If N (δ) = 9 then N (α) = 1, so α = ±1.
This would imply that δ = ±3. But this is not possible, since the second equation has
coefficients not divisible by 3 on the left hand side.
√
If N (δ) = 1, then δ = ±1. Hence (δ) = R. Since √ (δ) = (3, 2 − −5), this would
√ that there exist√x, y ∈ R so that
imply √ 1 = 3x + (2 − −5y. Mutiplying both sides by
2 + −5, we see 2 + −5 = 3(2 + −5)x + 9y. There do not exist x, y ∈ R satisfying
this equation, since the right hand side has coefficients divisible by 3 and the left hand
side does not. Hence δ does not exist, and I30 is not principal.

(b) Claim: I22 = (2).

Proof: We will show that (2) ⊆ I22 and that I22 ⊆ (2). √
First, the elements of I22√are all
finite sums of elements of the form αβ for α = 2x+(1+ −5)y and β = 2z+(1+ −5)w
in R. We can write
√ √
αβ = 4xz + 2(1 + −5)(yz + xw) + (−4 + 2 −5)yw = 2r,

where √
r = (2xz + yz + xw − 2yw) + (yz + xw + yw) −5
as an element of (2). Hence I22 ⊆ (2). On the other hand, we can write
√ √
−(1 + −5)2 + 2(1 + −5) − 22 = 2,

and so 2 ∈ I22 . Hence (2) ⊆ I22 . This shows that I22 = (2).

√ √
(c) Claim: I2 I3 = (1 − −5), I2 I30 = (1 + −5), and I22 I3 I30 = (6).

√ √
√ we will show that I2 I3 = (1 − −5) by showing that I2 I3 ⊆ (1 − −5)
Proof: First,
and (1 − −5) ⊆ I2 I3 .√The elements of I2 I3 are finite
√ sums of elements of the form αβ,
where α = 2x + (1 + −5)y and √ β = 3z + (2 + √ −5)w. Therefore,
√ I2 I3 is √
generated
by the
√ elements
√ 2 · 3 = 6, 2(2 +
√ −5) = 4 + 2 −5, 3(1 + −5) = 3 + 3 −5, and
(1 + −5)(2 + −5) = −3 + 3 −5. Since
√ √
6 = (1 − −5)(1 + −5),
√ √ √
4 + 2 −5 = (1 − −5)(−1 + −5),
√ √ √
3 + 3 −5 = (1 − −5)(−2 + −5),

2
 and √ √
−3 + 3 −5 = −3(1 − −5),
√
we can see that I2 I3 ⊆ (1 − −5). On the other hand,
√ √ √
1 − −5 = 2(2 + −5) − 3(1 + −5).
√ √
Hence (1 − −5) ⊆ I2 I3 . This proves I2 I3 = (1 − −5).
√ √
Now √we will show that I2 I30 = (1 + −5) by showing that I2 I30 ⊆ (1 + −5) and
(1 + −5) ⊆ I2 I30 . The 0
√ elements of I2 I3 are finite
√ sums of elements of 0 the form αβ,
where α = 2x + (1 + −5)y and √ β = 3z + (2 − √ −5)w. Therefore,
√ I2 I3 is √generated
by the
√ elements√ 2 · 3 = 6, 2(2
√ − −5) = 4 − 2 −5, 3(1 + −5) = 3 + 3 −5, and
(1 + −5)(2 − −5) = 7 + −5. Since
√ √
6 = (1 + −5)(1 − −5),
√ √ √
4 − 2 −5 = (1 + −5)(−1 − −5),
√ √
3 + 3 −5 = 3(1 + −5),
and √ √ √
7 + −5 = (1 + −5)(2 − −5),
√
we can see that I2 I30 ⊆ (1 + −5). On the other hand,
√ √ √
1 + −5 = −2(3) + (1 + −5)(2 − −5).
√ √
Hence (1 + −5) ⊆ I2 I30 . This proves I2 I30 = (1 + −5).
√ √
Since √ − −5) and I2 I30 = (1 + −5) are principal, I2 I3 I2 I30 = I22 I3 I30 =
I2 I3 = (1 √
((1 − −5)(1 + −5)) = (6).

√
8.3.5. Let R = Z[ −n] where n is a squarefree integer greater than 3.
√ √
(a) Claim: The elements 2, −n, 1 + −n are irreducible in R.

Proof: In each case we will show that the element is irreducible by supposing it factors
into a product αβ for some α, β ∈ R, and then showing one of α, β must be a unit.
First consider a factorization
2 = αβ.
We apply the norm function to both sides to get the equation

4 = N (α)N (β).

3
 √ √
For any element a + b −n ∈ R, N (a + b −n) = a2 + bn2 cannot be 2, since 2 is not
a square and n > 2. Therefore one of α and β has norm 1 and the other has norm 4.
But the only elements with norm 1 in R are the units 1, −1. So α or β is a unit. This
shows 2 is irreducible in R.
Now suppose we factor √
−n = αβ
for some α, β ∈ R. We apply the norm function to both sides to see

n = N (α)N (β).
√ √
For any element a +√b −n ∈ R, either b = 0 or N (a + b −n) = a2 + nb2 ≥ n. If
b = 0, then N (a + b −5) 2
√ = n cannot divide n since n is squarefree, unless a = ±1.
If b 6= 0, then N (a + b −n) divides n if and only if b = ±1 and√ a = 0. Therefore, if
N
√ (α)N (β) = n, then one of α, β is a unit and the other is ± −n. This proves that
−n is irreducible in R.
Finally, suppose we factor √
1+ −n = αβ
for some α, β ∈ R. If we apply the norm function to each side we get the equation

1 + n = N (α)N (β).
√ √
Let α = a + b −n and β = c + d −n. Since N (α) divides 1 + n, a2 + nb2 ≤ 1 + n. So
b = 0, ±1. If b = ±1 then a = ±1 and√N (α) = 1 + n,√so N (β) = 1 and β is a unit. If
b = 0 then a2 divides 1 + n, and 1 + −n =√ac + ad −n. But then a must divide 1
as well, so a = ±1 is a unit. This proves 1 + −n is irreducible in R.

(b) R is not a UFD.

Proof: By Proposition 8.12, if R is a UFD, then√ all irreducible

√ elements are prime.
We will show that at least one of the elements
√ −n, 1 + −n is not prime, which will
show that R is not a UFD. Suppose that −n is prime. Then first, we can conclude
that n is √
prime in Z.
√ Otherwise, there would √ exist a, b ∈ N√>1 so that ab = n. And
then (a + −n)(b + −n) = (ab − n) + (a + b) −n = √ (a + b) −n would
√ be an element
of R which n divides, although n divides neither a + −n nor b + −n.
Since n is prime and √ n > 3, n + 1 is not prime. We √ can find√c, d ∈ N>1 so that
cd = 1 + n. But 1 + −n divides 1 + n, since (1 √ + −n)(1 − −n) = 1 + n, and
1 + sqrt−n does not divide c or d. Therefore 1 + −n is not prime. Since R contains
an irreducible element which is not prime, it is not a UFD.

4
 √ √ √ √
8.3.8. Let R = Z[ −5], and let I2 = (2, 1 + −5), I3 = (3, 2 + −5), and I30 (3, 2 − −5)
be ideals of R.
√ √
3, 1+ −5,√1− −5 are irreducible in R, and no pair is associate.
(a) Claim: The elements 2,√
Hence 6 = 2 · 3 = (1 + −5)(1 − −5) has two factorizations in R.

√
Proof: Let N be the field norm on Z[ −5]. First, suppose 2 = αβ for some α, β ∈ R.
Then 4 = N (α)N (β). There are no integer solutions to the equation 2 = s2 + 5b2 , and
so one of N (α) and N (β) must be 1. Hence one of N (α) and N (β) is a unit, and 2 is
irreducible.
Similarly, if 3 = αβ for some α, β ∈ R, 9 = N (α)N (β). Since 3 = a2 + 5bs has no
integer solutions, one of α and
√ β must be a unit.
√ Hence 3 is irreducible in R. By the
same argument, since N (1+ −5) == N (1− −5) = 6, √ and as we’ve seen, 2 = a2 +5b2
2 2
and 3 = a + 5b have√ no integer√solutions, if αβ = 1 ± −5, one of α and β must be
a unit. Hence 1 + −5 and 1 − −5 are irreducible in R.
If two element
√ √ α, β ∈ R are associate, then N (α) = N (β).
√ Hence no √ pair of 2, 3, 1 +
−5, 1− −5 could
√ possibly be associate except for 1+ −5 and 1− −5. However, if
1+√−5 √ 2 1
√
we compute 1− −5 in Q( −5), we get 3 + 3 −5, which is not in R. Hence no pair of
√ √
these irreducibles are associate, and the factorizations 6 = 2 · 3 = (1 + −5)(1 − −5)
are distinct.

(b) Claim: I2 , I3 , and I30 are prime ideals of R.

Proof: First, consider R/I2 . If this is an integral domain,

√ then I2 is a prime ideal.
First, consider√the quotient
√ ring R/(2). Every a + b −5 ∈ R is congruent to one of 4
element: 0, 1, −5, 1 + √−5, depending on whether a and b are even. √ Now, consider
I2 /(2). Every 2x + (1 + −5)y ∈ I2 is congruent to either 0 or 1 + −5 in I2 /(2). By
the Third Isomorphism Theorem, R/I2 ∼ = (R/(2))/(I2 /(2)). We now know that R/(2)
is a ring with four elements, and I2 /(2) is a ring with 2 elements. Hence, R/I2 is a
ring with 2 elements. Since R has an identity, R/I2 will as well. So R/I2 is the ring
with the two elements 0 and 1. This is an integral domain, so I2 is prime.
√
Now consider R/I3 . First, consider√the quotient ring R/(3). All elements a + b −5
are equivalent to the element ā + b̄ −5 in R/(3), where ā is the class of a in Z/3Z.
Hence, R/(3) has 9 √ elements. Now consider the ring I3 /(3). All elements of I3 are of
the form 3x + (2√+ −5)y for √ some x, y ∈ R. Hence, all elements of I3 are equivalent
to one of 0, 2 + −5, or 1 + 2 −5 in I3 /(3).
By the Third Isomorphism Theorem of Rings, R/I3 = ∼ (R/(3)/(I3 /(3)). By the previous
argument, this will be a commutative ring with a 1, and with 3 elements. We can choose

5
 √
representative elements 0, 1, −5. No pair of nonzero elements in this ring multiply to
0, so this is an integral domain. Hence I3 is a prime ideal of R.
Finally consider R/I30 . Again, consider the quotient ring R/(3). We saw before that
9 elements. Now consider the ring I30 /(3). All elements of I30 are of the form
R/(3) has √
− −5)y for√
3x + (2 √ some x, y ∈ R. Hence, all elements of I30 are equivalent to one of
0, 2 + 2 −5, or 1 + −5 in I30 /(3).
By the Third Isomorphism Theorem of Rings, R/I 0 ∼3 = (R/(3)/(I 0 /(3)). By the previous
3
argument, this will be a commutative
√ ring with a 1, and with 3 elements. We can choose
representative elements 0, 1, −5. No pair of nonzero elements in this ring multiply to
0, so this is an integral domain. Hence I30 is a prime ideal of R.

√ √
(c) Claim: (6) = (2)(3) = (1 + −5)(1 − −5) are the same factorization of (6) into prime
ideals.

Proof: Since
√ √ 6 = 2 · 3, the product2 of principal
0
ideals√ (2)(3) = (6). Similarly,
0
√ (1 +
−5)(1 − −5) = (6). But (2) = I2 , (3) = I3 I3 , (1 + −5) = I2 I3 , and (1 − −5) =
I2 I3 . Hence these are the same factorizations of (6) into the product of prime ideals.