Capacitance in Physics

"I wish to inform you of a new but terrible experiment, which I advise you on no account personally to attempt . . . .
From the [charged and insulated] gun barrel hung a brass wire, the end of which entered a glass jar, which was partly full of water .... This jar I held in my right hand, while with my left I attempted to draw sparks from the gun barrel. Suddenly I received in my right hand a shock of such violence that my whole body was shaken as if by a lightning stroke .... In a word, I believed I was done for." ~Peter Van Musschenbroeck (1746)
Chapter 6
Capacitance
Chapter Overview
Section 6.2 discusses single-plate capacitors, and Section 6.3 discusses two-plate capacitors, with equal and opposite charges, showing why they are so much more effective than single-plate capacitors. Section 6.4 considers capacitors in circuits, both in parallel and in series, as well as in more complicated arrangements. Section 6.5 shows how the capacitance is increased if a polarizable material fills the region between the two capacitor plates. This decreases the magnitude of the electric field within the material, by a factor called the dielectric constant. The combination of geometry and dielectric constant is responsible for the large capacitance of the Leyden jar (and thus the dramatic effects observed by Musschenbroek) and of the recently developed electrolytic capacitors. Section 6.6 considers the electrical energy stored by a capacitor, and Section 6.7 relates electrical energy and electrical force. Section 6.8 introduces the coefficients of potential to discuss the general problem where two charged conducting objects do not necessarily have equal and opposite charges. Section 6.9 discusses the dielectric properties and electrical discharge properties of dilute gases, including a discussion of plasma globes and fluorescent tubes. Section 6.10 presents Maxwell's elaboration of Faraday's concept of flux tubes, which are under tension and exert pressure upon one another, i
6.1 Introduction
The preceding description of the discovery of the Leyden jar illustrates one of the two major uses of capacitors: the rapid and powerful discharge of a reservoir of electric charge, such as in a heart defibrillator. The other major use is also as a charge reservoir, but one where a small and controllable discharge at a nearly fixed voltage is desired: the RAM (random access memory) of computers uses the state of storage of microscopic capacitors (charged or discharged) to represent O's and 1 's. Every electronic device, from computers to wristwatches, uses large numbers of capacitors for both of these purposes. Capacitance is a measure of the capacity of conducting bodies to store charge. Two earlier examples ~ see Figure 1.10 (where charged Leyden jars are
227
228
Chapter 6 ~ Capacitance
HI
I 84
The Leyden jar was the first two-plate capacitor. One plate was the water in the jar, electrically connected to the gun barrel, which served as a reservoir of charge. The other plate was Van Musschenbroeck's right hand, electrically connected to ground, which served as another reservoir of charge. From these reservoirs, charges of opposite sign went to the parts of each plate adjacent to the glass of the jar. On touching his left hand to the gun barrel, there was a pathway through his body for discharge from one plate to the other, and hence the shock. See Figure 6.1. Because the Leyden jar was so effective as a charge storage device, it was considered to be a condensor of electric charge. This name is still used to describe the capacitors associated with the ignition systems of gas-powered lawnmowers and pre-electronic ignition automobiles.
Figure 6.1 The discovery of the Leyden jar: the first two-plate capacitor. A charge source (not shown) brings charge to the cannon, then along the brass wire to the water in the glass jar, and then to the interior surface of the glass jar. Charge is repelled from the exterior surface of the glass jar, through the person's body, and to ground.
connected) and Figure 5.26 (where charged spheres are connected) ~ can be analyzed in terms of capacitance.
6~
Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor

Let us consider charge storage by an isolated conductor of arbitrary but fixed shape. As discussed in Chapter 4, in equilibrium any net charge on a solid conductor goes to its outer surface. Let the conductor have charge Q > 0, and be far from any other objects. Then electric field lines point outward from the object, leading to infinity. (Far from the object, the lines appear to come from a point charge Q.) Since field lines point from higher to lower voltage, the voltage V~ at infinity is lower than the voltage V of the conductor. Take V~ = 0, so
V>O.
Let us measure Q with a charge electrometer, as in Section 2.4 (there are other ways, but this is good enough in principle), and let us measure V with a
6.2 Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor
229
t
V Linear dimension (a) (b)
Figure 6.2 Charge Q and potential V relative to infinity are measureable quantities. (a) V is proportional to Q. (b) Their ratio, the capacitance C = Q/V, is proportional to the characteristic geometric length of the object.
voltage electrometer, as in Section 5.4 (again, there are other ways to measure A V). Now plot the curve of Q versus V. Volta, in the early 1780s did just this, but he employed the angular displacement of a straw electrometer instead of V, and the number of turns of a frictional electrification device instead of Q. The curve he found was a straight line. Its slope is known as the self-capacitance C:
The unit of capacitance, with units of C/V, is called the farad (F), after Michael Faraday, who studied material-dependent effects on capacitance (discussed in Section 6.5). The greater the charge Q, for a given voltage V relative to ground, the greater the capacity to store charge. In the form Q = CV, it has been called Voha's law. See Figure 6.2(a).
Measuring self-capacitance
Consider an isolated object that is too complex for its self-capacitance to be computed: an aluminum paint-sprayed rubber duck. See Figure 6.3(a).
Figure 6.3 Capacitance: (a) An isolated conductor resting on an insulating surface. (lo) A spherical capacitor: a conducting sphere of radius a and charge Q.
230 Chapter 6 u Capacitance
(Rather than having the duck sit on an insulator, close to ground, for better electrical isolation it could be hung from the ceiling by an insulating string.) Let the duck be given a charge Q = 6 10 -11 C, and let a measurement of its voltage relative to a distant point yield V = 20 V. (a) Find its capacitance. (b) If it is now connected to a source of charge (i.e., a charge reservoir) at fixed voltage V = 8 V, find the charge Q' on the capacitor, and the change in the amount of charge on the reservoir.
Solution: (a) Equation (6.1) gives C - Q~ V = 6 x 10 -11C/20V = 3 x 10 -12 F, or 3 pF (pF = 10 -12 F=picofarad). (b) For V = 2 0 V , Q = CV gives Q ' = 2.4 x 10-11 C. Since the charge on the capacitor has decreased, by charge conservation it has supplied Qres ~ ( 6 - 2.4) 10 -11 C = 3.6 10 -11 C to the charge reservoir. Here is another question. If our conductor (e.g., the duck) is scaled up proportionally in all three dimensions by a factor of two, how does that affect C?. The answer is it doubles. As will be shown shortly, C scales linearly with the linear dimension of the object; not with the surface area (linear dimension squared) nor with the volume (linear dimension cubed). See Figure 6.2(b).
Capacitanceof a larger-volume duck

Let the duck of the previous example expand in volume by a factor of five, while still maintaining its same proportions. (a) Find its new capacitance C'. (b) If V = 8 V before the increase in volume, and if the duck is electrically isolated during expansion, find the new voltage V'.
Solution: (a) Since the volume (which varies as the cube of the linear dimension) is larger by a factor of five, the linear dimension is larger by 51/3 = 1.71. Hence the capacitance is now C ' = (1.71)(3 pF) = 5.13 pF. (b) For V = 8 V, Q' = 2.4 10 -11 C, from the previous example. On expansion, Q' = Q but the new voltage is V' = Q ' / C ' = 4.68 V.
We now consider an example showing that Q versus V has a constant slope, and that this slope, C, varies with the linear dimension of the object.
6o2~1
Theory of Isolated Spherical Capacitor

Consider a solid conducting sphere, of radius a, which is given a charge Q . See Figure 6.3(b). By symmetry, Q is distributed uniformly over the surface. As discussed in Section 5.8, for r > a, it produces the same electric field and potential as a point charge, V(r) - k Q / r , and V~ - 0; and for r < a its potential
In addition to the possibility of confusing voltage V with volts (V), we now have the possibility of confusing capacitance C (italicized) with coulombs C (not italicized). A larger alphabet--such as that used by the Chinese language--might cure this difficulty. Blame written language, which is a product of the human mind, not science, over which we have less control.
6.2 Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor
231
Multimeters, which can be purchased at electronics stores and discount stores, measure a voltage difference in proportion to the current that it causes. This works if the voltage is maintained by some electrical power source. However, if the voltage is due to a small and nonreplenishable charge source, such as a capacitor, the voltage will fall rapidly as the charge is drawn off in the process of producing the current. This leads to either of two results: if the initial voltage is relatively low, no reading at all; if the voltage is relatively high, a blown fuse because of the large initial current flow through the multimeter. To measure voltage in this case, a modern electrometer is used. Unlike the original devices (e.g., calibrated leaf electroscopes), modern electrometers are "active" devices that sense the charge Q on the input side, but use an internal power source to cause, on the output side, current flow in proportion to Q.
takes on the constant value V(r) - k Q/a. Thus
That is, (6.2) indeed satisfies the rule of Figure 6.2(a), that C, the slope of Q versus V, is independent of V or Q. Moreover, (6.2) satisfies the rule of Figure 6.2(b), that C scales with the linear dimension of the object, in this case its radius. Without saying it, we effectively used the equivalent of (6.2) at the end of the last chapter, where we considered two distant conducting spheres.
~ T w o
unusualcapacitors
(a) Find the capacitance of an 18th-century cannon, approximated by a sphere of radius 0.5 m. (b) Find the capacitance of a sphere the size of the earth.
Solution: (a) By (6.2), C = a/k = 5.56 x 10 -1~ F = 55.6 pF. (b) The earth has radius 6.37 x 106 m, so (6.2)yields C = 7.08 x 1 0 - 4 F.
6~
Why Q~ V Is Independent of Q; Why C Scales with the Linear Dimension

The potential of a capacitor can be determined by summing up the potential due to all its charges, thought of as point charges. Since, for V~ - O, V - NikQi/Ri, for this sum, doubling each Qi m e a n s doubling V. Hence Q~ V is a constant, independent of Q. Moreover, doubling the linear dimension of the capacitor means doubling each Ri, and thus halving V. As a consequence, C - Q~ V doubles. Hence, if an aluminized rubber-duck baby has capacitance C, then an aluminized rubberduck mother that is doubled in each direction has capacitance 2 C. Equivalently, if equal charges are put on two objects, one being a scaled-up version of the other, the voltage will be higher on the smaller object. This scaling with the dimension of the object is a consequence of the fact that the force law for electricity is an inverse square, which leads to V = k Q / r for a point charge Q. Capacitance is a
2 3 2
useful quantity because it is a function of the geometry and the material of the capacitor, not of its charge or voltage.
~ T w o
well-separatedspheres
Two spheres with radii, rA = R and rB = 2R are very distant from each other. Each is given the same charge Q. (a) If VB = 200 V, find VA. (b) If, in addition, r B - 4 cm, find Q and CB.
Solution: (a) By (6.1), C -- Q~ V for any isolated conductor at potential V relative to infinity; by (6.2), C - a~ k for a sphere of radius a. Combining these two gives Q~ V - a~ k, so Q - Va/k. Applied to spheres A and B, with QA -- QB, this yields
VA r A VBr B
-
k Hence
k '
or VArA - VBrB.
VA= V/3 (r~-~A) -- V/3 ( 2 ~ )
- 2V/3 = 400 V.
Even without knowing QA or rA, we have found VA. (b) C = a / k gives CB - 2(.04m)/[9 x 109 N-m2/C 2] - 4.44 x 10 -12 E Then Q - Q B - CB VB 8.89 x 10 -l~ C. This is a typical static electric charge.
6.3 Two-Plate Capacitors

For a general two-plate capacitor, let us give to the two conducting plates (which can have arbitrary shape) equal and opposite charges and then measure the voltage difference A V - - V1 - 89 between the plates. Here V1 is associated with Q and 89 is associated with - Q , so that A V > 0. See Figure 6.4. We now define the capacitance to be iiii~ 84184 : ~ iii 8 4 1 8 4~:ii ~ i ~ i ~ ~il i ~ i? ~ i! i! i ~ ~ i~ i! ~ ~ i~ : i! ~ ~ i! ~ ! i ~ ! ~ i~ i! i ~ ! i~ ~ i~ i! i ~ ~ i~ i~ i !! ~ i :! i ~ ~ i~ i! i~ ~ i~ i~ i !! ~ ~ i! i ~ ~ i~ i~ i! i ~ ! ~ iU i! i ~ ! ~ i! ~ ! ~ i~ i! ~ ~ i~ i! i ~ ~ i~ i~ ! i! ~ i~ i~ i! i ~ ! i ~ i
For the same reasons as in the previous section, C - Q / A V is independent of Q or A V, and it scales with the linear dimension of the system, by which we mean we must scale both the plates and their separation.
Figure6 . 4 Two conductors with equal and opposite charge 4-Q and voltage difference A V. In isolation from other conductors and charge, this constitutes a two-plate capacitor.
6.3 Two-Plate Capacitors
233
Keep in mind that capacitor plates are made of conducting material, which in equilibrium have lots of negatively charged conduction electrons (the ones that can move freely about the conductor), and an equal and opposite amount of charge from essentially immobile positive ions. A capacitor plate containing 0.01 of a mole has about 6 x 1021 atoms. If the plate is made of copper, with two conduction electrons per atom, that means 2e = 3.2 x 10 -19 C of negative charge per atom that can move freely. Multiplying by 6 x 10 21, for the plate as a whole there is -1920 C of charge from the conduction electrons, and 1920 C of charge from the positive ions. Usually, a capacitor will be given no more than a fraction of a coulomb of charge. If the capacitor is given a charge of Q =0.001 C, then the positive plate will have (0.001 - 1920) C of charge from electrons (and +1920 C of charge from positive ions) for a net charge of 0.001 C, and the negative plate will have (-0.001 - 1920) C of charge from electrons (and +1920 C of charge from positive ions) for a net charge of -0.001 C.
6.3~1
Parallel-Plate Capacitor
Consider two parallel plates, each of area A, separated by d, and given equal and opposite charges Q. Neglecting end effects, the charge densities on the plates have the uniform values + a - +Q/A_ See Figure 6.5. Each plate produces a uniform field of magnitude 2:rcka, and since the fields of the two plates add in the region between the plates (/~ points from the positive to the negative plate), E - 4rcka, as in (3.36). Then the voltage takes the simple form A V -- Ed, as in (5.18). Hence ! i! i R i! i! i! i i ! i ! i ! ! i i ! i ! i ! i ! i ! i !! ! i i ! i ! i ii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiliii iiii!iiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiii iiiiiI For comparison, let A - 4rra 2, as for a sphere of radius a. Then (6.4) yields C 4zra2/4rrkd - (a/k)(a/d), giving a factor (a/d) relative to the capacitance (a/k) [compare Equation (6.2)] of the sphere. This factor of a/d can be made very large. It is one reason that two-plate capacitors can have much larger capacitances than one-plate capacitors.
Figure 6.5 Parallel-plate capacitor of plate area A
and plate separation d.
234
Chapter 6 s Capacitance
two-plate capacitor
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates of radius a -- 1.0 m, and plate separation d = 2 x 10 -4 m. (a) Find its capacitance. (b) W h a t radius would a sphere need to have the same capacitance?
Solution: (a) The plate area is A =

(6.4) gives C=
zra 2 -- 3.14
m 2.
Then, with d = 2
x 10 -4
m,
3.14 m 2 = 1.39 [(4zr)(9 x 109 N-m2/C2)(2 x 10 -4 m)]
x 10 -7
F.
(This is smaller than what we can easily obtain with commercial capacitors, but it is much larger than for a sphere of radius a = 0.5 m.) (b) To achieve an equivalent capacitance on a spherical capacitor, (6.2) gives C = a/k, so a = kC = (9 x 10 9 N-m2/C2)(1.39 x 10 -7 F ) = 1250 m!
6.3.2
Concentric Spherical Two-Plate Capacitor

Let the outer radius be b and the inner radius be a. Place Q on the inner sphere and - Q on the outer sphere. See Figure 6.6(a). This situation has spherical symmetry, so E - (kQenc/r2) la o f ( 4 . 1 5 ) applies. For a < r < b, Qenc- Q, s o E - (kQ/r2)i for a < r < b. Thus
AV-- V(a)- V(b)--- fa k T ~ r ' r d r - I

Hence
C =
E. d~ fb a -~
b
~dr-
kQ =-kQ r a
._ Ib
(1
-~--
1)_kQ(b-a) ab a
"
AV
ab k(b - a)"
(concentric spherical capacitor)
(6.5)
-2
(a)
(6)
Figure6.6 Two-plate capacitors: (a) Spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b. (b) Long cylindrical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b.
6.4 Capacitors in Circuits
235
Applying this to the earth, with a ~ b - 6.4 x 10 ~ m and b - a ~ 5 x 10 4 m (about the distance to the ionosphere, which neutralizes the charge of the earth), (6.5) yields C - 4 . 5 3 x 10 -2 F, m u c h larger than the 7.08 10-4F of Example 6.3(b).
~ T w o
checks
(a) Show that, when the separation b - a = d between the two spheres is small compared with a or b, the capacitance is that of two parallel plates of area A = 4Jra 2. (b) Show that, when b -~ ~ , the capacitance is that of an isolated spherical capacitor of radius a.
Solution: (a) As a -+ b, with b - a = d, C = ab/k(b - a) -~ a2/kd = A/4zckd, as in (6.4) for a parallel-plate capacitor. (b) As b-+ e~, C = a b / k ( b - a) ab/kb = a~ k, just as in (6.2) for the single sphere of radius a.
6~176
Concentric Cylindrical Two-Plate Capacitor

Let the outer radius be b, the inner radius be a, and the length l of each be so long (l >> a, b) that end effects can be neglected. Place charge per unit length )~ on r = a and -)~ on r = b. See Figure 6.6(b). We have already obtained the voltage difference between two such cylinders in (5.39) of the previous chapter, but the derivation bears repeating. This situation has cylindrical symmetry, so/~ - (2k)~n~/r)# of (4.19) applies. For a < r < b, ~,enc = )~, SO E = (2k)~/r)# for a < r < b. Thus
a
A VV ( a ) - V(b) - - Z ~ " d~ -
zb(_~)
# . # dr
_ Z b ( 2 ! _ _ ~ ) d r - ( 2 k X ) l n ( r ) ] I - 2k)dn b. Hence CQ = l AV 2kln (~)" (concentric cylindrical capacitor) (6.6)
Taking b = 3 m m and a - - 0 . 2 m m (approximate values for the co-axial cable of commercial cable companies) yields a capacitance per unit length C/I 2.05 x 10 -11 F/m. A 100 m length of such cable has C = 2.05 x 10 -9 F, so to produce A V - 2 V requires Q~ - CA V - 4.10 x 10 -9 C.

Equation (6.4) says that doubling the area of a capacitor doubles the capacitance because twice as m u c h charge can be stored at the same voltage. This can be done with two identical capacitors C in parallel, each with the same voltage
236
r -r
/Q c -?Q
(a) (b)
Figure 6.7 Capacitors in circuits. (a) Two identical capacitors in parallel. They have the same potential difference. (b) Two identical capacitors in series. They have the same charge.
difference A V. See Figure 6.7 (a). Thus two capacitors in parallel should have a larger equivalent capacitance than either by itself. Equation (6.4) also says that doubling the plate separation d halves the capacitance because the voltage doubles with the same amount of charge. This can be done with two identical capacitors in series, each with the same charge Q. See Figure 6.7 (b). Thus two capacitors in series should have a smaller equivalent capacitance than either by itself. With this background, let us now consider capacitors in series and in parallel. We will later consider more general cases.
6~4~1
Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are wired together in parallel, they have common upper terminals and common lower terminals. Thus, to place one capacitor in parallel with another, we must make two connections, one for each terminal. See Figure 6.8. Moreover, two new connections are needed to place a second capacitor in parallel with one that is already in a circuit. They are represented schematically like an end view of a parallel-plate capacitor. For purposes of argument, assume a reservoir of charge at a fixed voltage A V, to which capacitors C1 and (22 can be connected. Our goal is to determine the equivalent capacitance C
V2 ~
+l
Q=Q1 + Q 2
C1
C2 V
_~~-Q= -Q1 - Q2
Figure 6.8 Two capacitors in parallel. They have the same potential difference. The equivalent capacitor has the same potential difference and an equivalent charge equal to the sum of the individual charges.
6.4 Capacitorsin Circuits
237
of these capacitors in parallel. (The resulting value of C is independent of how the voltage difference is produced.) To find C, we use two essential principles: (1) charge conservation, established in Chapter 1, and (2) the path independence of the voltage, established in Chapter 5. First, because the electrical potential is independent of path, capacitors (21 and C2 in parallel with each other each have the same voltage difference as their combined equivalent capacitor: A V1 = A 89 -- A V. Second, by charge conservation the charge Q given to the composite capacitor distributes itself to become charges Q1 and Q2 on the individual capacitors: Q = Q1 + Q2. (For ideal capacitors, the charges on opposite plates are equal and opposite, to produce zero external electric field, thus assuring no current flow in the external system.) Since Q1 = C1AV1 = C1AVand Q2 = C2AV2 = C2AV,
Q = Q1 + Q2 = ((71 + C2)AV.
(6.7)
That is, at fixed total charge Q, capacitors in parallel share the charge. By the definition (6.3) of capacitance, C = Q / A V , (6.7) then leads to
. . .i!iTi . . . !ii!J!iiiiYiii ......... Jiii iil iii! . . . . .i. . . . ....................................................... ................................
More generally, for many capacitors in parallel, C = C1 + C2 + . . . .
Connecting and cross-connecting two charged capacitors in parallel

Let (71 - 3 #F and C 2 - 6 /,F initially be isolated with Q(1 ~ 8 #C and Q(~)- 10 #C. Label the plates of C1 as a and a', and those of C2 as b and b'. Let them first be connected positive to positive (a to b) and negative to negative (a' to b'). After they come to equilibrium, let them next be connected positive to negative (a to b') and negative to positive (b to a'); the left of Figure 6.9 shows this just before the connections are completed. (This cross-connection is like that on going from Figure 1.10(b) to Figure 1.10(c). It is also related to the connecting of two spheres, as in Figure 5.26.) (a) Find the initial voltage differences across each capacitor. (b) Find, after the connection is made, the charge on each capacitor, and the voltage differences across each capacitor. (c) Find, after the cross-connection
Q1 -Q1
VTT
Q2
tll = A V2 ~ a'
Q = Q1 - Q2 Q-Q1 + Q2
Figure 6.9 Connecting two charged capacitors, positive plate to negative and negative to positive. After equilibration, each pair of plates has the same potential. By charge conservation, the equivalent capacitor has an equivalent charge equal to the sum of the individual charges.
238 Chapter 6 ~ Capacitance
is made, the charge on each capacitor, and the voltage differences across each capacitor.
Solution: (a) From the initial charges and capacitances, the initial voltages are A Vl(0) = Q(0),/C1 = 2.67 V and A V2 (~ = Q(~)/Ca - 1 .67 V. (b) On making the connection, charge will transfer (i.e., charge conservation applies) until the voltage differences become the same. On making the connection, the capacitors are in parallel, with net capacitance given by (6.8), or C - C 1 + (22 = 3/zF + 6 #F = 9 #F. They have total charge Q = Q(1 ~ + Q(~) = 8 # c + l 0 #C = 18 /~C. Thus, after connecting them, their common voltage difference is A V1 - A V2 = A V = Q ~ C = 18/~C/9/~F - 2 V. They then have charges Q1 = (21A V1 = (3/~F)(2 V) = 6 #C and Q2 = C1A V2 = (6 #F)(2 V) = 12 #C, which sums to 18/~C, as expected. (c) On making the cross-connection, charge will transfer (i.e., charge conservation applies) until the voltage differences become the same. Now, however, the total charge is Q' - Q1 - Q 2 = 6/x c - 12 #C - 6 / ~ C . (The negative means that the plates a and b' are negatively charged.) Again, the capacitors are connected in parallel (even though different plates are now in parallel). Hence, their common voltage difference is A V1' - A V~ = A V' = Q ' / C = - 6 /~C/9 /~F = - 0 . 6 6 7 V. They then have charges Q1 = C1AV1 = (3/~F)(-0.667 V) = - 2 / ~ C and Q2 - C1A 1/2 = (6/xF)(-0.667 V) - - 4 / x C , which sums to -6/~C, as expected. Note the importance of charge conservation on both connection and reconnection. Since the system goes to these states spontaneously after the connections and cross-connections are made, the energy of the final state must be less than the energy of the initial state. We will see this after we study energy storage by capacitors. (Recall that, on releasing a ball, it spontaneously falls under gravity, since it has more gravitational potential energy in its "initial" position than in its "final" position.)
inventing your own rules
Many students like to invent their own rules for what happens on connecting capacitors--average the charges or average the voltages m but this violates a well-known fact, adapted from gorillas to capacitors. In a cage with 50 bananas, how many bananas does a 500-pound gorilla eat for lunch?
Solution: It depends on whether it is alone, or if there is a 1000-pound gorilla in the same cage. For gorillas, the larger the stomach capacity of the gorilla, the larger the number of bananas it has for lunch; for capacitors, the larger the electrical capacity, the larger the amount of charge it holds for a given voltage difference. For C1 ~ (22, averaging the charge clearly satisfies charge conservation but gives A V1' ~ A V~, which makes the voltage path-dependent. Similarly, averaging over the voltage differences gives A V1' = A V~ but violates charge conservation.
6.4.2
Capacitors in Series
In contrast to the case of t w o capacitors in parallel, w h e r e t w o pairs of plates are connected, for two capacitors (21 and (22 in series only a single pair of plates is connected. Initially, there is no charge on the plate of either capacitor. See the leftmost part of Figure 6.10. For purposes of argument, assume a reservoir
239
C~
(22
Ci
C2
v~ + zxv2-~'l Q~ = Q2 = Q
Figure 6.10 Two capacitors in series. They have the same charge. The equivalent capacitor has the same charge and an equivalent voltage equal to the sum of the individual voltages.
of charge at a fixed voltage A V, to which one end of each of the capacitors C1 and (72 is connected. Our goal is to determine the equivalent capacitance C of these capacitors in series. (The resulting value of C is independent of how the voltage difference is produced.) As for capacitors in parallel, we use the two principles of charge conservation and of the path independence of the electrical potential. On connecting the voltage source, let its positive side put charge Q1 on the outer plate of Ca, and let its negative side put charge - Q 2 on the outer plate of (72. For ideal capacitors, as we assume here, the plates of each capacitor have equal and opposite charge, to produce zero external electric field, thus assuring no current flow in the external system. Thus, as illustrated in the leftmost part of Figure 6. l 0, the plates of C1 and (22 have charges + Q1 and + Q2. Application of charge conservation to the originally neutral region connecting the two capacitors yields Q~onne~t = 0 - Q 2 - Q]. Hence Q i - Q2; the charges on adjacent plates must be equal and opposite. Call this common value Q. Then A Va - Q a / Q - Q/Ca and A V2 - Q2/C2 - Q/C2. Application ofthe path independence of the electrical potential, both to the equivalent capacitor subject to A V and by summing the voltages across the series of capacitors, yields
AV--AV
+A89
(1 ,)
(6.9)
That is, at fixed total voltage difference A V, capacitors in series "share" the voltage difference. By the definition of capacitance, (6.3), written as 1 / C - A V / Q , (6.9) leads to
More generally, for many capacitors in series, C -1 - C~ -1 + C2 -~ + ....
Floating" voltage and the Leyden jar

After the Leyden jar was discovered, many tried to reproduce the result, but were unsuccessful because they stood on an insulator, such as a cake of
240
Chapter 6 9 Capacitance
wax. (They weren't stupid; it had become customary to perform electrical measurements on an insulator, in order to keep the charge from escaping.) This meant that, instead of their body serving as a wire connected to ground, their feet were serving as a plate of a feet-wax-ground combination (capacitor C1), their hand was serving as one plate of the Leyden jar (capacitor C2), and their body was like the wire connecting the two plates of these capacitors in series. Since (6.4) shows that a relatively large separation (as between feet and ground) gives a relatively small capacitance, take the feetwax-ground capacitance to be C1 = 10 -11 F, and the Leyden jar to have the much larger capacitance of C2 = 10 -9 F. Further assume that the electrostatic machine produced A V = 1010 V on the cannon, relative to ground. Find the total capacitance of the system and the voltage change across each of the capacitors.
Solution: By (6.10), for capacitors in series, C = 0.99 10 -11 F, so that Q = CA V = 10 -8 C. Since Q] = Q2 = Q, we obtain A ~ = Q/C1 = 1000 V and A V2 = Q~ c2 = 10 V. They sum to the expected value of 1010 V. In this case, the Leyden jar has only 10 V across it, as opposed to the 1010 V it would have for someone standing on ground. That explains the inability of the other experimenters to charge up the Leyden jar enough to cause a shock. The voltage of the experimenter has "floated up" to 1000 V, very close to the 1010 V of the inside of the Leyden jar. Note that the capacitor with the larger capacitance requires a larger charge to produce the same voltage as the smaller capacitor. Because capacitors in series have the same charge, this means that the voltage across the larger capacitance (here, the glass of the Leyden jar) is much less than across the smaller capacitance (here, the block of wax between feet and ground).
From the left-hand side of Figure 6.8, two capacitors in parallel have two distinct pieces of conductor, having net charges 0 and -Q. (The two connected conductors on top behave like one piece, and similarly for the two connected conductors on the bottom.) On the other hand, from the middle of Figure 6.10, two capacitors in series have three distinct pieces of conductor, with net charges O, O, and - 0 . If you understand the distinction between parallel and series, then you should be able to convince yourself that three conductors in parallel can be analyzed in terms of only two distinct pieces of conductor, whereas three conductors in series can be analyzed in terms of four distinct pieces of conductor (what are their charges?). (To treat two capacitors in series, with charge on the middle conductor, we must use the methods discussed in Section 6.8.)
6.4.3
Combinations o f Series and Parallel Circuits

We can produce a wide variety of circuits by combining parallel and series circuits. For example, Figure 6.11 shows a complicated-looking circuit that can be reduced to parallel and series circuits. In this way, the overall capacitance can be obtained. However, a complete description of the circuit involves obtaining the charges and voltages for each capacitor, given, for example, the voltage across the system as a whole.
241
Figure 6.11 Combinations of series and parallel circuits. Parallel and series capacitors are replaced by equivalent capacitance until there is only a single equivalent capacitance. Not all circuits can be analyzed in this way.
combinationof three capacitors
In Figure 6.12(a), there are three capacitors. Let C1 = 3 #F, C2 = 6 #F, and (23 = 1 /xF. (21 and (22 are in series with each other, and (23 is in parallel to them. Find their equivalent capacitance, Ceff. Solution: To find the equivalent capacitance of this combination, add (21 and C2 in series, to get the equivalent capacitance on the left, Co, as in Figure 6.12(b). Then add Cc and C3 in parallel to obtain C, as in Figure 6.1 2(c). Thus, if C1 = 3/zF and C2 = 6/zF, then by (6.10), 1/ CL = 1/3/xF + 1/6 #F = 1/2/zF, so CL = 2 lzF. Then, by (6.8), C = CL + C3 = 2 lzF + 1 #F = 3 # E
Detailedstudyof Example6.9
In the previous example, let the voltage difference across (21 be 6 V, and let its common end with C3 be at ground. Find the charge on each capacitor, and the voltage at the other end of C3.
Solution: Clearly, Q1 = C1A V1 = (3 /zF)(6 V) = 18 #C. Then QL = Q2 = Q1 = 18/zC. Hence A V2 = Q 2 / C 2 = 3 V. Thus, the voltage drop across the
series combination of C1 and (72 is, by (6.9), 6 V + 3 V = 9 V. This must be the same as the voltage drop A V3 across (23. Thus Q3 = C3AV3 = 9 /zC, so QL + Q3 = 27 #C, in agreement with Q = CA V = 27 htC.
~+ Q2 -Q2 Q3
C3 eL ~
(~
+
QL Q3
~ C3
c2
Q~
Ceff I
c1
Q1 -Q3 -Q1
-QL -Q3
Q~
(a)
(c) Combination of capacitors.
Figure6.12
242
The analysis of Example 6.1 0 assumes that one capacitor cannot affect another. That is true for ideal two-plate capacitors that produce no external electric fields. However, a wire in a laboratory can charge up, producing an electric field, and that electric field can produce an electrical potential that can affect other wires in the laboratory. Typically, we want to eliminate such nuisance effects. In a more complex analysis, with the wire considered to be a third conductor, from measurements of the coefficients of potential (see Section 6.8) the influence of the wire can be estimated. Although the response of a conductor to a voltage seems to be reflected only in its net charge, keep in mind that there is a full charge distribution over each conductor, even the connecting wires, and this is an infinitely large set of numbers. Clearly, it can be a very complicated problem to work out the entire charge distribution although in principle it can be measured experimentally.
6.4.4
More Complex Circuits

Although we can produce a wide variety of circuits by the preceding procedure of combining parallel and series circuits, there are more general circuits. Pictured in Figure 6.1 3(a) is a bridge circuit. To obtain the capacitance of this combination, we must assign voltages to each junction and charges to each capacitor, and then repeatedly use Q~ = CA V. Because a similar analysis will be performed for resistors, in Chapter 8, we will not go into such complexity at this time. Consider, however, the case where the voltages at the midpoints, without the bridge capacitor, are the same, so A 1/5 = O. Since Q5 = CsA Vs = O, the bridge capacitor C5 does not charge up, so it is not an active part of the circuit.
bridgecondition
Disconnecting one end of the bridge capacitor yields the simplified circuit in Figure 6.13(b), which can be analyzed in terms of series and parallel capacitors. The left arm has (2] and (23 in series, so 1/CL = 1/C,1 + 1/C3,
c3
I
C 5 ,,
]
l I
c4
c3
--c4
I I I
C2
C1
' C2
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.13 Circuits with multiple capacitors. (a) Bridge circuit, which cannot be reduced in terms of equivalent resistances. (b) Circuit that can be reduced in terms of equivalent resistances.
6.5 Dielectrics
243
and the right arm has C2 and C4 in series, so 1/Ca = 1/C2 + 1/C4. (Hence the total capacitance, if we wanted it, is C = CL + CR.) For a total voltage A V across the system, with the (21 and (22 connection at the low voltage end, the voltages across (21 and C2 are
A ~ - Q,~/C~ - ( C'~AV) - zx V[ Cl (Cl

A 89 QR/G - AV
+C3)
'
I ~ ]
( G + Ca)
"
If A Vs = 0, then the two midpoints are at the same potential, or A 171 -- A 89 so (23/ ((21 + C3) - C4 / (C2 + Ca). This leads to the bridge condition,
G = G .
G c4
(bridge condition)
(6.11)
Let C1 and C2 be known, let C4 be unknown, and let (23 be variable. When C3 is varied until the voltage difference A V5 across the bridge is zero, the unknown Ca can be determined from (6.11).
6.5 Dielectrics
One reason that the Leyden jar, a two-plate capacitor, worked so well was that it had a better geometry for storing charge. A second reason was that for a given charge Q the glass between its surfaces increased the capacitance by decreasing the voltage difference A V between the plates. The amount by which the voltage difference decreased is a measure of what is called the dielectric constant, or relative permittivity K of the glass. The quantity e = Ke0 is known as the permittivity, thus explaining why e0 is known as the permittivity of free space. K is a material property, independent of geometry. See Table 6.1, which gives the dielectric constant K and the dielectric strength Ed, the field above which sparking~electrical breakdown~occurs. We first discuss how to measure K, and then show how it affects the capacitance. In measuring Ed, it should be recognized that breakdown in a capacitor occurs at the position where the field is largest.
6~5 I"~ Determining the Dielectric Constant

Let a parallel-plate capacitor, with area A and separation d, have plates with charge density +or, so the electric field magnitude E0 = 43rkcr. (We neglect edge effects.) Now introduce a slab of dielectric (e.g., wood or glass) that just fits into the capacitor. Its molecules become polarized. See Figure 6.14, which includes a representation of some polarized molecules (not drawn to scale).
Table 6.1 Dielectric properties (at standard temperature and pressure)
Dielectric constant K Dielectric strength Ed (106 V/m)
1.0059 3
80 --
4-6 9
3.5 16
2-3.5 30
5.5 150
330 8
2.8 20
2.3 10
244
Chapter 6 a Capacitance
0"
- - O "t
....
j/
/ . . . . . .
Dielectric c o n s t a n t ~c -~r
%,
Figure 6.14 Capacitor filled with dielectric, including polarization charges :ka' on the outer surfaces of the dielectric and source charges :t:a on the inner surfaces of the conducting plates. A gap is drawn between conductor and dielectric, but even if there is none, the polarization charge (intimately associated with molecules of the dielectric) cannot escape to the conductor, or vice versa. There will be no net charge within the dielectric, but its surfaces develop polarization charges q:a' opposite the plate charge Because a and - a ' produce opposing electric fields, the electric field within the dielectric decreases. Within the dielectric the field magnitude is now
E - 4rcko - 4 r c k c r ' - Eo (
c~')
1 -o"
E0 -
4rr k a .
(6.12)
Equation (6.12) may be rewritten as

!ii84 ~~ ~ i,~il,i/i~O i~ii~ ~ } ~ ? ~ ~ % ~ } ~ S ~
Eo
K
(field,with ~ e ! e ~ c )
.......
~il;!i~i
where K is the material-dependent dielectric constant. For real materials, K > 1. The more polarizable the material, the larger the value of K. Comparison of (6.13) and (6.12) yields
1 (T f
-=
K
1---.
(T
(6.14)
Here is one way to measure K directly. If the plates have a fixed charge, then the voltage difference without the dielectric is
A Vo = Eod.
(6.15)
For the same charge on the plates, but with the dielectric between the plates,
Eod A V-- Ed - ~,
(6.16)
so that the voltage will decrease by a factor of K.
6.5 Dielectrics
245
Determining ~ by measuring voltage

Let a parallel-plate capacitor in air have voltage difference 20 V. After a dielectric is slid between the plates of the capacitor, the voltage difference is 4 V. Find the dielectric constant K, and the ratio of the charge induced on the dielectric surfaces to the charge on the plates of the capacitor.
Solution: Equation (6.16) yields K = A % / A V= 5. Equation (6.14) yields ~'/c~ = 0.8 so that the charge induced on the dielectric surfaces is 80% of charge on the capacitor plates.
6~5~2 Effect o f Dielectric on Capacitance

W h a t effect does the dielectric have upon the capacitance? By C = Q ~ A V, with fixed Q but A V in the denominator decreased by the factor K, the capacitance C increases from its value Co in air (Kair ~ 1) by the factor K. This is true for parallelplate, cylindrical, and spherical capacitors, provided that the region between the plates is completely filled with a single type of dielectric. Thus
For K - 5, this gives an increase by a factor of five in the capacitance. The geometrical effects associated with two-plate versus one-plate capacitors can easily yield an additional factor of ten. Together, they can lead to an overall capacitance increase by a factor of 50 in going from a one-plate to a two-plate capacitor. This explains the power of the Leyden jar relative to previous methods of charge storage.
Determining ~ by measuring charge

Faraday studied the effects of certain dielectrics by using two identical spherical capacitors, one with an air gap and the other filled with, for example, molten sulfur or paraffin, which cooled and hardened. The plates of the two capacitors were connected, and thus they had the same potential difference. By measuring the charge that flowed to each capacitor, the dielectric constant could be determined. Let the initial charge, for the empty capacitor, be Q0 = 1.5 x 10 -8 C, and let the final charge, where the capacitor is filled with dielectric, be Q = 6 x 10 -8 C. Find the dielectric constant.
Solution: Q = CA V = K CoA V and Q0 = C0A V, so Q = KQ0. For our Q and
Q0, this gives K = 4.
Two geometrically different capacitors with the same charge and voltage difference are macroscopically identical. However, they are not microscopically identical when placed in a circuit. For example, the charge distributions on the plates will differ. Moreover, changing the leads to the plates changes the charge distribution on the leads and on the plates.
246
Chapter 6 m Capacitance
6.5.3
[OJ ~ l Vlol il~._l l
Electrolytic Capacitors and Supercapacitors

A major advance in capacitor design was the introduction of electrolytic capacitors, which have a very thin layer of dielectric separating the two plates of the capacitor. (Thus, unlike Figure 6.14, there would be no air gaps.) There are at least two basic schemes. In one scheme, the electrodes (in Figure 6.14, the capacitor plates) are asymmetric. The special electrolyte between them normally is conducting, but when a voltage is applied in the proper direction, an insulating oxide layer of very small thickness d (on the order of 10 -9 m) is deposited. If the electrical leads are connected the wrong way, the oxide layer for such a capacitor is removed by electrolytic decomposition, leading to breakdown of the capacitor. Such capacitors only can be given positive voltage on one side, and for that reason the electrodes are clearly distinguished. In another scheme, the electrodes are identical. When a voltage is applied, the positive ions from the electrolyte are attracted to the negative electrode. If the voltage is less than a threshold value on the order of a volt (depending upon the electrode and the ions), positive ions press against, but do not react with, the negative electrode. The charge on the electrode and the nearby opposite charge in the electrolyte behave like a capacitor with a very small plate separation. A similar effect with negative ions occurs at the other electrode. Too large a voltage causes a chemical reaction at the electrode-electrolyte interface, thus passing charge through the electrolyte, and making the capacitor ineffective at storing additional charge. By using carbon particles as the electrodes, it has been possible to achieve very large effective areas, thus increasing the capacitance even further. Electrolytic capacitors with C = 1 #F are now commonly available. Even larger capacitances are becoming available. There is talk of capacitors of such large capacitance ("supercapacitors") that, for some applications, they might store enough electrical energy to replace batteries. (A simple application would be to maintain the power in a clock driven by ac power, when the power temporarily goes out.)
6.5.4 Biological Capacitors: The Cell Membrane

.....
Living organisms use electricity in many ways. One use is to provide electrical signals within a cell and between different cells. Even when cells are in their resting state, they are electrically nontrivial because (according to the cell and the organism) the voltage within the cell is lower than outside the cell by some 50 mV to 150 inV. The cellular membrane, or cell wall, separates the exterior and the interior of biological cells. The individual components of this membrane are amphipathic molecules, which means that their two ends are very different. The head is a polar molecule, having a permanent electric dipole moment. As a consequence the head group is attracted to water (thus it is called hydrophilic, or water loving). The tail group consists of two long fatty acids, called lipids, and avoids water (thus it is called hydrophobic, or water fearing). See Figure 6.15.
6.5 Dielectrics
247
Figure 6.15 Details of a biological cell wall, composed of a lipid bilayer, which separates the cell interior (cytoplasm) from the cell exterior (extracellular space). The wall is composed of two layers of amphipathic molecules, their hydrophic ends in contact; the homophilic ends are in contact with the cytoplasm and extracellular space.
Such molecules spontaneously self-assemble: throw many in water and they form pairs that go tail to tail; then the pairs go side by side to form a lipid bilayer~the basis of the cellular membrane. By this means the hydrophilic heads are in contact with the water, and the hydrophobic lipid tails are shielded from the water. Because cell membranes all have nearly the same thickness d (6-10 nm) and the same dielectric constant (K ~ 3, appropriate to fats and oils), cell membranes all have about the same capacitance per unit area, or specific capacitance Cm. Since membranes are relatively thin compared to their area, we may use (6.4) with (6.17) to obtain
C~ m A -
4rrkd"
/4
(specific capacitance)
(6.18)
For K - 3 and d - 6 nm, (6.18) gives Cm ~ 0.5/zF/cm 2, about a factor of two smaller than typical experimental values. The characteristic voltage difference A V = 100 mV across a typical cell wall separation of d ~- 10 nm corresponds to an electric field of E = A V / d - 107 V/m. This exceeds Ed for air ~. (See Table 6.1.) However, Ed for lipids is much larger than this. For a nearly spherical cell, from a knowledge of its radius a (giving surface area A -- 4Jra 2) and Cm, we can estimate its capacitance C - Cm,4_ (Spherical cell radii can range from 1 - 1 O0 #m.) For a nearly cylindrical cell, from a knowledge of its radius a (giving perimeter p - 2~a) and Cm, we can estimate its capacitance per unit length Cmp. (Cylindrical cells, such as nerve axons, the telephone wires of the nervous system, have radii that vary from 1 to 250 #m; the largest is the giant squid axon, whose size has made it a veritable bioelectrical playground.) Figure 6.16 is a schematic of a spherical cell, including negative charges associated with large molecules within the cytoplasm (cell interior), positive ions that cancel the charges on the large molecules, negative ions that go to the inside of the cell wall, and an equal number of positive ions that go to the outside of the cell wall. Not depicted are the vast but equal numbers of positive and negative ions that are dispersed throughout the volume of the cell.
248
Chapter 6 i Capacitance
The cellular membrane is not a rigid object, for the molecules on either surface (compare Figure 6.15) can diffuse about that surface. Moreover, the cellular membrane also contains proteins that serve as selective ion channels (for passive flow of ions into and out of the c e l l ~ t h i n k of these as ionselective resistors), selective ion pumps (for active flow of ions into and out of the c e l l ~ t h i n k of Figure 6.16 Biological cell, with a these as ion-selective voltaic cells), characteristic negatively charged protein and other structures. (K +, Na +, inside, and ions in its immediate vicinity to CI-, and Ca 2+ are the most impor"screen" its electric field. At the cell wall, there tant ions.) The relatively slow ion are additional ions on both sides, leading to a pumps, and some of the ion chanvoltage difference across the cell wall. This nels (over 57 varieties) are always voltage difference is instrumental in the operating. However, some of the operation of certain large proteins within the ion channels can be switched on cell walls, which serve as ion channels, ion suddenly by a change in voltage or pumps, and ion exchangers, making the human body serve as a huge and complex ionic concentration. This causes a electrical machine. rapid flow of ions into or out of the cell, leading to effects that make the larger organism (a collection of cells) operate effectively as a whole. Thus your body contains, effectively, a vast number of capacitors that charge and discharge between the cellular and intracellular electrolytes. The beating of your heart is driven by a muscular response set off by this cellular charge and discharge. You are an electrical machine!
6.6 Electrical Energy

6.6.1
Energy Storage by a Capacitor

We now consider the energy U it takes to charge up a capacitor. See Figure 6.17. Take U = 0 for charge Q - 0. Clearly the capacitor would discharge spontaneously if the plates were connected, so we expect that U > 0 for Q ~ 0. Starting from the configuration where the capacitor is uncharged, successively take small charges dQ' from one plate and put it on the other. At any instant, the charge on the positive plate is Q', so the voltage gain of dQ' is A V - Q ' / C . Since positive charge d Q' is moved to a plate that already has positive charge Q', this must increase the electrical energy. By (5.8), or U - q V,
dQ' Figure 6.17 Charge transfer dQ' from one capacitor plate to another,
-Q'~_ used to determine the energy to charge a capacitor.
6.6 Electrical Energy
249
with (U, q, V) ~ (dU, d Q', A V), the increase d U in electrical energy is
d U - d Q ' ( A V) - ~ .
Q,dQ,
(6.19)
Q'2/2cIQ, iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
ii~i~i~iiii~ ' iiiii!ii;~iiiiiiii;~i~iiiiiiii
This can be integrated immediately, with U = 0 for Q = 0, to yield U = or
ii
ii i
i!!
Another way to obtain (6.20) is to use U = QA V, where the average voltage difference A V at which the charge is transferred is A V = ( Q / 2 C). With Q = CA V, (6.20) may also be written as
U -- QA V 2 ' U -- V)-------~z .C(A 2 (6.2])
These results also hold for a single-plate capacitor, where Q is brought in from infinity.
capacitor'senergystorage
For a 20/zF capacitor, let A V = 240 V. Find Q and U.

Solution: Equation (6.3) yields Q = CA V = 4800 ~tC. Equation (6.21) then gives U = QA V/2 = 0.576000 J. If we try to use this energy to lift a live 2 kg duck by the height h, U = mgh yields h = 14.6 mm. (Greater height might be attained by discharging the capacitor through the duck, but only if the duck provides energy of its own.)
6.6.2
Energy Is M i n i m i z e d by zl V~ = ~ V2 for Capadtors in Parallel

Consider two capacitors initially at different potentials. On connecting their upper plates together, and their lower plates together, thus permitting charge transfer, charge is transferred until they reach equilibrium with A Vi = A 89 See Figure 6.18. In making this adjustment, the total charge on each set of connected plates (e.g., the connected upper plates) does not change. We expect that such a spontaneously reached situation is a m i n i m u m of the energy. Let us see if that is indeed the case. The total electrical energy is given by UdQ1 = -dQ2 Q] Q2
2Q
0 2 t """ 9 2C2
(6.22)
C1
C2 -Q1 -Q2
Figure6.18 Charge transfer from one capacitor to another, used to study energy minimization when two capacitors are brought into electrical contact.
250 Chapter 6 a Capacitance
At fixed total charge, Q = Q1 + ~ 2 - ~ constant, so d Q1 = - d Q 2 . The differential of U is then
dU - O-"ld
+ ~2~2d Q2 - (~1C1
Q,2)C2 dQ1.
(6.23)
From (6.23), the energy is minimized when dU/dQ,1 = O. This corresponds to Q1/C1 = Q,2/C2, or A V1 = A V2, as expected.
6.6.3
Energy Density for a Capacitor

Let's apply (6.21) to a parallel-plate capacitor containing material of dielectric constant K. Successively placing (6.4), (6.17), and (6.16) into (6.21) yields
U-
1 KA ( A V ) ~ - A d E ~ _ K A d E 2 ~ 4~rkd - 8Jrk K ~nk
(6.24)
"
The electrical energy per unit volume u~, also known as the electrical energy density, is given by the electrical energy U divided by the volume Ad. Using (6.24), this becomes
u~ = - ; - i = r E ~ , .
,~a
6zre
(electric~en~
de~~:
~~
This result is true in general. Recall that E is the field within the dielectric itself.
Electricfield within a capacitor

Consider a dielectric with K = 4. To achieve uE - 2 x 108 J/m 3, a value that is characteristic of energy storage in a voltaic cell, what must E be? (6.25) yields E-(8zrku~/K) 1/2, so here E =3.38 x 109 V/m. This exceeds Ed for most materials. Supercapacitors must withstand such a large E. For air at atmospheric pressure, with K ~ 1 and Ed ~ 3 x 106 V/m, (6.25) gives only uE = 39.8 J/m 3.
Solution: Equation
Energy calculation of capacitanceof sphericalcapacitor

We will verify that (6.25) holds more generally, by reconsidering the singleplate spherical capacitor. In this case, E = k Q / r 2 forr > a, and for a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr the volume element is d~2 = 4Jrr2dr. (Since V means voltage, we must use another symbol for volume.) How much energy is required to charge the capacitor?
Solution: By (6.25) with K - 1 (an air gap), and with d U - u~d~2,
u - f u aV - / u(azrr2) dr _ kQ dr _ kQ
L ~ (kQ/r2)2 (4zrr2)
Ja
r2
2a
(6.26)
Using (6.26) in (6.20) yields C - Q2/2U - a/k, in agreement with (6.2).
6.7 Force and Energy
251
6~176 Spontaneous Charge Transfer Causes a Decrease
in Electrical Energy
W h e n two conductors at different potentials are connected, charge flows bet w e e n t h e m until their potentials are equalized. Since this occurs spontaneously, the total electrical potential energy m u s t decrease in this process. The energy goes into heating up the system, due to drag forces on the charge t h a t passes through the wire connecting the two conductors. Such resistive heating will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
Energylosson connectingtwo capacitors

How much energy is lost on connecting and cross-connecting the capacitors in Example 6.7? Solution: Example 6.7 has C~ = 3 ~tF and C2 = 6/xF, and initial charges Q(0) = 8/xC and Q(2 ~ 10 #C. Thus the initial energy is (Q(1~ + (Q(~))2/2C2 = 19/zJ. After connection, Q1 - 6 / z C and Q2 = 12 #C. Thus after connection the energy is Q2/2 C1 + Q2/2 C2 = 18/xJ. After cross-connection, Q~ = 2 #C and Q~ - 4 #C. Thus the energy after cross-connection is Q'I 2/2 C1 + Q~2/2 C2 = 2/zJ. As expected, the system loses energy at each step.
-
E ~ ~ ~ ~
Energylosson connectingtwo spheres
Let two spheres with radii rl - 0.5 m and r2 - 1 m, and charges Q1 - 0 and Q1 - 10 -9 C, be very far apart. W h a t is the change in energy of the system after the spheres are connected, and how much charge is transfered to sphere 1? Solution: By (6.2), C1 - r l / k 5.56 x 10 -11Fand C2 = r 2 / k - 1.11 x 10-1~ F. For Q1 = 0 and Q2 - 10 -9 C, they have an initial total energy of U1 + U2 = 0 + Q2/2 C2 - 4 . 5 x 10 -9 J. When they are connected, charge transfers across them until they have the same voltage, so they may be thought of as being in parallel. Hence C = C1 + C2 - 1.67 x 10 -l~ F. They have a net charge Q ' - Q1 + Q2 = 10 -9 C, so after the connection they now have energy U' = Q'?/2 C - 3.0 x 10 -9 J. Thus, as expected, the system has lost energy. Note that A V' - Q'/C - 6 V, so that Q'I = C1A V'I = C1A V' = 3.33 x 10 -l~ C, which is the amount of charge transferred by the connection.

From C h a p t e r 5, if a charge q in an electric field/~ is displaced by d~', then the change in its electrical energy dUq is given by the negative of the electrical w o r k dW, or
dUq -dW-
- q E . d~.
S u m m i n g over m a n y charges qi, the total electrical energy change is given by
d U - - F . d~,
F - E
i
qi El.
(6.27)
252
Chapter 6 R Capacitance
Here /~ is the total electrical force. We will use (6.27) to study a number of different situations.
6.7.1
Direct Calculation of Attractive Force between Plates of Parallel-Plate Capacitor

The force of attraction between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor was given in the previous chapter, when we discussed the force electrometer. The result is sufficiently important, of itself and as a check for our calculation by the energy method, that it doesn't hurt to repeat this trivial calculation. Consider a capacitor of area A whose plate separation d is much less than the characteristic width of the capacitor. For simplicity, consider a capacitor with an air gap, so we take K - 1. The force magnitude F - 1/~1 on the positive plate is the product of its charge Q with the electric field magnitude E = 2zrka of the other, where a = Q / A . Thus Q(2zrka) 2nkQ ?
F = QE-
(6.28)
6.7.2
Energy Calculation of Attractive Force between Two Capacitor Plates: Fixed Charge
F will now be obtained by calculating the energy change when the upper plate position changes from d to d + ~d. (Since d d is a terrible notation, here we will denote small changes in any quantity, such as d, by ~d.) With C = A / 4 r c k d , this leads to ~ C = ((~C/,~d)(~d = - ( A / 4 z r d 2 ) , ~ d . For a capacitor in isolation, the charge is fixed. Thus, with U = Q2/2 c and (6.4), at fixed Q the differential of U is
~U - -2 4r ckd 2 2 Q2.__~_(~d.
(fixed charge) (6.29)
Thus, at fixed Q , a increase in d causes an increase in U. Clearly, the system will want to spontaneously c o n t r a c t ~ a n attractive electrical force Fy. Explicitly, at fixed Q, and from (6.27) with d~" = :9~d,
(~UI Q -- - F f i d .
(6.30)
Comparison of (6.29) and (6.30) yields Fy - - F , with the same F as in (6.28). The negative sign in Fy means that the force is downward, corresponding to attraction.
6.7.3
Energy Calculation of Attractive Force between Two Capacitor Plates: Fixed Potential
Let our capacitor be in parallel with a second capacitor of much larger capacitance so that even if the second capacitor transfers charge, its potential remains
253
essentially unchanged. (We can think of the second capacitor as a reservoir at fixed potential.) F will now be obtained by calculating the energy change when the upper plate position changes from d to d + (~d, but we now must include the energy of the second capacitor. See Figure 6.18. Again we employ (6.20) for the energy, but there are now two independent variations. On the one hand, we change the capacitance C by ~ C on changing the plate separation, as in (6.29); on the other hand we permit charge transfer ~Q~ = -~Q2, as in (6.23). The differential of U is the sum, or
,:su--
c,
Q2|\
C2 /
~Q1.
(fixed voltage)
(6.31)
Since we are in equilibrium, the second term is zero because A 171 -- Q1/C1 A V2 = Q 2 / C 2 . Hence the coefficient of ~Q1 cancels; only the first term survives. However, this is the same as (6.29) for the isolated capacitor, so it leads to the same force as for the isolated capacitor. Thus, as expected, the force of attraction between the plates of a capacitor does not depend on the circuit to which it belongs. Another way of describing the topic of this section is to say that we have calculated the force between the plates at fixed voltage.
6~7o4 A t t r a c t i o n o f a Dielectric i n t o a Capacitor

We now apply (6.27) to find the total electrical force/~ on a slab of dielectric that is partially inserted into the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor. See Figure 6.19. Because this problem is related to the amber effect, we expect the slab to be attracted inward. A direct calculation, involving a sum of forces over all parts of the capacitor, including the fringing field region, would be quite difficult. However, as long as the slab edge isn't near either edge of the capacitor, we can obtain F by energy considerations. Figure 6.19 Dielectric plate partially In that case, the total energy change inserted into a parallel-plate capacitor. In the interior region, there is a large field on moving the slab by a small amount but negligible field gradient. In the involves, effectively, only a transfer of exterior region, both field and field material from the region within the cagradient are negligible. In the fringe pacitor to the region outside the caregion, both field and field gradient are pacitor. The energy in the difficult-tononnegligible. By the amber effect, calculate-with fringing field region is forces act only in the fringe region to the same in both cases, so it does not attract the dielectric into the capacitor, contribute to (6.27). Nevertheless, an energy calculation that To be specific, let the capacitor have neglects the fringe region permits that thickness d and area A - Lt, where L attractive force to be calculated. is into the page and l is horizontal. Let air fill an a r e a A a i r ~ L ( l - x), and let the dielectric fill an a r e a A d i e l - - Lx. Thus an increase in x corresponds to the dielectric moving inward. See Figure 6.19. Assume that, within the capacitor, the
254 Chapter 6 m Capacitance
field lines go directly from the positive to the negative plate. This is a consistant assumption because then, by Gauss's law there is no charge at the air-dielectric boundary, and therefore no charge that tends to bend the field lines. Treat this as two capacitors in parallel since the common upper and lower plates cause the voltage difference A Vair across the air gap to be the same as A Vdiel a c r o s s the dielectric. Taking Kair ~'~ 1, (6.4) and (6.17) yield
Aair L(I - x ) Cair-- 4zrkd = 4zrkd '
Adiel ~cL x Cdiel--K 4zrkd = 4 n k d "
(6.32)
Since these capacitors are in parallel, (6.8) yields

L
CCair -]- Cdiel -- (l - x + K x) 4re kd"
(6.33)
Clearly, the capacitance increases when the dielectric is pulled into the capacitor, and thus (at fixed charge) the energy decreases because C appears in the denominator of the expression for the energy at fixed charge. We now determine the force of attraction. In (6.33), increasing x by ~x causes a change in C of L ~C = (K - 1) 4rrkd~X.
(6.34)
(This corresponds to a shift in area d A = L d x from air capacitor to dielectric capacitor.) By (6.27) with d~" = ~cdx, by U = Q 2 / 2 C with the charge Q fixed, and by (6.34), Q2
(~U - -Fx(~X - -2C----g(~C-
L 2 C 2 (K - 1) 4zrkd(~X.
Q2
(6.35)
Thus Q2 L (6.36)
Fx = 2C 2 ( K - 1)4rrkd.
Since K > 1, the force indeed pulls the slab inward (Fx > 0). By (6.36) and (6.33), at fixed Q the force decreases as the slab gets farther into the capacitor.
Forcepulling slab into capacitor

Consider a parallel plate capacitor Q / C = 100 V, L = 10 cm, and d = 1 mm. A dielectric slab with K = 5 and the same L and d is at the edge. Find the force pulling the slab between the plates. Compare with the force of gravity on a penny, of mass m = 3.11 g. Equation (6.36) gives Fx = 1.77 x 10 -s N. A penny, of weight mg = 3.05 x 10 -z N cannot be lifted by such a small force.
Solution:
6.8 Coefficients of Potential
255
Comparing surface charge densities

Consider two capacitors with the same geometry, one filled with air and the other filled with dielectric of dielectric constant K. They are given the same voltage difference. Compare the charge densities in the two cases. Solution: Because the voltage differences are the same across both air and dielectric, the electric fields are the same across both: Eair-- Ediel. Because the charge density induced in the dielectric weakens the field of the charge on the plates, for the dielectric the charge density ~did on the plates must be larger than the charge density Crai r without the dielectric. Specifically, since E a i r " - 4rrk~air and, by (6.13), Ediel- 4rrkcrdiel/K, we have crdieI (6.37) ~air -~ .
K
Charge densities and net charge as slab goes in

Let A V = 100 V, K = 5, L - l 0 cm, l = l 0 cm, and d = 1 mm in the situation described by Figure 6.19. (a) Find the charge densities for the air region and for the dielectric region. (lo) Find the net charge on the plates for the set of distances x = {0, 5, 10} cm. Solution: (a) By A V = Ed, E - A V/d = 1.0 x 105 V/m, both in the air and in the dielectric. Then Cr~ir= Eair/4~rk=8.84 x 10 - 7 C / m 2 and by (6.37), CraieZ -- KCr~ir = 4.42 X 10 -6 C/m 2. (lo) For the set of distances x = {0, 5, 10} cm, (6.33) yields the set of capacitances C = {8.84 x 10 -11, 2.65 x 10 -11, 4.42 x 10 -1~ F. Then Q = CA V gives the set of net charges Q = {8.84 x 10 -9, 2.65 x 10 -9, 4.42 x 10 -8} C.
6~
Coefficients of Potential
So far we have only considered situations where two conductors have equal and opposite charges. We now turn to the more general case. Consider two conductors of arbitrary shape, each on an insulating stand, with respective net charges Q1 and Q2. See Figure 6.20. By the action-at-a-distance approach, there is a contribution d V = k d q / r for each bit of charge dq (although the q's on Figure 6.20 Two conductors with the conductors are unknown). Hence arbitrary charges (e.g., ducks) for study of the voltage on any conductor, due to the coefficients of potential, charge on itself or any other conductor, is proportional to the amount of charge on itself and that other conductor. Following a notation introduced by Maxwell, we write V1 - pllQ1 -b- p12Q2, v2 - p21Q1 + p22Q2, (6.38)
where the (unknown) coefficients p~y are called coefficients ofpotential and may be
256
Chapter 6 R Capacitance
d e t e r m i n e d experimentally. T h e Pll and P22 are t h e coefficients of self-potential, and t h e P12 and P21 are t h e coefficients of mutual potential. T h e y usually are difficult to calculate; typically, it is m o r e practical to m e a s u r e t h e m .
Measuring the coefficients of potential

With one aluminized rubber duck given a charge of Q.1 = 10 -9 C, and a second, smaller, aluminized rubber duck uncharged (Q2 = 0), the measured voltages are 1/1 = 8 V, V2 = 4 V. (The second duck's potential has "floated up" toward that of the first, due to the coefficient of m u t u a l potential.) W i t h the second duck given a charge of Q2 = 10 -9 C, and the first duck uncharged (Q1 = 0), the measured voltages are V1 = 4 V, V2 = 20 V. Find the coefficients of potential.
Solution: From the first set of information, (6.38) yields Pll = V1/Q1 = 8 109 F -1 and P21 = V2/Q1 = 4 x 109 F -1. From the second set of information, (6.38) yields P22 - V2/Q2 = 20 109F -1 andp12 = V1/Q2 = 4 x 109F -1. Note that P12 = P21, a property that holds in g e n e r a l ~ o u r example was chosen to satisfy this condition. Here, that means a charge of 10 -9 C on either duck produces 4 V on the other one. Note that, if both ducks are given the same charge, the smaller duck is at a higher potential because it is closer to that charge.
Using the coefficients of potential: effect of grounding

Employ the coefficients in the previous example. Let Q2 = 10 -9 C, Q1 = 0, and 111 = 4 V, V2 = 20 V, as in the second situation of the previous example. Find (a) the Q~ that will ground 1, and (b) the new voltage of 2.
Solution: (a) On connecting 1 to ground, V~ must decrease by 4 V to II1 = 0. For such a decrease, a negative charge Q1 must flow to conductor 1, obtained from (6.38) by V1 = 0 = PllQ1 + P12Q2 with Q2 unchanged. Solving for Q1 yields Q..1 = -Q..2(p12/p11) = - 0 . 5 x 10 -9 C. (b) Note that the initial voltage difference is 1/2 - 1/1 = 16 V. Because Q1 is negative, both 1/1 and 1/2 decrease, but because Q1 resides on conductor 1, 1/1 decreases more than does ~ . Specifically, we have P21Q1 = - 2 V, so 172 is lowered by only 2 V, from 20 V to 18 V. Thus the voltage difference increases to V2 - V1 = 18 - 0 = 18 V.
Coefficientsof potential for two distant spheres

Consider two spheres separated by a distance R, of radii a and b satisfying
a, b << R. Find the coefficients of potential.

Solution: Even when the spheres are far apart, one can affect the other because it will produce a potential as if it were a point charge. A lesser effect is that, by electrostatic induction, the electric field produced by one will cause the charge on the other to redistribute. Neglecting such charge redistribution,
Va = kO~a k~b
a Thus k Pll = - , a
P22 =
R ' k ~,
I4 =
kQ~a
R
+ ~
k~b
b '
a, b << R.
(6.39)
k P21 = P12 = --. R
(distant spheres)
(6.40)
6.8 Coefficientsof Potential
257
For a = 0.5 m, b = 1 m, R - 10 m, (6.40) yields Pl] = 1.8 x 101~F-1,
P22 =
0.9 x l010 F -1, P12 - - 0 . 9 x 10 9 F -1. If Qa = 0 and Qb = 10-9 C, then (6.38)
gives V~ - 0.9 V, I4 = 9 V. We can also use (6.39) directly to obtain V~ and 14.
6~8~I
Properties of the Coefficients of Potential

The preceding example of two conducting spheres at a distance illustrates a number of general properties of the coefficents of potential Pij for two arbitrary conductors. Many of t h e m are simply common sense restatements of results from Chapter 5. (a) The pq are positive because positive charge produces positive potential. Moreover, the coefficients of mutual potential P12 and P21 approach zero when the conductors get infinitely far apart. (b) The pq satisfy
P12 --
P21, a result to be established later in this section.
(c) No matter how close 2 comes to 1 (unless 2 is inside 1), P21 < P11. This is because the charge on 1 is closer to 1 than 2, and thus has a larger effect on 1 than on 2. Similarly, P12 < P22. The coefficients of potential have some other properties: (d) If 2 is inside 1, and it is uncharged, then it is inside the equipotential defined by 1. Having no charge of its own, it does not disturb that equipotential. Hence V2 - p21Q1 - V1 - pllQ1, so P21 - p11. However, P22 > P21 continues to hold.
(e) We might think that Pll is unaffected by the presence of 2. However, consider the case where 1 is charged positively and 2 is uncharged. By electrostatic induction the induced negative charge on 2 is closer to 1 than the induced positive charge on 2. This decreases the potential of 1. Hence the coefficients of self-potential depend upon the positions (and even orientations) of other conductors. The closer 2 is to 1, the more the decrease. Such effects are neglected in (6.39). They are measureable and are used in devices that detect the approach of a hand to a doorknob, or the movement of a key on a computer keyboard. 6.8.2
Capacitance in Terms of the Coefficients of Potential

If the pq's have been measured, or can be calculated, then (6.3) can be evaluated using them. With Q - Q1 - - Q 2 , and A V - V1 - 89 (6.38) gives
c= Q1 = - 89 Q p l i Q ) - ( # 2 1 Q - pi2Q)
Pll + P22 -- P12 -- P21 (6.41)
Hence the capacitance of a two-plate capacitor is a combination of both mutual- and self-potential coefficients. (Don't even think about remembering this equation.)
258
Chapter 6 t Capacitance
Capacitance of a two-duck capacitor

Find the capacitance of a capacitor where the two plates are the two ducks in our previous two-duck example, where Pll = 8 x 10 9 F -~, P22 = 20 x 10 9 F -1 and P21 - P21 = 4 x 10 9 F -1
Solution: By (6.41), the two conductors, if employed as a two-plate capacitor,
have capacitance C = 5.0 x 10 -11 F. For an infinitely wide parallel-plate capacitor, the Pij's cannot be c o m p u t e d easily because of the infinite a m o u n t of charge on each plate. Thus (6.41) cannot be used. Imagine putting charge on one of the plates in order to determine P11. The resulting electric field would fill all space, and the field energy would be proportional to the volume of all space. This makes it difficult to define P11. A similar argument holds for truly infinite cylinders, except that the field energy would vary logarithmically with the distance from the cylinder to infinity.
Capacitance of two concentric spheres

Find the capacitance of two concentric spheres of radii b > a. See Figure 6.6(a).
Solution: Let the inner (outer) sphere be 2 (1). If Q2 - 0, then the voltage at b is that of a point charge Q1 at the origin, or I11 - (kQ1/b). By (6.38), Pll - k/b. Similarly, if Q1 = 0, then V2 = (kQ2/a), so p22 = k/a. Since 2 is within 1, by property (d) of the coefficients of potential, we have P21 = Pll = k/b. Also, by property (b), P12 - P21. Hence (6.41) leads to
C=
1 ab (k/b) + (k/a) - (2k/b) k(b - a)"
(spherical two-plate capacitor)
This is in agreement with (6.5).
6.8.3
Energy for Two Conductors: Establishing That P~2 - -
P2,
Let us consider the energy to charge up two initially uncharged conductors. In the first stage, charge up 1 by bringing in charge dQ'l from infinity, while holding Q2 - 0. By d U - d Q ( A V) and (6.38),
d U1 - d Q' 1 VI'IQ~=O - d Q'l ( p11Q' 1 + P12 Q'2 ) IQ 2=O - p11Q'1d Q'1 9
Hence, integration leads to
U1 - ~ P l l ( Q ' I ) 2
O_1
-
~p11(Q1
)2
In the second stage, charge up 2 with Q1 fixed. Then

dO2 - d Q ' 2 V2']Q,~=Q1 - dQ~2(p21Q~l + P22Q'2)]Q'~=Q~ -- (p21Q1 + p22Qt2)dQ~2.
6.9 Material Properties of Dielectrics
259
Hence, integration on Q~ at fixed Q1 leads to

Q2 U2 = p21Q1Q'2
1 ]Q2 l + ~P22(Ql2) 2 - p21Q1Q2 + ~p22(Q2) 2.
0
The total energy of charging is thus

U01 + 02 - ~ p 1 1 ( Q 1 ) 2 + p 2 1 Q 1 Q 2 + ~ p 2 2 ( Q 2 ) 2.
(6.42)
N o w reverse the order of charging. Mathematically, this corresponds to interchanging 1 and 2 in (6.42), leading to
U f -U~ --]- U~ - ~-p22(Q2) 2 --}-p l 2 Q 2 Q 1
-Jr- ~ - p l l ( Q 1
)2
(6.42')
Since the physical states in both cases are the same, the energies U and U' must be the same. Comparing (6.42) and (6.42') yields P]2 = P21, a result stated earlier without proof. (6.43)
Grounding a conductor decreases its electrical energy

In Example 6.2, we grounded a system of two conductors with Pll = V1/Q1 = 8 x 10 9 F -1, P22 = V2/Q2 = 20 x 10 9 F -1, and P21 = V2/Q1 = 4 x 109 F -1, starting with Q1 = 10 -9 C, Q2 = O. Find the initial and final energies.
Solution: The initial energy was, by (6.42) with Q2 = 0, Uinitial = Pll Q 2 / 2 =
10 -8 J. The final energy, with Q1 unchanged, but now Q2 = - 0 . 5 x 10 -9 C, is given by the full expression in (6.42). This is Urinal -- 0.9 X 10 -8 J. Thus, the system has lost energy. This goes into heating up the system, due to friction on the charge as it passes through the wire connecting (72 to ground.
6~
Material Properties of Dielectrics

This section is different from other sections we have studied because it attempts to relate macroscopic p h e n o m e n a to microscopic quantities.
6,9.1
Polarizability and Dielectric Constant Are Related

Chapter 3 ~ s e e ( 3 . 1 6 ) ~ d i s c u s s e d the atomic polarizability ~, defined by
-+
=oeE.
(6.44)
260
It gives the relation between the induced dipole moment ~ of an atom and the applied electric field/~. Not surprisingly, there is a relationship between the polarizability and the dielectric constant. Although difficult to obtain in general, this relationship can be found for a dilute single-component gas, where we expect that K ~ 1. Even knowing about this case is revealing. Consider the dielectric in Figure 6.14 to be a dilute gas, such as air. Then the induced charge density ~' should be small, and hence in (6.44) the approximation E ~ E0 is valid, where E0 is due only to the charge i a on the capacitor plates. Thus, by (6.12), E ~ 4zrkm (6.45)
Let the atomic density of the gas be n, and let the parallel-plate capacitor have plate areas A and plate separation d, so it has volume A d . Then ~' Q' A
Q'd Ad"
(6.46)
Since Q ' d is the total dipole moment of the induced charge, and within the capacitor there are Nmol - n A d molecules, each of dipole moment p, we have
Q'd - l~olp -(nAd) p - (pn) ( A d ) .
(6.47)
Then (6.46) becomes, with (6.47) for Q'd, with the scalar form of (6.44) for p, and with (6.45) for E,
, c~ Q ' d = p n - n ~ E .~ n~(4zrk~). Ad
(6.48)
Rearranging (6.14) and then using (6.48) yields

-- = 1
(7
a'
1
K
KK
,~ 4zr kno~.
(6.49)
Since we assume a dilute gas, in (K - 1)/K we can take K ~ 1 in the denominator (but not in the numerator). Then (6.49) yields
14 ,~ 1 + 4rrkno~.
(6.50)
Here the relatively small second term of (6.50) contains the polarization effects. The relationship between K and ~ is more complicated for denser systems, like liquids and solids. However, (6.50) captures the intuitively evident physics that the higher the density a n d the higher the polarizability, the larger the dielectric
constant K. From dielectric constant to density
For a sample of He gas at room temperature, where c~ = 0.23 x 10 . 4 0 C-m2/ V, K is measured to be 1.000045. Find the density n and the gas pressure P.
261
Solution: From (6.50), we have n = (x - 1)/4zrka = 1.73 x 1025/m 3. Atmospheric pressure (P0 = 1.013 x l0 s N/m 2) and room temperature T=293 K corresponds to no = 2.47 x 1025/m3. Since, at fixed temperature, by the ideal gas law the pressure P is proportional to the density n, this density corresponds to P = 0.7 atm. We close this section by noting that these ideas work, qualitatively, even for denser materials, as long as the molecules are nonpolar~that is, without a permanent electric dipole moment. Forpolar molecules, which have a permanent electric dipole moment, a small electric field can completely align them with the electric field, giving a very large dielectric constant. The extent of their alignment is limited by the thermal energy, which tends to orient them randomly.
6o9~2 Electrical Breakdown Occurs More Easily
at Low Gas Density

Sparking occurs when a critical value of the electric field, called the dielectric strength Ea, is reached. In air, that value is determined by how much energy an electron needs to ionize a molecule of air (either N2 or 02). At atmospheric pressure, E a = 3 x 106 V/m. Consider the motion of an electron through a gas of neutral molecules. (Electrons are always present in gases, due to ionization by cosmic rays.) In a field E, the characteristic voltage gain A V of the electron, on traveling a characteristic mean-free p ~ h I from one molecular collision to the next, will be A V - El, where E = [E 1. If E is large enough that A V is on the order of the ionization voltage Vz of the molecule the electron hits, then another electron is kicked off, so there are now two electrons in the gas. This starts an electron avalanche, leading to a spark. This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown. At the threshold field Ea for dielectric breakdown V~ ~ Eal. (6.51)
This is not an equality because dielectric breakdown is a statistical process, for which the exact coefficient is difficult to obtain. Note that 02 has V / ~ 12.0 eV, and N2 has V / ~ 15.5 eV. The mean-free path l has the following properties: (1) it increases with decreasing density n ofthe air molecules (there are fewer to collide with, so it travels farther before it collides); (2) it increases with decreasing scattering cross-section (which is on the order of the square of an atomic dimension a). Hence, l satisfies the proportionality
l ~
na 2 ,
(6.52)
which is also dimensionally correct. Combination of (6.52) with (6.51) leads to Ea" T VI "~ Vlna2" (6.53)
Thus, the lower the gas density, the lower the dielectric strength, and the easier it is to ionize the gas. In solids and liquids, the dielectric strength is determined
262
by the field needed to ionize the atoms of the material and is m u c h higher than in rarefied gases because the density n is m u c h higher.
Electricalbreakdown in the atmosphere

Consider the atmosphere at T - 300 K (near standard temperature of 293 K) and at standard pressure (10 s Pa, where the pascal is Pa - N/m2). Assume the ideal gas law in the form P V = Nks T, where N is the number of molecules and kB - 1.38 x 10 -23 J/K. Taking the collision cross-section to be a 2 with a = 1.0 x 10 -l~ m, and V1 - 15 V, estimate the mean-free path and Ed.
Solution: By the ideal gas law, the gas density n = N~ V = P/kBT is about
2.4 x 1025/m3. This corresponds to an average separation s - - n - 1 / 3 ~ 3.5 x 10 -9 m. Equation (6.52) then gives a mean-free path of l ~ 4.2 x 10 -6 m. This is much greater than a or s. For V1 - 15 V, use of (6.53) as an equality gives Ed .~ 3.6 x 106 V/m, very close to the measured value of 3 x 106 V/m.
Electricalbreakdown in plasma globes

W h a t are called plasma globes are available at commercial electronics stores. Within the globe, constantly changing filaments of light go from a central electrode to the transparent outer casing. The detailed colors depend upon the gases within the partially evacuated globe. To see the principle involved, consider a partially evacuated chamber of air, with only 10 -2 of atmospheric pressure. The idea is that, at low gas density, there are few but energetic collisions, and the associated recombination is responsible for the colors of the plasma globe. Estimate the dielectric strength of air at 10 -2 of atmospheric pressure.
Solution: Since the density of air molecules relative to atmospheric pressure is smaller by a factor of 10 -2, the mean-free path l will be 100 times longer (about 4.2 x 10 -4 m), and Ed will decrease by a factor of 100, from 3 x 106 V/m to 3 x 104 V/m. Hence, dielectric breakdown is achieved more easily at the lower pressure. Plasma globes have an electrode that produces a high voltage (~5 kV) at a high frequency (~30 kHz), and this causes dielectric breakdown in the lowpressure gas within the globe. The light emitted on recombination of electrons with positive ions leads to the observed visual display. If the mean-free path were so long that an electron would cross the globe without hitting any atoms, sparking within the globe would be suppressed. Nevertheless, significant amounts of energy would be deposited at the walls, causing the emission of light or even x-rays if the electrons are energetic enough.
Electrical breakdown in fluorescent tubes

Fluorescent tubes contain a mixture of argon and nitrogen at atmospheric pressure, including a small drop of vaporized mercury (Hg). Electrons accelerate between the two electrodes at opposite ends of the tube. While crossing the tube, the electrons collide with Hg atoms, losing energy while exciting the Hg atoms. W h e n the Hg atoms deexcite, they emit ultraviolet radiation, which gets absorbed at the walls and is rapidly reemitted as visible light. This rapid reemission at a lower frequency is called fluorescence. Absorption and
263
reemission of radiation occurs in all materials. When the reemission process is too fast to be noticed on the human scale of fractions of a second, it is called phosphorescence. Recall the quickly disappearing phosphorescent afterglow of a TV or computer screen, and the slowly disappearing fluorescent afterglow of some light switches.
6.9~
Electrical Breakdown to the Max: Lightning

Lightning is not merely an interesting visual display. In the United States alone, each year lightning hits and kills between 75 and 100 people, and starts about 10,000 forest fires, with costs from forest and building fires of about $100 million. There also is economic loss due to currents induced on electrical wiring (e.g., phone lines) connected to sensitive and unprotected electronic equipment (e.g., computer modems). Such currents (in wiring and in people) need not come from a direct hit, but can be caused by sudden depolarization when a cloud overhead suddenly discharges to another cloud or to ground a distance away. Lightning can be cloud to cloud or cloud to ground, cloud to cloud being about three times more frequent. The most frequent type of cloud-to-ground lightning brings negative charge to the earth. However, about one-tenth of lightning bolts bring positive charge to the earth; such lightning can be particularly destructive. Because lightning bolts occur quickly, and because electrons have much less inertial mass than ions, the charge transfer is due to electrons. Even when it appears that positive charge is being transferred one way, it is mostly the movement of electrons in the opposite direction. A typical thundercloud has three regions where electric charge accumulates: (1) closest to ground (about 2 km from ground) might be about +10 C, called the p charge; (2) distributed over the middle of the cloud (about 5 km from ground) might be about - 4 0 C, called the N charge; (3) toward the top (about 10 km from ground) might be about +40 C, called the P charge. A thundercloud has an electric dipole moment, which can be measured from the ground. For electrical discharge to occur, an electric field in excess of the breakdown field must develop. In moist air, this is thought to be about 10 s V/m. Since voltage differences between ground and cloud can be as high as 108 V, it is not difficult to see that such fields (i.e., voltage gradients) can develop. Lightning originates in a discharge from the middle of the cloud (the region with negative charge N) to the bottom of the cloud (the region with positive charge p). This negative discharge overshoots, going all the way to the ground in a series of steps, via the stepped leader. Once the stepped leader produces an ionized channel, a much larger return stroke carries positive charge from ground to cloud; this return stroke is seen as lightning. (a) The stepped leader proceeds by hundreds of steps, each lasting perhaps a #s (with a rise time of about 0.1 #s) and extending perhaps 50 m, with pause times of perhaps 50 #s. See Figure 6.21 (a) and (b), which include a house and a tree. By the time the stepped leader approaches the ground, its channel contains about -5C. (Note: Stepped leaders are quite variable. Steps of 3-200 m, pause times of 30-125 #s, and channel charges of 3-20 C are measured regularly.) During the step, but not during the pause,
264
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 6.21 Five stages in a typical lightning strike (which brings negative charge to ground). (a) Initiation of stepped leader from cloud. (b) Growth of stepped leader. (c) Return stroke leader from ground rising toward stepped leader. (d) Connection of leader from ground and stepped leader from cloud. (e) Fully developed return stroke from ground constitutes the lightning bolt.
the leader is luminous enough to be visible by special photographic techniques. Luminous stepped leader channels have diameters of 1-10 m. Starting from a height of 3 km, the total time for lightning to reach ground might be 20 ms. This time gives much information. First, it gives an average downward velocity of 150,000 m/s (= 3 km/20 x 10 -3 s). (Note: average velocities between 1.0 x 10 s m/s and 25.0 x 10 s m/s are measured regularly.) Second, it indicates that from cloud to ground there might be 400 steps (20 ms total time/50 #s pause time). (Note: This gives a path length of about 400 50 m = 2 kin, which is less than 3 km; clearly, the average pause time must be larger than 20 ms.) Third, it gives an average current (including pauses) of 250 A (= 5C/20 ms); the peak current during a single step might be 10,000 A. The leader channel heats to about 30,000 K. Associated with the heating of the channel is a shock wave (high-intensity sound), which propagates outward as thunder.
6.9 Material Propertiesof Dielectrics
265
(b) The return stroke is initiated by its own leader rising up from the ground toward the stepped leader (Figure 6.21 c). The two meet some hundreds of feet from the ground (Figure 6.21 d), providing a continuous channel of conducting gas from cloud to ground. The return stroke then travels upward (Figure 6.21 e) at from one-tenth to one-third of the speed of light, with a total transit time of about 100/zsec, a peak current of about 30 kA, and a rise time of a few ms. The fall time to half the peak current is about 50/zsec, and current on the order of hundreds of amperes can last for a ms or more. It transfers a charge of perhaps - 2 5 C downward to ground, with charges o f - 3 C to - 9 0 C not uncommon. (For a transfer of 5 C across 2 km, this corresponds to a change in dipole moment of 104 C-m.) Following the return stroke, usually a dart leader will pass from cloud to ground, following the path of the stepped leader. This will be followed by another return stroke from ground to cloud. There are typically 2 to 3 dart-leader-returnstroke occurrences, but sometimes there are none, and sometimes there are as many as 25. A typical lightning bolt might flash for 0.2 s, but lightning bolts can be as short as 0.01 s or as long as 2 s (there is even a 19th-century report of a 15-20 s flash1.). It is believed that the leader channel contains a highly ionized core of radius 1 mm or so. Assume that all the molecules in a gas column 5 km long and radius 1 mm, at standard temperature and pressure (STP), are singly ionized. This corresponds to a volume of about 16 103 cm 3. Since one mole of gas at STP has a volume of 22.4/(1000 cm3), this corresponds to about 0.7 mole. One mole ofions with charge e contains 6 x 1023 x 1.6 x 10 -~9 C, or about 96,500 C, known as a faraday in the chemical literature. Hence 0.7 mole contains nearly 70,000 C of both positive and negative charge. If only 0.1% of the negative charge is in the form of electrons (rather than negative ions), then there is plenty of charge available to explain how, even though the leader channel has only a net charge of about - 5 C, there is a much greater charge transfer by the return stroke. The area of lightning research is filled with unsolved problems. What atmospheric processes cause the charge separation responsible for lightning? What happens during the pauses of the stepped leader? Exactly where does the charge come from in the return stroke? How does the atmosphere recover after a lightning bolt? Can we predict the brightness of a lightning bolt? Can we predict the intensity of thunder? What role does charge on the earth (a conductor) play? Generations of atmospheric scientists have been at work, trying to answer these questions, and it likely will be many generations more before all the answers have been found.
&9~4
M o r e on Electrical Screening
1. Ideal conductors: Chapter 4 discussed electrical screening by ideal conductors, which have, implicitly, an infinite density of free charge carriers. In the presence of an applied electric field/~0, free charge goes to the surface and produces an electric field that, within the conductor, cancels/~0. For the geometry of Figure 6.14 (but with the dielectric replaced by an ideal conductor),
266
Chapter 6 i Capacitance
in response to the charge density ~ on the capacitor plate free charge from the conductor produces a surface charge density -cr. 2. Real conductors: Section 4.11.3 pointed out that, for real conducting materials, when the finite density of free charge is accounted for there is a screening length l over which the total electric field is nonzero within the conductor. This is because the screeningcharge cannot go literally to the surface of the conductor. The higher the density of the free charge carriers, the shorter the l. For the geometry of Figure 6.14 (but with the dielectric replaced by a real conductor), in response to the charge density ~ on the capacitor plate free charge from the conductor produces a bulk charge density p near the surface. Integrating f pdx over a distance a few times l into the conductor gives an effective surface charge density - ~ . 3. Dielectrics: The present chapter has discussed the electrical response of dielectrics. In the presence of an applied electric field E0 localized charges cause polarization that, over a distance scale on the order of an atomic dimension, puts charge on the surface. This produces an electric field that within the conductor partially cancels/~0. For the geometry of Figure 6.14, in response to the charge density ~ on the capacitor plate, the polarized tips of the atoms and molecules of the material produce a polarization charge density on the surface o f - ~ ( 1 - K-~). [For gases, K = 1 + 4zrn~ of (6.50) shows that the higher the density n of the atoms or molecules of polarizability ~, the larger the K, and thus the more effective the screening.] Hence the total field within the dielectric decreases to/~0/K. The field within the dielectric does not decrease any further on going deeper into the dielectric because there is polarization charge only on the surface, not in the bulk. The total polarization charge on an object must be zero. 4. Materials with both free charge and polarization charge: We can now discuss what happens when there are finite densities of both free charge and of polarization charge. An example is a semiconductor like Si (the basis of most semiconductor electronics) when it has been "doped" with impurities to give it free charges. Here, if the screening length is l due to free charge alone (for which K = 1), then it becomes l v ~ when there is also polarization charge. At the surface the response is the same as for a dielectric: for the geometry of Figure 6.14, in response to the charge density ~ on the capacitor plate, the polarized tips of the atoms and molecules of the material produce a polarization charge density on the surface of-cr(1 - K-1). In addition, there is a bulk charge density p near the surface that gives an effective surface charge density crK-1 on integrating f pdx over a distance a few times the screening length l ~ into the conductor. Hence the total charge associated with the material at and near the surface is - ~ , as for the ideal conductor and the real conductor without dielectric. The bulk electrical response of the material is complex. It consists both of free charge and polarization charge, the polarization charge tending to cancel the free charge: (1) the free charge sums to - ~ per unit area, just what it would be for a conductor; (2) the polarization charge sums to ~(1 - K-1) per unit area, which completely cancels the polarization charge on the surface. Moreover, the length over which the free charge near the surface extends is larger when there is dielectric, by a factor of
6.10 Flux Tubes
267
v~, because of the partial cancellation of the free charge by the polarization charge.
5.10 Flux Tubes

As he performed more experiments, Faraday changed his views on how to think about electricity. The form that is passed on to us was developed by Maxwell, who made Faraday's field-line ideas quantitative and rigorous by reformulating them in terms of flux tubes. We will develop some of these ideas, following a treatment in J. J. Thomson's Elements of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism. Thomson himself edited the third and final edition of Maxweli's classic Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, published in 1891, after Maxwell's untimely death in 1879, at the age of 48.
6~t0~1
E l e c t r i c a l E n e r g y D e n s i t y UE = S~k
!
E2
Consider (5.28) for the electrical energy U - 89 of a set of charges qi and qj seperated by distances rij, where the prime means do not include the f terms where i - j. This can be rewritten, with Vi - k ~ jqj/rij, as U - 1 ~ i Viqi. Letting the charges become differentials, both V and U remain finite, with U - -~
1/
Vdq ,
(6.54)
Figure 6.22 Flux tube connecting two conductors in equilibrium. The sides of the flux tube are parallel to the local electric field,
where the factor of 89is to avoid double counting. We consider both point charges and conductors, in vacuum, treating the point charges as small spherical conductors. The field lines originate on positive charge dq and terminate on negative charge - d q (see Figure 6.22). The integral may be done by considering equal and opposite bits of charge +dq via (6.55)
(V+)(dq) + (V_)(-dq) = (V+ - V_)dq, and then integrating only over dq. Because dq --r conductor, by (4.22) we have dq - crsdAs EsdAs dee 4zrk = 4zrk'
is at the surface of a
(6.56)
where Es = 4zrkcrs is the magnitude of the field at the surface. Since the field lines go from higher to lower potential, and d~" points along /~, we have E . d Y - E ds, so V + - V_ Eds, (6.57)
268
where the path of the integral is from dq to -dq. Combining (6.56) and (6.57), and changing the order of integration, yields
U-
-~
if
( V + - V_)dq -
1 8zr k
f f
Eds
EsdAs,
(6.58)
where f+ restricts the integration to the surface containing the positive charge. Now convert from an integral over the surface elements dAs and the connecting elements ds to an integral over the volume dl2 of the Faraday flux tube associated with dq. Since, along a flux tube, the flux is constant, we have d ~ = EsdAs = EdA_ Since the flux tubes fill all space, with dV = dAds (6.58) may be rewritten as
U-
8rrk
]ff
Eds
EdA-
8zrk
E2dl2"
(6.59)
From this we deduce that the electrical energy per unit volume u~ is
dU E2 = u~ - d12 8zrk"
(6.60)
This is consistent with (6.25), obtained previously for a strictly uniform field, on setting K - 1. Now consider partial flux tubes all with the same flux d~e - E d A and the same potential difference d V - E ds. Each part contains the energy
E2
dU-~kdAds-
d~edV 8zr-------k-"
(6.61)
This is the same for each of the partial flux tubes no matter their volume element dV - dAds.
6.10.2
F i e l d L i n e T e n s i o n p e r U n i t A r e a T = 8~k
Consider a flux tube connecting one conductor to another. If one of these conductors is compressed so that its surface corresponds to a smaller equipotential surface, then the field lines and flux tubes are not disturbed, except that they lengthen. By (6.61), this costs an extra energy (EZ/8zrk)dAds. See Figure 6.23. We may think of this as stretching a string by ds against a tension (E2/8zrk)dA. Hence the tension per unit area dA of the flux tube is
E2
E2
T-
8zrk"
(6.62)
The total force exerted by the tension of flux tubes connecting charges +q and - q separated by a distance r has magnitude IFI - kq 2/r 2. This nontrivial calculation can be done by considering the forces on the midplane separating the charges.
6.10 Flux Tubes
269
V=9
Flux tube
Figure 6.23 Two nearby flux tubes, for calculation of field energy and field-line tension.
V=I
6.10.3
Pressure o f F i e l d Lines on One A n o t h e r is P = S~k" R a d i a l F i e l d Lines

The field lines also exert a pressure on one another. To find that pressure, we must examine two cases. First, consider the case where the field varies in strength along the flux tube. See Figure 6.24. Let a tiny length ds of the flux tube have cross-section d A at the top and d A ' at the bottom. By construction of the flux tube, the field magnitudes E and E' on the top and bottom are related by
d~e - EdA - E'dA'.
E2
(6.63)
From Figure 6.24, there is a vertical force upward, due to the line tension, of
FT - T d A T'dA'E2dA - E'2dA '
(E -
E')EdA
8Jrk
8zrk
'
(6.64)
where we have used (6.62) and (6.63). There is also a downward force Fp from the pressure of lines against one another. See Figure 6.24. We can obtain Fe from considerations of hydrostatics, with a uniform pressure P. An object subject to uniform pressure is in equilibrium, so the force on it from the sides must be equal and opposite to the force on it from the top and bottom. Thus, from Figure 6.24 and some algebraic manipulation,
Fe - - P ( d A ' - d A ) - - - f f ; ( E ' d A ' - E' d A ) - E')dA;
P ,) P = --~7(E - E dA ~ --~(E
(6.65)
Figure 6.24 Part of a flux tube, for calculation of pressure between neighboring field lines when field is radial.
270
here we have again used (6.63), and we have set E' ~ E in the denominator. In equilibrium, (6.64) and (6.65) give
O - FT + Fp From this, we deduce that
( E 87r k
P)(E-E')dA. E
(6.66)
E2 P = 8zrk"
(6.67)
This is precisely the same in magnitude as the flux tube tension per unit area T.
6.10,4
Pressure o f F i e l d Lines on One A n o t h e r Is P = ~k" T a n g e n t i a l F i e l d Lines
E2
We now check the consistency of this approach. Consider the case where the field lines vary in strength perpendicular to the flux tube. See Figure 6.25. Let a flux tube of constant area d A have length ds on the left, and length ds' on the right. Take the tube to have width dl, and depth w into the page, so areas on top and bottom satisfy
d A = dA' = wdl.
(6.68)
By construction of the flux tube, the fields on the right and left are related by
d V = Eds = E'ds'.
(6.69)
From Figure 6.25, the net rightward force from pressure is given, from (6.67), (6.68), and (6.69), by
Fp - ( P w d s -
P'wds') -
w(E2ds - E'2ds ') w(E - E')Eds 8zrk = 8zrk .
(6.70)
Figure 6.25 Part of a flux tube, for calculation of pressure between neighboring field lines when field is tangential.
Problems
271
Also from Figure 6.25, the net rightward force from tension comes only from the component of the tension force on the top, which is at the small angle 0, where
ds = ds' + dl 0.
(6.71)
Explicitly, the rightward force from tension is, with (6.62) and (6.68), E2
FT - T d A O - 7 - - r w d l 0. t57cle,
(6.72)
Use of (6.71) and (6.69) in (6.72) gives

E2 E2 w (E E 'k 'dsFT -- ~ k W ( d s - d s ' ) - ~ 8zr E'ds')
E2
E
W ( E ' - E) ds.
8zr E '----~w(E ' - E) ds ~ ~ k
(6.73)
Here we have used E ' ~ E to write E 2 / E ' ,~ E. Comparing (6.73) with (6.70), we see that
FT -- - F p .
(6.74)
Hence the force from field-line pressure cancels the force from field-line tension, so the system is in equilibrium, as desired. The concept of pressure of field lines on one another thus is a consistent one, both for field lines that vary in magnitude along the flux tube and for field lines that vary in magnitude perpendicular to the flux tube. The total force exerted by the pressure of flux tubes connecting charges +q and +q separated by a distance r has magnitude li ~ l - kq 2 / r 2. This nontrivial calculation can be done by considering the forces on the midplane separating the charges.
Problems
6-2.1 A space cruiser is given a charge 2.5 ttC, which raises its voltage by 106 V relative to a distant space station. (a) Determine the capacitance of the space cruiser. (b) Estimate its characteristic size, using a spherical approximation. 6-2.2 A tin can, hung by insulating string from a tall ceiling, has a capacitance of 4.2 nF. A scaled-up version of this can, with a height that is 2.4 times as great, is ejected from a spaceship, having been given a charge of 8.7 nC. Find its voltage relative to a distant point.
6-2.3 The supply of electrons in a material is not limitless; adding or subtracting one electron per
atom would surely cause structural changes in the
material. Discuss whether excess charge affects the structure of a solid conducting sphere more or less than a conducting shell of the same material and external dimensions. 6-2.4 A grain of Zn (approximated by a sphere of radius 95 nm) is illuminated with ultraviolet radiation, which ejects negatively charged electrons until the Zn voltage is about 1.7 V. Find the charge on the grain, and the number of electrons that have been ejected.
6-2.5 If the capacitance of a spherical aluminum grain is 5 aF (aF = 10-18 F), estimate its radius.
272
6 - 2 . 6 Recent advances in technology permit the fabrication of tiny electrical devices where the addition of a single electron to a small piece of metal can produce measureable voltages. (a) Find the capacitance of an aluminum grain about 10 nm in radius. Express your answer in units of 10 -18 F, or aF, the attofarad. (b) Estimate the voltage change caused by the addition of an electron. (c) Estimate the total number of electrons on the grain, taking there to be three conduction electrons per aluminum atom. Such small grains are called artificial atoms, or quantum dots, because the electron orbitals on them are unique to very small particles. The density of aluminum is 2.7 103 kg/m 3, and its atomic weight is 27.0.
6-3.1 Two irregular conducting objects have charges 4-5 nC. One is at V1 = 20 V and the other is at 89 = - 1 5 V. They are far from any other conductors. Take V~ = 0. (a) Determine their capacitance. (b) If these two objects and their separation are now linearly scaled down by a factor of 4, find the charge if the same voltage difference is applied. (If the conductors are spheres, which one is larger?)
6 - 3 . 2 A parallel-plate capacitor has circular plates of radius 5.4 cm, and plate separation 2.2 mm. Determine the capacitance, and the voltage difference for charges 4-18 nC. 6 - 3 . 3 A capacitor consists of two circular plates of radius 5 cm and separation 1.2 mm. (a) Estimate the capacitance. (b) If the field toward the middle of the capacitor is 25 V/m, estimate the charge on the capacitor plates. 6 - 3 . 4 A parallel-plate air capacitor C has plate separation d. A piece of metal of thickness 0.8d is inserted between the plates. Explain why the new capacitance corresponds to a smaller plate separation, and determine the new capacitance. 6 - 3 . 5 The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is proportional to the area A and inversely proportional to the plate separation d. Suggest what might set limits on (a) the minimum d and (b) the maximum A.
the plates are near one another. Describe the surface charge density on each side of the positive plate, and how uniform it is. Is the surface charge density at the edges higher or lower than in the middle? (c) Show that the surface charge density at the center of the inner surface of the positive plate is now four times (not twice) as large as when the negative plate is far away. Hint: See Section 1.9.
hi
Figure 6.26 Problem 6-3.6.

6-3.7 A parallel-plate air capacitor of capacitance 400 pF has a charge 4-500 nC. The plates are 2 mm apart. Find (a) the potential difference, (b) the plate areas, (c) the electric field between the plates, and (d) the surface charge density on the plates.
6 - 3 . 8 A spherical capacitor with an air gap has inner and outer radii of 5 cm and 8 cm, at a voltage difference of 250 V. (a) Find its capacitance. (b) Find the charge on the plates. (c) Find the maximum electric field within the capacitor. 6 - 3 . 9 A spherical capacitor with a wax-filled gap has an outer radius of 4.8 cm. For a voltage difference of 7600 V, there is breakdown. (a) Find the radius a of the inner plate. (b) Find the capacitance of this capacitor. (c) Find the charge on the capacitor at breakdown. See Table 6.1. Note: There are two solutions for a, one corresponding to a small gap and a nearly uniform field, and the other corresponding to a large gap and an inner electrode of very small radius. Consider only the first solution. 6 - 3 . 1 0 A 15 cm long cylindrical capacitor with a wax-filled gap has an outer radius of 0.8 cm. For a voltage difference of 9800 V, there is breakdown. In what follows, neglect fringing field effects at the ends of the capacitor. (a) Find the radius a of the inner plate. (b) Find the capacitance of this capacitor. (c) Find the charge on the capacitor at breakdown. See Table 6.1. Note: There are two solutions for a, one corresponding to a small gap and a nearly uniform field, and the other corresponding to a large gap and an inner electrode of very small radius. Consider only the second solution. 6 - 3 . 1 1 A 24 cm long cylindrical capacitor with an air gap has inner and outer radii of 1.2 cm and
6-3.6 Consider two co-axial circular conducting plates of radius a, with equal and opposite charges +q. They are separated by h. See Figure 6.26. (a) Let h >> a. Describe the surface charge density on each side of the positive plate, and how uniform it is. Is the surface charge density at the edges higher or lower than in the middle? (b) Now let h << a, so
Problems
273
2.4 cm, at a voltage difference of 240 V. In what follows, neglect fringing field effects at the ends of the capacitor. (a) Find its capacitance. (b) Find the charge on the plates. (c) Find the maximum electric field within the capacitor. See Table 6.1. Frank has many 2 #F capacitors with 100 V breakdown. (a) How should he connect them to obtain a 2 #F capacitor with 300 V breakdown? (b) A 4/xF capacitor with 300 V breakdown?
6-4.1
A 45 nF capacitor C1 is connected across a 1.5 V battery. The connections to its terminals are then removed from the battery and connected across an unknown, originally uncharged capacitor C2. If the voltage across C1 is now 0.34 V, find C2.
6-4.7
6 - 4 . 8 A 6/xF capacitor is in series with a combination of a 3/~F and an unknown capacitor C. The overall capacitance is 4 ~tF. Find C. 6 - 4 . 9 Find the capacitance of a bridge circuit where the bridge capacitor has a capacitance 2 nF, and the other four capacitors have capacitance 4 nF. Hint: First use symmetry to determine the voltage difference across the bridge capacitor. 6 - 4 . 1 0 Benjamin Franklin may have been the first person to put capacitors in series, and to charge them by connecting them to a prime conductor (characterized by a fixed voltage, as we now know). He found that the capacitors did not charge as well by this method as when he put them in parallel. Explain. 6-4.11 Figure 6.28 gives a circuit containing a number of capacitors, each of capacitance C = 6 ~tF. Find the capacitance between the terminals.
A capacitor C is rated at a maximum voltage Vm. Explain how, by using four such capacitors, you can get a net capacitance of C, with a maximum voltage of 2 Vm.
6-4.2
6-4.3 Two parallel-plate air capacitors of identical area A have separations dl and d2. Show that, when placed in series, they have the same capacitance as a single capacitor of area A and separation dl + d2. Give a physical explanation for this result. 6 - 4 . 4 Two parallel-plate air capacitors of identical separations d have areas A1 and ,42. Show that, when placed in parallel, they have the same capacitance as a single capacitor of area A = A1 + ,42 and separation d. Give a physical explanation for this result.
6-4.5 (a) For capacitors C1 = 8/xF and C2 = 6 #F, find their capacitance in series and in parallel. (lo) Find the charge and voltage difference on each capacitor when they are connected in series with a 12 V battery. (c) Find the charge and voltage difference on each capacitor when they are connected in parallel with a 12 V battery. 6 - 4 . 6 Terminal a connects C1, C2 and C3. Terminal b connects C4, C2 and C3. See Figure 6.27. Let C~ = Ca = 6.8/zF and C2 = C3 = 4.8 #F. Find the voltage and charge associated with each capacitor if V~ - 50 V and % = 68 V. Assume that the plates associated with terminals a and b initially are neutral.

6 - 4 . 1 2 In equilibrium, two or more conductors in contact with one another take the same potential, so they are equivalent to a single conductor. (a) How many distinct pieces of conductor are there for five capacitors in parallel? (b) For five capacitors in series? (c) For the series case, if the outer conductors have charges + Q, give the net charges of the internal pieces of conductor.
6-4.13 (a) For the first part of Example 6.7 (connection), work out the wrong "solution" where each capacitor gets the average of the initial charges. (b) Is charge conserved? (c) Are the voltages equalized? 6-4.14 (a) For the first part of Example 6.7 (connection), work out the wrong "solution" where each capacitor gets the average of the initial voltages. (b) Is charge conserved? (c) Are the voltages equalized?
C2 cl O
! I I
c4
C3
274
C h a p t e r 6 m Capacitance
6-5.1 Design a parallel-plate air capacitor with

C = 8 #F to operate at 400 V in a maximum field that is half E d in air.
6-5.2 A cylindrical air capacitor of length 4.6 m has a capacitance of 8.6/~F. (a) Find the ratio of the inner and outer radii. (b) If the outer radius is 2 cm, at what voltage is there breakdown? 6-5.3 A parallel-plate capacitor of area 50 cm 2
and plate separation 0.12 m m has charge +3.6/zC. The voltage difference between the plates is 2500 V. Find the dielectric constant.
positive plate (near 1), then there is a charge density a(Ki-1 - K 2 ]) on the interface between the dielectrics. (Get the sign right by comparing with the charge on the dielectrics near the positive plate.)

6-5.10 A dielectric slab of area A], thickness
6-5.4 If you rub a comb through your hair, and

then bring it up to a faucet of running water, the water will deflect toward the comb. Transformer oil, with K = 4.5, will not deflect nearly as much under the same circumstances. Explain why. Hint: Viscosity is not the most relevant property of these fluids.
6-5.5 Despite the large dielectric constant for

pure water, it is not normally used inside capacitors. Suggest why. 6 - 5 . 6 Let C~ = 1.1 #F/m 2 for a cell wall with K = 3.6 that will withstand a maximum voltage difference A V~ = 250 V / m before beginning to conduct. (a) Determine the cell wall thickness. (b) Determine the electric field across the cell wall at which conduction begins to occur. (c) Determine the free surface charge density at this field. (d) Determine the corresponding polarization charge density. 6 - 5 . 7 A parallel-plate capacitor of C = 60 pF is to be filled with Lucite. (a) What is the minimum area it must have to withstand a voltage of 3.5 kV? (b) If the plate area is doubled, what are the new capacitance and the maximum voltage it will withstand? 6 - 5 . 8 A cylindrical capacitor of C = 20 pF and length 25 cm is to be filled with wax. (a) What is the minimum inner radius it must have to withstand a voltage of 8.2 kV? (b) If the inner and outer radii are doubled, what voltage will it withstand?
d, and dielectric constant K] is placed in parallel with a dielectric slab of area A2, thickness d, and dielectric constant K2. It is placed within a parallelplate capacitor of area ,4] + A2 and plate separation d. See Figure 6.30. (a) Show that the capacitance is given by C=(1/4zrkd)(Altc] +A2K2). (b) Verify that this agrees with the case K] = K2. (c) Show that there is no charge on the interface between the dielectrics.

6-5.11 Consider a sphere of dielectric constant K, with radius R and total charge Q. that is uniformly distributed over its volume. If V~ = 0, show that the potential at the center of the sphere is (kQ/R)(1 +(2K)-]). [Note that (5.41) was derived, implicitly, for K = 1 .] 6-5.12 A cell wall has x = 4.3 and thickness
3.4 nm. (a) Find its capacitance per unit area. (b) Find the capacitance for a spherical cell of radius 8.3 ~tm. (c) Find the charge associated with a voltage difference of 87 inV. 6 - 5 . 1 3 An aluminum grain has a 1 nm thick insulating oxide layer with K = 8 against a thin film of copper. (a) If the contact is a circle of radius 10 nm, estimate the capacitance of the resultant capacitor. (b) Estimate the voltage change if one electron transfers from the aluminum to the copper. [Note: In practice, the energy to remove an electron (the work function) is different for neutral aluminum and neutral copper. Neglect this effect. ]
6-5.9 A dielectric slab of area A, thickness d], and dielectric constant K] is placed in series with a dielectric slab of area A, thickness d2, and dielectric constant K2. This combination is placed within a parallel-plate capacitor of area A and plate separation dl + d2. See Figure 6.29. (a) Show that the capacitance is given by C = (A/4rrk)/(dl/~cl + d2/tc2). (b) Verify that this agrees with the case K1 = K2. (c) Show that if the charge density is a on the
6-5.14 An aluminum film with a 2.6 nm thick

aluminum oxide layer with dielectric constant 8 is against a thin film of copper. If the capacitance across the layer is 8 aF, estimate the contact area.
Problems
275
6-5.15 Consider a spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius b, its upper half filled with air and its lower half filled with dielectric of dielectric constant ~. See Figure 6.31. With Kair "~ l, find its capacitance. Hint: Draw the field lines before the dielectric is added. Will adding the dielectric cause the direction of the field lines to change? Will polarization charge appear along the surface that separates the air and the dielectric? The answer to these questions will help you to simplify this problem.
heart, provides an average of 20 A and 10 s W for 2 ms. If this were provided by a capacitor, estimate its capacitance.
6 - 6 . 4 A 50 #F capacitor has 4 kV placed across its terminals. (a) What is the associated charge and energy? (b) How much energy is stored by 2000 such capacitors? (c) How does this compare to the energy stored by a 12 V, 80 A-hr battery? (d) How do the maximum currents compare, if each capacitor can provide 2 10 s A through a 0.02 ohm resistor, and the battery can provide 1200 A? Note that the capacitors will discharge in about 10 -6 s, whereas the battery will last for a few minutes at this current. 6-6.5 Capacitors CA (40 nF) and CB (20 nF) are connected in series with a 12 V battery. (a) Find the voltages, charges, and energy associated with each. (b) The battery is removed and the plates of like sign (+ to +, and - to - ) are connected. Find the voltages, charges, and energy associated with each. (c) Deduce the energy loss on making the connection. (d) Now the plates of opposite sign (+ to - , and to +) are connected. Find the voltages, charges, and energy associated with each. (e) Deduce the energy loss on making the connection. 6-6.6 (a) By integration over the energy density, find the energy stored by two long concentric cylindrical conductors of radii a < b and length I. Take + Q on the inner cylinder, and neglect edge effects. (b) Determine the capacitance per unit length. 6-6.7 (a) By integrating over the energy density,
deduce the energy U of a conducting sphere of radius R and charge Q. (lo) Let a sphere with charge Q be slowly compressed from R + dR to R, against the (unknown) electrical force per unit area Pel. Find the change in electrical energy and thus deduce Pel. Compare with E 2/8Jr k.

6-5.16 Find the capacitance for a spherical shell with conducting plates at r = a and r = c, and filled with dielectric of dielectric constant K1 (K2) for a < r < b (b < r < c). See Figure 6.32.

6-6.1 An air capacitor has an area of 250 cm 2.
For a charge of 8/~C, the voltage difference across the plates is 120 V. (a) Find the capacitance and the plate separation. (b) Find the energy stored at this voltage. (c) Find the electric field magnitude within the capacitor. (d) Find the electrical energy density.
6-6.8 (a) By integration over the energy density,

find the energy stored by two concentric spherical conductors of radii a < b. Take + Q on the inner sphere. (b)Deduce the capacitance.
6-6.2 (a) What capacitance would store 50 kJ of electrical energy at 860 V? (lo) What would the charge be? 6-6.3 A ventricular defibrillator, attached by lowresistance paddles placed above and below the
6-6.9 See Figure 6.33. The combination of capacitors is connected to a voltage source across a and c, and then the voltage source is removed. (a) If Va -- Vb -- 60 V, find the charges and voltages associated with each capacitor. (b) Find the total energy. (c) If b and b' are connected, find the new charges and voltages associated with each capacitor. (d) Find the new total energy. (e) Find the amount and the sign of the charge that must flow from b to b'.
276
Chapter 6 " Capacitance
Assume that the plates associated with terminals b and b' initially are neutral.
~
12~F
noindent has a fixed charge and when it is attached to a capacitor of such large capacitance that the voltage difference is fixed. Explain why U = Q2/2 C is the relevant energy in the first case but not in the second. 6 - 7 . 4 Two capacitors C1 and C2 are in series, their net voltage difference maintained by a battery of fixed voltage g. (a) Find the charge and voltage of each capacitor. (b) A dielectric of dielectric constant K is slipped between the plates of (2]. Find the charge and voltage of each capacitor. (c) What changes are caused by the dielectric? 6 - 7 . $ Consider a capacitor C at a fixed voltage difference V. Show that when the capacitance changes, the energy change is BUy= [Q2/(2C2)]SC, just opposite in sign from (6.35). Hence either F~ = -dU/dxlQ (corresponding to an isolated capacitor) or F~ = dU/dxlv (corresponding to a capacitor maintained at a fixed voltage).
! !
~a
I I
@F
12~F

6-6.10 For an isolated conducting disk of radius a, the charge density is ~ = Q/2Jra~/a 2 - r 2. (a) Show that, if V~ = 0, then V = kQ/2a. (b) Show that the electrical potential energy U of such a conducting disk is U = k Q2/4a. (c) Determine its capacitance. 6-6.11 Consider the earth to be a spherical capacitor w i t h a = 6 . 3 7 x l 0 6 m a n d b = a + d , where d = 5 x 104 m (the distance to the ionosphere). If the fair-weather field is 100 V/m, find the energy stored in the earth's electric field.
6-7.6 (a) Find the energy to charge a spherical capacitor of inner radius a and outer radius b to Q by considering the work it takes to move the charge, using electrical force considerations. Specifically, move dq from r = b symmetrically inward, acting against the force due to the charge q that is already on the inner sphere. (b) Find the capacitance.
6 - 7 . 7 Connect a 12/~F capacitor to a 6 V battery. Disconnect the battery. Pull the plates apart (d ~ 2d). Reconnect to the battery. For the battery, consider that the energy is given by Ubatt - - g Q b a t t , where g is the emf of the battery, and Qbatt its charge (this equation is discussed in the next chapter). (a) Analyze the energy transfer, including any work done by or to your hands. (b) Repeat this process if the capacitor is connected to the battery while the plates are pulled apart. Analyze the energy transfer.
6-7.1 A parallel-plate capacitor is charged up by a 6 V battery, which is then removed. A dielectric with dielectric constant K = 5 is slid between the plates. Give quantitative answers in terms of the ratio of each quantity before and after. (a) What happens to the electric field within the dielectric? (b) To the voltage difference between the plates? (c) To the charge on the plates? (d) To the capacitance? (e) To the energy stored? Explain how energy is conserved.
is
6-7.2 A parallel-plate capacitor is charged up by a 6V battery, which is kept in place. A dielectric with dielectric constant K = 5 is slid between the plates. Give quantitative answers in terms of the ratio of each quantity before and after. (a) What happens to the electric field? (b) To the voltage? (c) To the charge? (d) To the capacitance? (e) To the energy stored? Explain how energy is conserved.
6 - 7 . 3 A slab of dielectric is attracted into a parallel-plate capacitor both when the capacitor
6-7.8 Connect an uncharged capacitor C] = 5 #F to a capacitor C2 = 500 #F initially at 6 V. Disconnect the capacitors. Pull the plates of C] apart (d ~ 2d). Reconnect to C2. (a) Analyze the energy transfer, including any work done by or to your hands. (b) Repeat this process if C1 is connected to C2 while the plates are pulled apart. Analyze the energy transfer.
6-8.1 Consider two conducting spheres of radii a and b, which are very far apart. Specifically, take
Problems
277
b = 10 m, and a = 0.5 m. Let the large sphere, which serves as a reservoir, initially be at 201 V relative to infinity, and let the small sphere be uncharged. Now connect the spheres with a very fine wire. Find (a) the initial charge on the large sphere, (lo) the final potential of the connected spheres, and (c) the final charge on each sphere. 6 - 8 . 2 Consider two distant spherical conductors. (a) If 10 nC is added to one sphere, and the other sphere has its voltage increase by 40 mV, estimate the separation r. (lo) Does this estimate only apply to spherical conductors? 6 - 8 . 3 Recent experiments have shown that small capacitors consisting of two blobs of metal can be influenced by nearby charge on a third blob of metal. Using the pq's, show how charge on the third blob affects the voltage difference on the first two. In the experiments, the measured voltage difference was quantized, because the charges on the third blob were due to individual electrons. 6 - 8 . 4 Consider two capacitors connected in series. There are three pieces of conductor, so there are six different pq's. Let 1 and 3 be on the outside, and let 2 be on the inside. (a) Obtain the overall capacitance in terms of the Pij's, using C = Q/(V3 - V1) and Q3 = Q, Q1 = - Q , and Q2 = 0. (b) What condition must the Pij's satisfy for .Q2 g: 0 to not influence 8 9 Vl? 6 - 8 . $ (a) Explain why, for polarization of a conductor, only the shape is relevant, whereas for polarization of an insulator, both the shape and material are relevant. (b) Consider a conducting sphere of radius a with charge q, and a point charge Q at distance r >> a. Explain why electrostatic induction can be neglected, as a first approximation, in describing their interaction. Hence, far from a small conducting sphere with charge q, the sphere can be thought of as a point charge q.
kf22/R 4, where fa2 is the volume of conductor 2.

(c) From the dependence of Pll on the separation R, and the energy of the system when Q1 -Y=0 but Q2 = 0, show that the force of attraction between the two spheres varies as R -s, as expected for the amber effect.
6-9.1 Consider a long organic molecule. (a) Along which axis is it likely to be more polarizable? Hint: Assume the extreme situation where the molecule is conducting. Consider the two cases where E of a fixed magnitude is along the molecular axis and when it is normal to it. Are the I~l's the same for these two cases? (b) Explain why ~ = c~/~ is too simple an equation to describe polarization in this case.
6 - 9 . 2 Here is a model for the polarizability of an atom. Consider a rigid ball of radius a with uniform charge density and total charge - e in a small external field E. (a) Show that the equilibrium position F of a positive charge +e (relative to the center of the ball of charge) satisfies ~ = (a3/ke)E, when IEI is small enough that r < a. (b) Find the dipole moment } of the overall neutral ball-charge combination. (c) Show that the polarizability satisfies ot = a 3/ k. (d) Evaluate c~ for a = 10 -l~ m. 6 - 9 . 3 Consider a spring of constant K that, when extended by x, has dipole moment qx. Show that the polarizability is given by ~ = q2/K. Hint: Minimize the sum of the interaction energy of a dipole (with an external field/~ along x) and the spring's potential energy, as a function of x. 6 - 9 . 4 In what follows, take the surface at x = 0 and take the electric field to fall off with distance as exp[-(x/tvFd)]. (a) If the density of localized charge is fixed, so K is fixed, and the density of localized charge increases, so l decreases, then the screening length t ~ decreases. This makes the screening more effective everywhere. For an applied field of 2500 V/m and K = 5, at x = 4 nm evaluate the field magnitude for l = 20, 4, 0.8 nm. (b) A curious effect can occur if the density of delocalized charge is fixed, so l is fixed, and the density of localized charge increases, so K increases. Although increasing K causes the field just inside the material to decrease (because it causes polarization charge to literally go to the surface), increasing K can sometimes cause the field further into the material to become larger (because the screening length increases, by l--, I~/-K). This last effect is most important for large values of K and relatively large
6-8.6 Consider two distant conducting spheres, 1 and 2. (a) Show that if conductor 2 becomes polarized (e.g., by charge on 1), its polarization charge sets up a dipole moment P2 and, by (5.46), a dipole potential k}2 9 3, where 2~2 is proportional to its volume fa2 and to the electric field kQ1 / R 2 at 2 due to 1. (This is related to the amber effect.) (b) Show that this dipole potential lowers V1 in proportion to kQ1 ~ I / R 4, where s21 is the volume of conductor 1. Thus, P11, which is positive, decreases in proportion to kf21/R 4 . Similarly, P22 decreases in proportion to
278 Chapter 6 9 Capacitance
distances into the material, where the electric field is small anyway. For an applied field of 2500 V/m and l = 2 nm, at x = 8 nm evaluate the field magnitude for ~ = 1, 1O, 100.
a, b reduces to that for the parallel-plate capacitor when b -+ a, on taking d = b - a and A = 2n La .~ 2rr Lb.
6-10.1 Use the field-line tension to verify that the attractive force pulling on the midplane of two charges +q separated by 2a is kq2/4a 2.
6 - 1 0 . 2 Use the field-line pressure to verify that the repulsive force on the midplane of two charges +q separated by 2a is kq 2/4a 2. 6 - 1 0 . 3 Use the field-line pressure to find the force per unit length between two charged rods +X separated by 2a along the x-axis. 6 - 1 0 . 4 Use the field-line tension to find the force per unit length between two charged rods ~ and -X separated by 2a along the x-axis.
6-G.7 Here is a method to measure the sur....face charge on a dielectric. A dielectric slab with an unknown charge density er on its top is grounded at its bottom. A small distance above the dielectric is a small flat probe of area A. See Figure 6.34. There is capacitance Ca between the top of the dielectric and ground, capacitance C between the probe and the top of the dielectric, and capacitance Cp between the probe and ground. The charge on the surface of the dielectric causes a voltage difference Vp between the probe and ground. Show that ~ = (Ca + Cp + CaCp/C)(Vp/A). Hint: The voltage drop is the same along both paths from the top of the dielectric to ground: directly downward through the dielectric and upward through the probe and then to ground.
6-G.1 It is not difficult to generate electrical potentials of over a thousand volts by rubbing two insulators against each other. However, on discharge, one can get only a small shock. Discuss why using the concept of capacitance. 6-G.2 A small conducting disk is placed within
a parallel-plate capacitor, parallel to the plates. (a) What effect does this have on the field lines? (b) On the capacitance? (c) Repeat if the disk is placed normal to the plates. 6 - G . 3 If the fringing field of a capacitor is included, how is the capacitance affected? [Answer: It increases because extra charge piles up at the edge, thereby decreasing the field and the voltage drop for other regions.]
~
I
Cd
Pro
.:.
:[
SP
Cp
Figure 6.34 Problem
6-G.7.
6-G.8 Consider a large charged conducting sphere, to which an initially uncharged conducting tip is now added. The charge on the sphere now is shared with the tip. How does this change the voltage? The capacitance?
6 - G . 9 Volta found that a frame of cross-connected wires had a capacitance comparable to that for much larger systems that had no "holes." In other words, it had a relatively large capacitance. How might such a geometry permit a large capacitance? Recall that the electric field is usually larger where the surface is more curved. 6 - G . 1 0 The charges on conductors are related to their potentials via Q1 = qll v1 + q12 v2, Q~2 = q21 v1 nu q22 v2,
6-G.4 Microphones convert the mechanical energy of air motion to an electrical signal. How might a parallel-plate capacitor made of a flexible membrane serve in this role? 6-G.5 A variable air capacitor used in radio tuners has an interleaving of two sets of connected plates. One set are semicircles on the even planes z = 0, 2 d , . . . , 2nd. The other set are semicircles on the odd planes z = d, 3d, ..., 2nd + d. If the semicircles have area A and overlap angle 0 (so that 0 = zr is the maximum overlap), show that the capacitance of this combination is given, approximately, by C = (2n + 1)AO/4n2kd.
6-G.6 Show that C for a concentric cylindrical capacitor of radii a and b and length L >>
where the (unknown) qij are called coefficients of induction. Here potential is measured relative to the potential at infinity. Defining D = Pll P22 - P12P21, where the coefficients of potential Pij are defined in
Problems
279
Section 6.8, show that

P22 Pll P21
qll =
D '
q22 =
D '
q12 =
D'
P21 q21 ~- 9 D
6-G.11
Let
P l l = 8 x 10 9 F -1,
P22 -~- 2 0 x 10 9
F -1, and P21 = P21 = 4 X 10 9 F -1. (a) From the results of problem 6-G.10, show that D = 1.44 x 1018 F -2, q l l = 5.56 X 10 -9 F, q22 = 13.9 x 10 -9 F, and q~2 = q2~ = - 2 . 7 8 x 10 -9 E (b) Show that, if 2 is grounded and a 1 2 V battery is connected between it and 1, so V2 = 0 and 171 = 12 V, then Q1 = qllV1 = 6.67 x 10 -8 C and Q2 = q21 v1 = - 3 . 3 3 x 10 -8 c. 6 - G . 1 2 Even a small electric shock can destroy the sensitive circuits of a computer chip. What role (or roles) does the metal coating on the bags have for the computer memory chips (RAM, or random access memory) they contain? What is the coefficient of induction between your hand outside the bag and the chip inside the bag? 6-G. 1 3 If two conductors are connected by a fine wire, they come to the same potential, so they can be considered to behave as a single conductor. (a) Show that
Cself =
Q1 + Q2
the origin until the angle between the two plates is the small angle a, rather than rr. Let there be guard rings (gaps connected only by a thin wire) an additional distance b along the plates. See Figure 6.35. (The guard rings help eliminate the fringing field.) (a) Show that the field magnitude E between the plates is well represented by E = A V/rol, where A V is the fixed voltage difference between the plates and r is the radial distance. (b) Show that the charge density on the E AV positive upper plate is as = ~ = 4rckrot" (c) S h o w that the charge associated with the plates, from r = a to r = b, and of dimension L into the page, is given by Q = f asdA = f 4Tr~ av Ldr = ~ aVE lnb a" (d) Show that the capacitance is given by C = QAv-Av in ;. b L4-dG~
/
Origin ~
a
c~
.......
Figure 6.35 Problem 6-G. 16.

6 - G . 1 7 Consider three blobs of metal, with q3 = q and q l = - q 2 = Q. Let q be fixed, but let Q vary. (a) Find the electrical energy U in terms of these charges and the coefficients of potential Pij. (b) Show that U can be written in the form U = ( Q - r q ) 2 / G + q2/C3, and evaluate (7, r, and C3 in terms of the pq's. This form has been used in studying the charging energy when the number of electrons is so small that in writing Q = ne the discreteness of charge is noticeable. 6 - G . 1 8 Consider a slab of thickness d and area A with surface charge density i a ' , as in Figure 6.14. Define the direction from -or' to a' as [. (a) Within the air gap between the slab and the plates let the field outside the slab be E out. Let the field within the slab be Ein. Show that Eout = Ein q-4rcka'[. (b) Show that the polarization [P, defined as the dipole moment per unit volume, is [P - (q'd it)~ V = a'[. (c) Show that/~ + 4rrk/5 is continuous at the interface. Therefore the electric displacement D - ~0(/~ + 4 Jr k/5~ = ~0/~ + / 3 is continuous at the interface. Since P is the polarization of the material, we may think of e0/~ as the "polarization of the vacuum." D has only free charge as its source (such as electrons or ions), not polarization charge (such as from neutral but polarizable atoms or molecules). Maxwell attributed great significance to D.
- qll + q22 + q12 + q21.
(self-capacitance of connected conductors) Hence the self-capacitance of two connected conductors is a combination of both the mutual- and self-induction coefficients. (b) Show that, if q12 = 0 = q21, then (21 = Q1/V1 - q l l and C2 = q22, SO C=C1 +C2. 6 - G . 1 4 Let qll = 5 . 5 6 x 1 0 -9 F, q 2 2 = 1 3 . 9 x 10 -9 F, and q12 =q2~ = - 2 . 7 8 x 10 -9 F. (a) Using the results of problem 6-G.13, find Cself. (b) With Q = 10 -9 c, find the common voltage V, Q1, and Q2. 6-1].1 5 Consider a system of two distant spheres, of radii a and b, separated by R >> a, b. Explain why it is a good approximation to take
Va=
kQa
a
4-~
kQb
R '
89
kQb
b
+~.
kQa
R
Find the coefficients of induction qij. ...! .I .IE I ! I ! .... I !I ! ,~ 6-G.16 Let two long parallel plates be sep..= .i : ~ i ~ '.! .i : ~ ..: , i . '... arated along the x-axis by 2a, with the midpoint at the origin. Rotate the left plate about
280
6-G.19 Consider an atom with a permanent dipole moment ~ of magnitude P0. For a strong applied field/~, ~ aligns with/~. For no applied field, points randomly, due to thermal collisions. Assume that, when a weak field E is applied, the atoms are aligned with/~ a (small) fraction poE/kBT of the
time, and randomly aligned the rest of the time. (Here kB is known as the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature; kBT has units of energy, just as does poE.) (a) Show that the average dipole moment is proportional to p~ E/kB T. (b) Show that the polarizability is proportional to p~/kBT.

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"I wish to inform you of a new but terrible experiment, which I advise you on no account personally to attempt . . . .

Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor

6.2 Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor

230 Chapter 6 u Capacitance

Capacitanceof a larger-volume duck

Theory of Isolated Spherical Capacitor

6.2 Self-Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor

takes on the constant value V(r) - k Q/a. Thus

Why Q~ V Is Independent of Q; Why C Scales with the Linear Dimension

VA= V/3 (r~-~A) -- V/3 ( 2 ~ )

6.3 Two-Plate Capacitors

6.3 Two-Plate Capacitors

Figure 6.5 Parallel-plate capacitor of plate area A

and plate separation d.

Solution: (a) The plate area is A =

3.14 m 2 = 1.39 [(4zr)(9 x 109 N-m2/C2)(2 x 10 -4 m)]

Concentric Spherical Two-Plate Capacitor

AV-- V(a)- V(b)--- fa k T ~ r ' r d r - I

(concentric spherical capacitor)

6.4 Capacitors in Circuits

Concentric Cylindrical Two-Plate Capacitor

_ Z b ( 2 ! _ _ ~ ) d r - ( 2 k X ) l n ( r ) ] I - 2k)dn b. Hence CQ = l AV 2kln (~)" (concentric cylindrical capacitor) (6.6)

6.4 Capacitors in Circuits

6.4 Capacitorsin Circuits

More generally, for many capacitors in parallel, C = C1 + C2 + . . . .

Connecting and cross-connecting two charged capacitors in parallel

238 Chapter 6 ~ Capacitance

inventing your own rules

6.4 Capacitors in Circuits

More generally, for many capacitors in series, C -1 - C~ -1 + C2 -~ + ....

Floating" voltage and the Leyden jar

Combinations o f Series and Parallel Circuits

6.4 Capacitors in Circuits

combinationof three capacitors

(c) Combination of capacitors.

More Complex Circuits

A ~ - Q,~/C~ - ( C'~AV) - zx V[ Cl (Cl

6~5 I"~ Determining the Dielectric Constant

Dielectric constant K Dielectric strength Ed (106 V/m)

Equation (6.12) may be rewritten as

so that the voltage will decrease by a factor of K.

Determining ~ by measuring voltage

6~5~2 Effect o f Dielectric on Capacitance

Determining ~ by measuring charge

Q0, this gives K = 4.

Electrolytic Capacitors and Supercapacitors

6.5.4 Biological Capacitors: The Cell Membrane

6.6 Electrical Energy

Energy Storage by a Capacitor

6.6 Electrical Energy

with (U, q, V) ~ (dU, d Q', A V), the increase d U in electrical energy is

This can be integrated immediately, with U = 0 for Q = 0, to yield U = or

For a 20/zF capacitor, let A V = 240 V. Find Q and U.

Energy Is M i n i m i z e d by zl V~ = ~ V2 for Capadtors in Parallel

250 Chapter 6 a Capacitance

At fixed total charge, Q = Q1 + ~ 2 - ~ constant, so d Q1 = - d Q 2 . The differential of U is then

Energy Density for a Capacitor

1 KA ( A V ) ~ - A d E ~ _ K A d E 2 ~ 4~rkd - 8Jrk K ~nk