FLIR RD Handbook

$29.
95
TM
The Global Leader in Infrared Cameras
The Ultimate Infrared Handbook

for R&D Professionals
The Ultimate Resource Guide for

Using Infrared in the Research and
Development Industry
The Ultimate Infrared Handbook
for R&D Professionals
The Ultimate Resource Guide for

Using Infrared in the Research and
Development Industry
USA, Canada & Latin America
FLIR Systems
America’s Main Office, USA
Boston, MA
1-800-GO-INFRA (464-6372) or
1-978-901-8000
Europe, Middle East, Asia and Africa

FLIR Systems
International Main Office, Sweden
Tel: +46 8 753 2500
The thoughts, ideas, opinions, and recommendations

expressed in this book are intended for informational
purposes only. FLIR accepts no liability for actions taken by
readers in their individual businesses or circumstances.
Published by FLIR Systems Incorporated

This booklet may not be reproduced in any form without
the permission in writing from FLIR Systems, Inc.
XXXJOGSBSFESFTFBSDIDBNFSBTDPNt
© Copyright. All rights reserved.
ii
Contents
IR Thermography – How It Works 1
IR Detectors For Thermographic Imaging 7
Getting The Most From Your IR Camera 15
Filters Extend IR Camera Usefulness 26
Ultra High-Speed Thermography 36
iii
iv
Chapter 1
IR Thermography – materials sensitive to IR wavelengths. FPA

resolution can range from about 160 ×
How It Works 120 pixels up to 1024 × 1024 pixels. Certain
IR Thermography Cameras IR cameras have built-in software that
allows the user to focus on specific areas
Although infrared radiation (IR) is not
of the FPA and calculate the temperature.
detectable by the human eye, an IR
Other systems utilized a computer or
camera can convert it to a visual image data system with specialized software
that depicts thermal variations across that provides temperature analysis. Both
an object or scene. IR covers a portion methods can supply temperature analysis
of the electromagnetic spectrum from with better than ±1°C precision.
approximately 900 to 14,000 nanometers
(0.9–14 μm). IR is emitted by all objects at FPA detector technologies are broken
temperatures above absolute zero, and down into two categories: thermal
the amount of radiation increases with detectors and quantum detectors. A
temperature. common type of thermal detector is an
uncooled microbolometer made of a
Thermography is a type of imaging metal or semiconductor material. These
that is accomplished with an IR camera typically have lower cost and a broader
calibrated to display temperature values IR spectral response than quantum
across an object or scene. Therefore, detectors. Still, microbolometers react
thermography allows one to make non- to incident radiant energy and are much
contact measurements of an object’s slower and less sensitive than quantum
temperature. detectors. Quantum detectors are made
IR camera construction is similar to from materials such as InSb, InGaAs, PtSi,
a digital video camera. The main HgCdTe (MCT), and layered GaAs/AlGaAs
components are a lens that focuses IR for QWIP (Quantum Well Infrared Photon)
onto a detector, plus electronics and detectors. The operation of a quantum
software for processing and displaying detector is based on the change of state
the signals and images. Instead of a of electrons in a crystal structure reacting
charge coupled device that video and to incident photons. These detectors are
digital still cameras use, the IR camera generally faster and more sensitive than
detector is a focal plane array (FPA) of thermal detectors. However, they require
micrometer size pixels made of various cooling, sometimes down to cryogenic
User Interfac
f e
IR In Video User Control
Detector Cooling Video Output
Prrocessing
NIR Digitization Digital Output
Electronics Synchronization In/Out
MWIR
System Status
LWIR
Op
ptics
Figure 1. Simplified block diagram of an IR camera

Chapter 1
temperatures using liquid nitrogen or a lenses with modern turning methods. As
small Stirling cycle refrigerator unit. in visible light cameras, IR camera lenses
have antireflective coatings. With proper
IR Spectrum Considerations design, IR camera lenses can transmit
Typically, IR cameras are designed and close to 100% of incident radiation.
calibrated for a specific range of the IR
spectrum. This means that the optics Thermal Radiation Principles
and detector materials must be selected The intensity of the emitted energy
for the desired range. Figure 2 illustrates from an object varies with temperature
the spectral response regions for various and radiation wavelength. If the object
detector materials. is colder than about 500°C, emitted
Because IR has the same properties radiation lies completely within IR
as visible light regarding reflection, wavelengths. In addition to emitting
refraction, and transmission, the optics radiation, an object reacts to incident
for thermal cameras are designed in radiation from its surroundings by
a fashion similar to those of a visual absorbing and reflecting a portion of it,
wavelength camera. However, the types or allowing some of it to pass through
of glass used in optics for visible light (as through a lens). From this physical
cameras cannot be used for optics in an principle, the Total Radiation Law is
infrared camera, as they do not transmit derived, which can be stated with the
IR wavelengths well enough. Conversely, following formula:
materials that are transparent to IR are W = AW + RW + TW,
often opaque to visible light.
which can be simplified to:
IR camera lenses typically use silicon (Si)
and germanium (Ge) materials. Normally 1 = A + R + T.
Si is used for MWIR (medium wavelength The coefficients A, R, and T describe the
IR) camera systems, whereas Ge is used object’s incident energy absorbtion
in LW (long wavelength) cameras. Si and (A), reflection (R), and transmission (T).
Ge have good mechanical properties, i.e., Each coefficient can have a value from
they do not break easily, they are non- zero to one, depending on how well an
hygroscopic, and they can be formed into object absorbs, reflects, or transmits
incident radiation. For example, if R = 0,
MCT T = 0, and A = 1, then there is no reflected
PtSi QWIP or transmitted radiation, and 100% of
InSb Microbolometer incident radiation is absorbed. This is
called a perfect blackbody.
MWIR L
LWIR In the real world there are no objects
that are perfect absorbers, reflectors, or
3.0μm 5.0μm 8.0μm 14.0μm
transmitters, although some may come
Figure 2. Examples of detector materials and
very close to one of these properties.
their spectral responses relative to IR midwave Nonetheless, the concept of a perfect
(MW) and longwave (LW) bands blackbody is very important in the

IR Thermography – How It Works
science of thermography, because it is 1 – emissivity). Since a perfect blackbody

the foundation for relating IR radiation to is a perfect absorber, R = 0 and E = 1.
an object’s temperature. The radiative properties of a perfect
Fundamentally, a perfect blackbody blackbody can also be described
is a perfect absorber and emitter of mathematically by Planck’s Law. Since this
radiant energy. This concept is stated has a complex mathematical formula, and
mathematical as Kirchhoff’s Law. The is a function of temperature and radiation
radiative properties of a body are wavelength, a blackbody’s radiative
denoted by the symbol E, the emittance properties are usually shown as a series
or emissivity of the body. Kirchhoff’s law of curves (Figure 3).
states that A = E, and since both values These curves show the radiation per
vary with the radiation wavelength, the wavelength unit and area unit, called
formula can take the form A(L) = E(L), the spectral radiant emittance of the
where L denotes the wavelength. blackbody. The higher the temperature,
The total radiation law can thus take the the more intense the emitted radiation.
mathematical form 1 = E + R + T, which for However, each emittance curve has a
an opaque body (T = 0) can be simplified distinct maximum value at a certain
to 1 = E + R or R = 1 – E (i.e., reflection =
4.50
4.00 T
T-1000˚ C
Blackbody spectral radiant emittance
3.50
3.00
T
T-900˚C
2.50
2.00
T
T-700˚C
T
T-800˚C
T
T-600˚C
1.50
T-500˚C
1.00 T-400˚C
T-300˚C
0.50 T-200˚C
0.00
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 11 12 13 14 15
Visible
light
Figure 3. Illustration of Planck’s Law

Chapter 1
wavelength. This maximum can be blackbody (the perfect emitter). If the
calculated from Wien’s displacement law, emitted energy from a blackbody is
Lmax = 2898/T, denoted as Wbb, and that of a normal
object at the same temperature as Wobj,
where T is the absolute temperature then the ratio between these two values
of the blackbody, measured in Kelvin describes the emissivity (E) of the object,
(K), and Lmax is the wavelength at the
maximum intensity. Using blackbody E = Wobj / Wbb.
emittance curves, one can find that Thus, emissivity is a number between 0
an object at 30°C has a maximum near and 1. The better the radiative properties
10μm, whereas an object at 1000°C has a of the object, the higher its emissivity.
radiant intensity with a maximum of near An object that has the same emissivity E
2.3μm. The latter has a maximum spectral for all wavelengths is called a greybody.
radiant emittance about 1,400 times Consequently, for a greybody, Stefan-
higher than a blackbody at 30°C, with a Bolzmann’s law takes the form
considerable portion of the radiation in
the visible spectrum. W = EST4 (W/m2),
From Planck’s law, the total radiated which states that the total emissive
energy from a blackbody can be power of a greybody is the same as that
calculated. This is expressed by a formula of a blackbody of the same temperature
known as the Stefan-Bolzmann law, reduced in proportion to the value of E
for the object.
W = ST4 (W/m2),
Still, most bodies are neither blackbodies
where S is the Stefan-Bolzmann’s nor greybodies. The emissivity varies
constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4). As an with wavelength. As thermography
example, a human being with a normal operates only inside limited spectral
temperature (about 300 K) will radiate ranges, in practice it is often possible to
about 500W/m2 of effective body treat objects as greybodies. In any case,
surface. As a rule of thumb, the effective an object having emittance that varies
body surface is 1m2, and radiates about strongly with wavelength is called a
0.5kW—a substantial heat loss. selective radiator. For example, glass is a
The equations described in this section very selective radiator, behaving almost
provide important relationships between like a blackbody for certain wavelengths,
emitted radiation and temperature of a whereas it is rather the opposite for other
perfect blackbody. Since most objects wavelengths.
of interest to thermographers are not
perfect blackbodies, there needs to be Atmospheric Influence
some way for an IR camera to graph the Between the object and the thermal
temperature of a “normal” object. camera is the atmosphere, which tends
to attenuate radiation due to absorption
Emissivity by gases and scattering by particles. The
The radiative properties of objects are amount of attenuation depends heavily
usually described in relation to a perfect on radiation wavelength. Although the

IR Thermography – How It Works
atmosphere usually transmits visible light detectors for high-end R&D and military
very well, fog, clouds, rain, and snow can applications. When acquiring a signal
prevent us from seeing distant objects. through the atmosphere with MW
The same principle applies to infrared cameras, selected transmission bands
radiation. must be used where less attenuation
takes place.
For thermographic measurement we
must use the so-called atmospheric Temperature Measurements
windows. As can be seen from Figure 4,
they can be found between 2 and 5μm, The radiation that impinges on the IR
the mid-wave windows, and 7.5–13.5μm, camera lens comes from three different
the long-wave window. Atmospheric sources. The camera receives radiation
attenuation prevents an object’s total from the target object, plus radiation
radiation from reaching the camera. If from its surroundings that has been
no correction for attenuation is applied, reflected onto the object’s surface. Both
the measured apparent temperature of these radiation components become
will be lower and lower with increased attenuated when they pass through
distance. IR camera software corrects for the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere
atmospheric attenuation. absorbs part of the radiation, it will also
radiate some itself (Kirchhoff’s law).
Typically, LW cameras in the 7.5–13.5μm
range work well anywhere that Given this situation, we can derive a
atmospheric attenuation is involved, formula for the calculation of the object’s
temperature from a calibrated camera’s
because the atmosphere tends to act
output.
as a high-pass filter above 7.5μm (Figure
4). The MW band of 3–5μm tends to 1. Emission from the object = E· T· Wobj,
be employed with highly sensitive where E is the emissivity of the object
Figure 4. Atmospheric attenuation (white areas) with a chart of the gases and water vapor causing
most of it. The areas under the curve represent the highest IR transmission.
5
Chapter 1
and T is the transmittance of the where E is the object emissivity, T is the
atmosphere. transmission through the atmosphere,
2. Reflected emission from ambient sources Tamb is the (effective) temperature of the
= (1 – E) · T· Wamb, where (1 – E) is the object’s surroundings, or the reflected
reflectance of the object. (It is assumed ambient (background) temperature,
that the temperature Tamb is the same and Tatm is the temperature of the
for all emitting surfaces within the atmosphere.
half sphere seen from a point on the
object’s surface.) To arrive at the correct target object
temperature, IR camera software
3. Emission from the atmosphere =
(1 – T) · Watm, where (1 – T) is the requires inputs for the emissivity of
emissivity of the atmosphere. the object, atmospheric attenuation
and temperature, and temperature of
The total radiation power received by the
the ambient surroundings. Depending
camera can now be written:
on circumstances, these factors may
Wtot = (1 – T) · Wobj + (1 – E) · T· Wamb + be measured, assumed, or found from
(1 – T) · Watm, look-up tables.
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e

Chapter 2
IR Detectors For atmospheric window. This is the range of

IR wavelengths that readily pass through
Thermographic Imaging the atmosphere with little attenuation.
Essentially, there are two of these
IR Cameras windows, one in the 2–5.6μm range, the
Thermographic imaging is accomplished short/medium wavelength (SW/MW) IR
with a camera that converts infrared band, and one in the 8–14μm range, the
radiation (IR) into a visual image that long-wavelength (LW) IR band. There are
depicts temperature variations across many detector materials and cameras
an object or scene. The main IR camera with response curves that meet these
components are a lens, a detector in criteria.
the form of a focal plane array (FPA),
possibly a cooler for the detector, Quantum vs. Non-Quantum Detectors
and the electronics and software for The majority of IR cameras have a
processing and displaying images (Figure microbolometer type detector, mainly
1). Most detectors have a response curve because of cost considerations.
that is narrower than the full IR range Microbolometer FPAs can be created
(900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14μm). from metal or semiconductor materials,
Therefore, a detector (or camera) must and operate according to non-quantum
be selected that has the appropriate principles. This means that they respond
response for the IR range of a user’s to radiant energy in a way that causes
application. In addition to wavelength a change of state in the bulk material
response, other important detector (i.e., the bolometer effect). Generally,
characteristics include sensitivity, the microbolometers do not require cooling,
ease of creating it as a focal plane array which allows compact camera designs
with micrometer size pixels, and the that are relatively low in cost. Other
degree of cooling required, if any. characteristics of microbolometers are:
In most applications, the IR camera must t Relatively low sensitivity (detectivity)
view a radiating object through the
atmosphere. Therefore, an overriding t Broad (flat) response curve
concern is matching the detector’s t Slow response time (time constant
response curve to what is called an ~12ms)
User Interfac
f e
IR In Video User Control
Detector Cooling Video Output
Prrocessing
NIR Digitization Digital Output
Electronics Synchronization In/Out
MWIR
System Status
LWIR
Op
ptics
Figure 1. Simplified block diagram of an IR camera

Chapter 2
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1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40
Wavelength (μm) Wavelength (μm)
Figure 2. Detectivity (D*) curves for different detector materials
For more demanding applications, Table 1. Detector types and materials commonly
quantum detectors are used, which used in IR cameras.
operate on the basis of an intrinsic Detector Type/ Operating
photoelectric effect. These materials Material Operation Temp.
respond to IR by absorbing photons Microbolometer
Broadband Uncooled
that elevate the material’s electrons to detector (~30°C)
a higher energy state, causing a change SW photon
HgCdTe 200 K
detector
in conductivity, voltage, or current. By
LW photon
cooling these detectors to cryogenic HgCdTe 77 K
detector
temperatures, they can be very sensitive MW photon
InSb 77 K
to the IR that is focused on them. They detector
also react very quickly to changes in PtSi
MW photon
77 K
IR levels (i.e., temperatures), having a detector
constant response time on the order of LW photon
QWIP 70 K
detector
1μs. Therefore, a camera with this type
of detector is very useful in recording
Operating Principles for Quantum
transient thermal events. Still, quantum
Detectors
detectors have response curves with
detectivity that varies strongly with In materials used for quantum detectors,
wavelength (Figure 2). Table 1 lists some at room temperature there are electrons
of the most commonly used detectors in at different energy levels. Some electrons
today’s IR cameras. have sufficient thermal energy that they

IR Detectors For Thermographic Imaging
are in the conduction band, meaning photocurrent, which is proportional to

the electrons there are free to move and the intensity of the incident radiation.
the material can conduct an electrical
There is a very exact lowest energy of
current. Most of the electrons, however,
the incident photons that will allow an
are found in the valence band, where
electron to jump from the valence band
they do not carry any current because
into the conduction band. This energy is
they cannot move freely. (See left-most
related to a certain wavelength, the cut-
views of Figure 3.)
off wavelength. Since photon energy is
When the material is cooled to a low inversely proportional to its wavelength,
enough temperature, which varies with the energies are higher in the SW/MW
the chosen material, the thermal energy band than in the LW band. Therefore,
of the electrons may be so low that as a rule, the operating temperatures
there are none in the conduction band for LW detectors are lower than for SW/
(upper center view of Figure 3). Hence the MW detectors. For an InSb MW detector,
material cannot carry any current. When the necessary temperature must be less
these materials are exposed to incident than 173 K (–100°C), although it may be
photons, and the photons have sufficient operated at a much lower temperature.
energy, this energy can stimulate an An HgCdTe (MCT) LW detector must
electron in the valence band, causing it be cooled to 77 K (–196°C) or lower.
to move up into the conduction band A QWIP detector typically needs to
(upper right view of Figure 3). Thus operate at about 70 K (–203°C) or lower.
the material (the detector) can carry a The lower center and right views of
Figure 3. Operating principle of quantum detectors
9
Chapter 2
Figure 3 depict quantum detector
Cold side
wavelength dependence. The incident Copper
photon wavelength and energy must Thermo o-
be sufficient to overcome the band gap electriccal
energy, ΔE. materiaal
Cooling Methods
Warm side
The first detectors used in infrared
radiometric instruments were cooled
+ –
with liquid nitrogen. The detector was
attached to the Dewar flask that held the DC
liquid nitrogen, thus keeping the detector
at a very stable and low temperature Figure 4. Single stage Peltier cooler
(–196°C).
IR detector
Later, other cooling methods were Mountiing plate
developed. The first solid-state solution
to the cooling problem was presented
by AGEMA in 1986, when it introduced a
Peltier effect cooler for a commercial IR
camera. In a Peltier cooler, DC current is
forced through a thermoelectric material,
removing heat from one junction and
creating a cold side and a hot side.
The hot side is connected to a heat
sink, whereas the cold side cools the
component attached to it. See Figures Figure 5. Three-stage Peltier cooler
4 and 5.
Regardless of the cooling method,
For very demanding applications, the detector focal plane is attached
where the highest possible sensitivity to the cold side of the cooler in a way
was needed, an electrical solution to that allows efficient conductive heat
cryogenic cooling was developed. This exchange. Because focal plane arrays are
resulted in the Stirling cooler. Only in the small, the attachment area and the cooler
last 15 to 20 years were manufacturers itself can be relatively small.
able to extend the life of Stirling coolers
to 8,000 hours or more, which is sufficient Focal Plane Array Assemblies
for use in thermal cameras. Depending on the size/resolution of an
The Stirling process removes heat from FPA assembly, it has from (approximately)
the cold finger (Figure 6) and dissipates 60,000 to more than 1,000,000 individual
it at the warm side. The efficiency of detectors. For the sake of simplicity, this
this type of cooler is relatively low, but can be described as a two-dimensional
good enough for cooling an IR camera pixel matrix with each pixel (detector)
detector. having micrometer size dimensions. FPA

Figure 8. QWIP FPA mounted on a ceramics

Figure 6. Integrated Stirling cooler, working
substrate and bonded to external electronics
with helium gas, cooling down to –196ºC or
sometimes even lower temperatures
must be bonded to the IR camera readout
electronics. A finished QWIP detector
and IC electronics assembly is shown in
Figure 8. This would be incorporated with
a Dewar or Stirling cooler in an assembly
similar to those shown in Figure 7.
Another complexity is the fact that each
individual detector in the FPA has a
Figure 7. Examples of cooled focal plane array slightly different gain and zero offset. To
assemblies used in IR cameras create a useful thermographic image,
the different gains and offsets must
resolutions can range from about 160 ×
be corrected to a normalized value.
120 pixels up to 1024 × 1024 pixels.
This multi-step calibration process is
In reality, assemblies are a bit more performed by the camera software. See
complex. Depending on the detector Figures 9–11.
material and its operating principle,
The ultimate result is a thermographic
an optical grating may be part of the
image that accurately portrays relative
FPA assembly. This is the case for QWIP
temperatures across the target object
detectors, in which the optical grating
or scene (Figure 12). Moreover, actual
disperses incident radiation to take
temperatures can be calculated to within
advantage of directional sensitivity in the
approximately ±1°C accuracy.
detector material’s crystal lattice. This has
the effect of increasing overall sensitivity
of a QWIP detector. Furthermore, the FPA

Chapter 2
Signal Without any

any corre
orrect
ctio
ionn Signal First correction step
Radiation Radiation
–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C
+20°C +20°C
Figure 9. To normalize different FPA detector gains and offsets, the first correction step is offset
compensation. This brings each detector response within the dynamic range of the camera’s A/D
converter electronics.
Signal First correction step Signal Second correction
A/D
A/ D Dy
Dynamic
namicss
Radiation Radiation
–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C
+20°C +20°C
Figure 10. After offset compensation, slope correction is applied.
Third correction,
Signal Non-Uniformity Correction (NUC) Signal After NUC
Radiation Radiation
–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C
+20°C +20°C
Figure 11. After gain factors are brought to the same value, non-uniformity correction (NUC) is
applied so that all detectors have essentially the same electronic characteristics.

t High thermal sensitivity

t High uniformity of the detectors, i.e.,
very low fixed pattern noise
t There is a degree of selectability in
their spectral sensitivity
t High yield in the production process
t Relatively low cost
t They are resistant to high temperatures
and high radiation
t They produce very good image quality
Camera electronics can handle
wide variations in absolute detector
sensitivities. For example, high sensitivity
that might saturate a detector at high
Figure 12. IR image from a 1024 × 1024 InSb thermal intensities can be handled by
detector camera aperture control and neutral density
filters. Both of these solutions can reduce
Application Criteria the radiant energy impinging on the FPA.
As indicated earlier, different types of Price aside, spectral sensitivity is often an
detectors have different thermal and overriding concern in selecting a detector
spectral sensitivities. In addition, they and camera for a specific application.
have different cost structures due to Once a detector is selected, lens material
various degrees of manufacturability. and filters can be selected to somewhat
Where they otherwise fit the application, alter the overall response characteristics
photon detectors such as InSb and QWIP of an IR camera system. Figure 13 shows
types offer a number of advantages: the system response for a number of
different detectors.

#"
" #(+
( % )(
%! ) %,.-+--.
+
%!
!)
) $
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Figure 13. Relative response curves for a number of IR cameras
13
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Chapter 3
Getting The Most From sphere equivalent to the square of the

radius.)
Your IR Camera
Understanding IR camera calibration In simple terms, one can think of
and corrections help ensure accurate thermography as “how hot” an object
temperature measurements and is, whereas radiometry is “how much
thermographic mapping. energy” the object is giving off. Although
these two concepts are related, they are
Quantitative Measurements with not the same thing. IR cameras inherently
IR Cameras measure irradiance not temperature,
but thermography does stem from
For best results, IR camera users need radiance. When you thermographically
to think carefully about the type of calibrate an IR system you are calibrating
measurements they need to make, /measuring based on effective blackbody
and then be proactive in the camera’s radiance and temperature. Therefore, the
calibration process. Of course, the first emissivity of the target object you are
step is selecting a camera with the measuring is vital to achieving accurate
appropriate features and software for temperatures. (Emissivity or emittance
the application. An understanding of the is the radiative property of an object
differences between thermographic and relative to a perfect blackbody.)
radiometric measurements is very helpful
in this regard. Entry level IR cameras with microbolo-
meter detectors operate according to
Thermography is a type of infrared non-quantum principles. The detectors
imaging in which IR cameras detect respond to radiant energy in a way that
radiation in the electromagnetic causes a change of state in the bulk
spectrum with wavelengths from roughly material (e.g., resistance or capacitance).
900 to 14,000 nanometers (0.9–14 μm) Calibration software in these cameras is
and produce images of that radiation. oriented toward thermographic imaging
Typically, this imaging is used to measure and temperature measurements. High-
temperature variations across an object end IR cameras with photon detectors
or scene, which can be expressed in operate according to quantum physics
degrees Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kelvin. principles. Although they also provide
Radiometry is the measurement of high quality images, their software is
radiant electromagnetic energy, typically more sophisticated, allowing
especially that associated with the IR accurate measurements of both radiance
spectrum. It can be more simply defined and temperature.
as an absolute measurement of radiant
Some reasons why radiance
flux. The typical unit of measure for
measurements are important include:
imaging radiometry is radiance, which is
expressed in units of Watts/(sr-cm2). (The t Given a linear sensor, measured
abbreviation “sr” stands for steradian; radiance is linear with incident energy.
a non-dimensional geometric ratio Temperature is non-linear with raw
expressing the solid (conical) angle that digital image counts, even with a linear
encloses a portion of the surface of a sensor.

Chapter 3
t Given the radiance and area of an example, a FLIR ThermoVision® SC6000
object, radiant intensity can be IR camera has a 14-bit dynamic range
calculated. Knowing total radiant in its A/D converter, which creates
intensity of a target gives a radiometric count values ranging from 0–16,383.
analyst the ability to model the The more IR energy incident on the
irradiance generated by the target over camera’s detector (within its spectral
various geometric and atmospheric band), the higher the digital count.)
conditions.
4. When the camera is properly
t The relationship between spectral calibrated, digital counts are
bands of interest can be much easier transformed into radiance values.
to determine if you are working within
radiometric units. 5. Finally, the calibrated camera‘s
electronics convert radiance values
t The comparison between different to temperature using the known or
objects in radiometric terms tends measured emissivity of the target
to have less uncertainty because object.
emissivity is not a concern. (One still
needs to consider atmospheric and Expanding on Steps 4 and 5, an effective
spectral bandpass effects.) blackbody temperature measurement
t One can typically convert a radiometric can be derived from a radiance
signature from radiance to effective measurement by applying a radiometric
blackbody temperature given a few calibration, temperature vs. radiance
assumptions or ancillary measurement model, and emissivity of the target object
data. It tends to be more difficult to go or scene. Every IR camera designed for
from temperature to radiance. serious measurements is calibrated at
the factory. In the calibration lab, the
Key Physical Relationships in camera takes a number of blackbody
Camera Operation measurements at known temperatures,
radiance levels, emissivities, and
There are five basic steps in producing distances. This creates a table of values
radiometric and thermographic based on the A/D counts from the
measurements with an IR camera system: temperature/radiance measurements.
1. The target object has a certain energy
Once the counts for each blackbody
signature that is collected by the IR
temperature measurement are entered
camera through its lens.
into the calibration software, the data
2. This involves the collection of are then passed through an in-band
photons in the case of a photon radiance curve fit algorithm to produce
detector, or collection of heat energy the appropriate in-band radiance vs.
with a thermal detector, such as a count values given the camera system’s
microbolometer. normalized spectral response function.
3. The collected energy causes the This produces a radiometric calibration of
detector to produce a signal voltage in-band radiance [W/(sr-cm2)] versus the
that results in a digital count through digital counts obtained while viewing a
the system’s A/D converter. (For blackbody over a range of temperatures.

Getting The Most From Your IR Camera
Radiance vs. Measurement

Black Body Source T
Temperature (°C)
0 10 20 30 40
2.9516e–04
2.8149e–04
2.6781e–04
2.5414e–04
2.4047e–04
2.2680e–04
Radiance (W/(sr-cm2))
2.1313e–04
1.9946e–04
Curv
r e Fi
Ft Measurements
easurement
1.8579e–04
1.7212e–04
1.5845e–04
1.4478e–04
1.3111e–04
1.1744e–04
1.0377e–04
9.0096e–05
7.6425e–05
6.2755e–05
7.5899e+03
7.8025e+03
8.0151e+03
8.2738e+03
8.4503e+03
8.6629e+03
8.8856e+03
9.0981e+03
9.3107e+03
9.5334e+03
9.7460e+03
9.9585e+03
1.0181e+04
1.0393e+04
1.0606e+04
1.0829e+04
1.1041e+04
1.1264e+04
1.1476e+04
1.1689e+04
1.1912e+04
1.2124e+04
1.2337e+04
1.2559e+04
1.2772e+04
1.2985e+04
1.3207e+04
1.3420e+04
1.3632e+04
1.3855e+04
1.4068e+04
1.4280e+04
1.4503e+04
1.4716e+04
1.4938e+04
Measuremen
nt (Counts)
Figure 1. Example of camera measurements and corresponding in-band radiance values for given
black body temperatures with resulting radiance vs. measurement curve.
The result is a series of calibration curves. the calibration process is the radiation
An example of how calibration points are caused by the heating and cooling of
captured is shown in Figure 1. the camera itself. Any swings in camera
internal temperature caused by changes
The calibration curves are stored in
in environment or the heating and
the camera system’s memory as a
cooling of camera electronics will affect
series of numeric curve-fit tables that
the radiation intensity at the detector.
relate radiance values to blackbody
The radiation that results directly from
temperatures. When the system makes
the camera is called parasitic radiation
a measurement, it takes the digital
and can cause inaccuracies in camera
value of the signal at a given moment,
measurement output, especially with
goes into the appropriate calibration
thermographically calibrated cameras.
table, and calculates temperature. Due
Certain IR cameras (like the FLIR
consideration is given to other factors
ThermoVision® product line), have internal
like atmospheric attenuation, reflected
sensors that monitor changes in camera
ambient temperature, and the camera’s
temperature. As part of the calibration
ambient temperature drift before the
process, these cameras are placed in an
final result is presented.
environmental chamber and focused at
Ambient Drift Compensation (ADC). a black body reference. The temperature
Another important consideration in of the chamber and black body are then
17
Chapter 3
varied and data is collected from the high-end cameras are connected to
internal sensors. Correction factors are PCs to expand their internal calibration,
then created and stored in the camera. correction, and analysis capabilities. For
In real-time operation, the camera example, FLIR’s ThermaCAM® RTools™
sensors continually monitor internal software can serve a wide variety
temperature and send feedback to the of functions from real-time image
camera processor. The camera output acquisition to post-acquisition analysis.
is then corrected for any parasitic Whether the software is on the camera or
radiation influences. This functionality is an external PC, the most useful packages
commonly referred to as ambient drift allow a user to easily modify calibration
compensation. variables. For instance, FLIR’s ThermaCAM
Ultimately, the camera must calculate RTools provides the ability to enter
at an object’s temperature based on and modify emissivity, atmospheric
its emission, reflected emission from conditions, distances, and other ancillary
ambient sources, and emission from the data needed to calculate and represent
atmosphere using the Total Radiation the exact temperature of the object,
Law. The total radiation power received both live and through saved data. This
by the camera can be expressed as: software provides a post-measurement
capability to further modify atmospheric
Wtot = E · T · Wobj + (1 – E) · T· Wamb + conditions, spectral responsivity,
(1 – T) · Watm, atmospheric transmission changes,
internal and external filters, and other
where E is the object emissivity, T is the
important criteria as needed.
transmission through the atmosphere,
Tamb is the (effective) temperature of the The discussions that follow below are
object surroundings, or the reflected intended to represent both onboard and
ambient (background) temperature, external camera firmware and software
and Tatm is the temperature of the functions. Where these functions reside
atmosphere. depends on the camera.
The best results are obtained when a user Typical Camera Measurement
is diligent in entering known values for all Functions
the pertinent variables into the camera
software. Emissivity tables are available IR cameras have various operating
for a wide variety of common substances. modes to assure correct temperature
However, when in doubt, measurements measurements under different
should be made to obtain the correct application conditions. Typical
values. measurement functions include:
Calibration and analysis software t Spotmeter
tools available to users are not always t Area
contained onboard the camera. While t Profile
high-end cameras have many built-
in software functions, others rely on t Isotherm
external software that runs on a PC. Even t Temperature range

t Color or gray scale settings object, which may also be shown as a

graph (Figure 3).
Cursor functions allow easy selection
of an area of interest, such as the
crosshairs of the spot readings in Figure
2. In addition, the cursor may be able
to select circle, square, and irregularly
shaped polygon areas, or create a line
for a temperature profile. Once an area
is selected, it can be “frozen” so that the
Figure 3. Graph of temperature along a selected
camera can take a snapshot of that area. area of a target object using a camera’s profile
Alternatively, the camera image can function
remain live for observation of changes in
temperature. The temperature measurement range
typically is selectable by the user. This
is a valuable feature when a scene has
a temperature range narrower than
a camera’s full-scale range. Setting a
narrower range allows better resolution
of the images and higher accuracy in
the measured temperatures. Therefore,
images will better illustrate smaller
temperature differences. On the other
hand, a broader scale and/or higher
maximum temperature range may be
Figure 2. IR image of a printed circuit board needed to prevent saturation of the
indicating three spot temperature readings. portion of the image at the highest
Image colors correspond to the temperature
scale on the right.
temperature.
As an adjunct to the temperature range
The spotmeter finds the temperature
selection, most cameras allow a user
at a particular point. Depending on the
to set up a color scale or gray scale to
camera, this function may allow ten
optimize the camera image. Figure 4
or more movable spots, one or more
illustrates two gray scale possibilities.
of which may automatically find the
hottest point in the image. The area In Figure 2 a so-called “iron scale” was
function isolates a selected area of an used for a color rendering. In a manner
object or scene and finds the maximum, similar to the gray scale used in Figure
minimum, and average temperatures 4, the hottest temperatures can be
inside that area. The isotherm function rendered as either lighter colors or darker
makes it possible to portray the colors. Another possibility is rendering
temperature distribution of a hot area. images with what is known as a rainbow
Multiple isotherms may be allowed. scale (Figure 5). In some color images,
The line profile is a way to visualize the gray is used to indicate areas where the
temperature along some part of the camera detector has become saturated

Chapter 3
Figure 4. Gray scale images of car engine; left view has white as the hottest temperature; right view
shows black as the hottest
(i.e., temperatures well above the top of temperature distribution over an object.
the scale). In Figure 6, the temperature scale is
selected so that each color is an isotherm
While choice of color scale is often a with a width of 2°C.
matter of personal preference, there may
be times when one type of scale is better Still, it is important to realize that an
than another for illustrating the range of isothermal temperature scale rendering
temperatures in a scene. will not be accurate unless all of the
highlighted area has the same emissivity,
In the case of isotherm measurements, and the ambient temperatures are the
areas with the same thermal radiance same for all objects within the area.
are highlighted. If we use a color scale This points out common problems for
with ten colors, we will in fact get ten IR camera users. Often, emissivity varies
isotherms in the image. Such a scale across an object or scene, along with
sometimes makes it easier to see the variations in ambient temperatures,
Figure 5. Rainbow scale showing lower Figure 6. Isotherm color scale with each color
temperatures towards the blue end of the having an isotherm width of 2°C
spectrum

accompanied by atmospheric conditions ensure that the thermodynamics of the

that don’t match a camera’s default measurements are valid.
values. This is why IR cameras include Once the object has reached the set
measurement correction and calibration temperature, the lid is drawn off and
functions. a thermogram is captured of the
object. The camera and/or software for
Emissivity Corrections processing thermograms can be used to
In most applications, the emissivity of an get the emissivity value.
object is based on values found in a table. Another (“adjacent spot”) method is
Although camera software may include much simpler, but still gives reasonably
an emissivity table, users usually have exact values of the emissivity. It uses an
the capability of inputting emissivity area of known emissivity. The idea is to
values for an object ranging from 0.1 to determine the temperature of the object
1.0. Many cameras also provide automatic with the camera in the usual way. The
corrections based on user input for object is adjusted so that the area with
reflected ambient temperature, viewing unknown emissivity is very close to an
distance, relative humidity, atmospheric area of known emissivity. The distance
transmission, and external optics. separating these areas must be so
small that it can be safely assumed they
As described earlier, the IR camera have the same temperature. From this
calculates a temperature based on temperature measurement the unknown
radiance measurements and the object’s emissivity can be calculated.
emissivity. However, when the emissivity
value is unknown or uncertain, the The problem is illustrated in Figure 7,
reverse process can be applied. Knowing which is an image of a printed circuit
the object temperature, emissivity can board (PCB) heated to a uniform
temperature of 68.7°C. However, areas of
be calculated. This is usually done when
different emissivities may actually have
exact emissivity values are needed. There
different temperatures, as indicated
are two common methods of doing this.
in the caption of Figure 7a. Using the
The first method establishes a known technique just described, emissivity
temperature by using an equalization correction proceeds by finding a
box. This is essentially a tightly controlled reference spot where a temperature of
temperature chamber with circulating 68.7°C is indicated and calculating the
hot air. The length of time in the box must emissivity at that location. By knowing
be sufficient to allow the whole object to the emissivity of the reference spot, the
be at a uniform temperature. In addition, emissivity of the target spots can be
it is absolutely necessary that the object calculated. The corrected temperatures
stabilize at a temperature different are shown in Figure 7b.
from the surroundings where the actual As illustrated in these figures, this
measurements will take place. Usually, technique can be used with a camera’s
the object is heated to a temperature area selection function (“AR” in
at least 10°C above the surroundings to the figures) and using the average

Chapter 3
Figure 7a. PCB heated to a uniform 68.7°C, but Figure 7b. PCB with emissivity correction using
digital readouts are incorrect. the “adjacent spot” technique. Digital readouts
now indicate the correct temperatures at all
locations.
temperature for that area. The reason Using Camera Specifications

for using the average temperature in
the reference area is that there is usually When considering IR camera
performance, most users are interested
a spread of temperatures within the
in how small an object or area can be
area, especially for materials with low
detected and accurately measured at
emissivity. In that case, using a spotmeter
a given distance. Knowing a camera’s
or an area maximum value would give a
field of view (FOV) specifications helps
less stable result. The isotherm function determine this.
is not recommended either, as it is not
possible to get the averaging effect Field of View (FOV). This parameter
with it. depends on the camera lens and focal
plane dimensions, and is expressed
It may also be possible to use a contact in degrees, such as 35.5° × 28.7° or 18.2
sensor to find the temperature of an × 14.6°. For a given viewing distance,
area of unknown emissivity, but such this determines the dimensions of
measurements pose other problems the total surface area “seen” by the
that may not be easy to overcome. instrument (Figure 8). For example, a
Furthermore, it is never possible to FLIR ThermoVision SC6000 camera with
measure the emissivity of an object a 25mm lens has an FOV of 0.64 × 0.51
whose temperature is the same as the meters at a distance of one meter, and 6.4
reflected ambient temperature from its × 5.1 meters at a distance of ten meters.
surroundings.
Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV). This
Generally, a user can also input other is a measure of the spatial resolution
variables that are needed to correct of a camera’s focal plane array (FPA)
for ambient conditions. These include detector. The configuration of the FPA
factors for ambient temperatures and in the FLIR ThermoVision SC6000 is 640
atmospheric attenuation around the × 512 detectors, which makes a total
target object. of 327,680 individual picture elements

Figure 10. IFOV (red squares) relative to object

size.
Figure 8. A camera’s field of view (FOV) varies In the right view of Figure 10, the pixel
with viewing distance. covers more than the target object
area and will pick up radiation from
(pixels). Suppose you are looking at an extraneous objects. If the object is hotter
object at a distance of one meter with than the objects beside or behind it, the
this camera. In determining the smallest temperature reading will be too low,
detectable object, it is important to know and vice versa. Therefore it is important
the area’s IFOV covered by an individual to estimate the size of the target
pixel in the array. The total FOV is 0.64 × object compared to the IFOV in each
0.51 meters at a distance of one meter. measurement situation.
If we divide these FOV dimensions by
the number of pixels in a line and row, Spot Size Ratio (SSR). At the start of a
respectively, we find that a pixel’s IFOV is measurement session, the distance
an area approximately 1.0 × 1.0mm at that between the camera and the target
distance. Figure 9 illustrates this concept. object should be considered explicitly.
For cameras that do not have a calibrated
spot size, the spot size ratio method
can be used to optimize measurement
results. SSR is a number that tells how far
the camera can be from a target object
of a given size in order to get a good
temperature measurement. A typical
figure might be 1,000:1 (also written
1,000/1, or simply abbreviated as 1,000).
Figure 9. A camera’s geometric (spatial) This can be interpreted as follows: at 1000
resolution (IFOV) is determined by its lens and mm distance from a target, the camera
FPA configuration. will measure a temperature averaged
over a 1mm square.
To use this information consider, the pixel
IFOV relative to the target object size Note that SSR is not just for targets far
(Figure 10). In the left view of this figure, away. It can be just as important for
the area of the object to be measured close-up work. However, the camera’s
covers the IFOV completely. Therefore, minimum focal distance must also be
the pixel will receive radiation only from considered. For shorter target distances,
the object, and its temperature can be some manufacturers offer close-up
measured correctly. lenses.

Chapter 3
For any application and camera/lens t Use of different transmission and/
combination, the following equation or emissivity curves or constants for
applies: calibration data points
D
__ – SSR
____ , where t Adjustments for atmospheric effects
S 1
D is the distance from the camera to the In addition, IR camera software and
target, firmware provide other user inputs
S is smallest target dimension of interest, that refine the accuracy of temperature
and measurements. One of the most
important functions is non-uniformity
SSR is the spot size ratio.
correction (NUC) of the detector FPA.
The units of D and S must be the same. This type of correction is needed due to
When selecting a camera, keep in mind the fact that each individual detector in
that IFOV is a good figure of merit to the camera’s FPA has a slightly different
use. The smaller the IFOV, the better the gain and zero offset. To create a useful
camera for a given total field of view. thermographic image, the different
gains and offsets must be corrected to a
Other Tools for Camera Users normalized value.
As mentioned earlier, IR cameras are This multi-step NUC process is performed
calibrated at the factory, and field by camera software. However, some
calibration in not practical. However, software allows the user to specify the
some cameras have a built-in blackbody manner in which NUC is performed by
to allow a quick calibration check. These selecting from a list of menu options.
checks should be done periodically to For example, a user may be able to
assure valid measurements. specify either a one-point or a two-
Bundled and optional data acquisition point correction. A one-point correction
software available for IR cameras allows only deals with pixel offset. Two-point
easy data capture, viewing, analysis, corrections perform both gain and offset
and storage. Software functions may normalization of pixel-to-pixel non-
include real-time radiometric output of uniformity.
radiance, radiant intensity, temperature,
target length/area, etc. Optional software With regard to NUC, another important
modules are also available for spatial consideration is how this function deals
and spectral radiometric calibration. with the imperfections that most FPAs
Functions provided by these modules have as a result of semiconductor wafer
might include: processing. Some of these imperfections
are manifested as bad pixels that produce
t Instrument calibration in terms of no output signals or as outputs far
radiance, irradiance, and temperature outside of a correctable range. Ideally,
t Radiometric data needed to set the NUC process identifies bad pixels and
instrument sensitivity and spectral replaces them using a nearest neighbor
range replacement algorithm. Bad pixels are

identified based on a response and/or Conclusions

offset level outside user-defined points
from the mean response and absolute Recent advances in IR cameras have
offset level. made them much easier to use. Camera
firmware has made setup and operation
Other NUC functions may be included as simple as using a conventional video
with this type of software, which are too camera. Onboard and PC-based software
numerous to mention. The same is true provides powerful measurement
of many other off-the-shelf software and analysis tools. Nevertheless, for
modules that can be purchased to accurate results, the user should have
facilitate thermographic image display, an understanding of IR camera optical
analysis, data file storage, manipulation, principals and calibration methods. At
and editing. Availability of compatible the very least, the emissivity of a target
software is an important consideration object should be entered into the
when selecting an IR camera for a user’s camera’s database, if not already available
application or work environment. as a table entry.
[email protected]
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provider of thermal nondestructive testing
solutions to the aerospace, power generation Aerospace
and automotive industries. Since 1992, our
systems have become the worldwide standard Power Generation
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and research applications. TWI is committed to
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Chapter 4
Filters Extend IR spectral response. The spectral response

is determined primarily by the camera’s
Camera Usefulness lens and detector. Figure 1 shows the
Where Filters Can Help spectral response of a few IR cameras
with various spectral responses. The
Materials that are transparent or opaque spectral performance of most cameras
to IR wavelengths present problems in can be found in their user manual or
non-contact temperature measurements technical specifications.
with an IR camera. With transparent
materials, the camera sees through For many objects, emissivity is a function
them and records a temperature that is of their radiance wavelength, and is
a combination of the material itself and further influenced by their temperature,
that which is behind it. In the second the angle at which they are viewed by
case, when an IR camera needs to see a camera, and other factors. An object
through a material to measure the whose emissivity varies strongly with
temperature of an object behind it, signal wavelength is called a selective radiator.
attenuation and ambient reflections can One that has the same emissivity for
make accurate temperature readings all wavelengths is called a greybody.
difficult or impossible. In some cases, an Transparent materials, such as glass
IR filter can be placed in the camera’s and many plastics, tend to be selective
optical path to overcome these problems. radiators. In other words, their degree
of transparency varies with wavelength.
Spectral Response is the Key There may be IR wavelengths where they
IR cameras inherently measure irradiance are essentially opaque due to absorption.
not temperature. However, a camera’s Since, according to Kirchhoff’s Law, a
software coverts radiance measurements good absorber is also a good emitter, this
into temperatures by using the known opens the possibility of measuring the
emissivity of a target object and applying radiance and temperature of a selective
internal calibration data for the camera’s radiator at some wavelength.

!$& # %$ #')(&(()
# %"
FLIR QWIP

Figure 1. Relative response curves for a number of IR cameras

Filters Extend IR Camera Usefulness
Spectral Adaptation “spike” in a gas. Even with proper

filtering, temperature measurement of
Inserting a spectral filter into the
gases is difficult, mainly due to unknown
camera’s optical path is called spectral
gas density. Selective adaptation for a
adaptation. The first step of this process
gas has a better chance of success if the
is to analyze the spectral properties of
objective is merely gas detection, since
the semitransparent material you are
there are less stringent requirements
trying to measure. For common materials
for quantitative accuracy. In that case
the data may be available in published
sensitivity would be more important, and
data. Otherwise, this requires analysis
some gases with very high absorption
with a spectrophotometer. (The camera
might still be measurable.
manufacturer or a consulting firm may
supply this service.) In either case, the Spectral adaptation could also be applied
objective is to find the spectral location of the opposite way, i.e., selection of a
a band of complete absorption that falls spectral band where the transmission
within the IR camera’s response curve. through a medium is as high as
Microbolometer detectors have rather possible. The purpose would be to
broad response curves so they are not enable measurement on an object by
likely to present a problem in this respect. seeing through the medium without
However, adding a filter decreases any interference. The medium could be
overall sensitivity due to narrowing of ordinary atmosphere, the atmosphere
the camera’s spectral range. Sensitivity of combustion gases inside a furnace, or
is reduced approximately by the ratio of simply a window (or other solid) through
the area under the filter’s spectral curve which one wants to measure.
to the area under the camera’s spectral
curve. This could be a problem for Filter Types
microbolometer systems, since they have The simplest filters are broadband neutral
relatively low sensitivity to start with and density types that are used merely to
a broad spectral curve. Using a camera reduce optical transmission and prevent
with, for example, a QWIP detector detector saturation at high temperatures.
will provide greater sensitivity with a While necessary sometimes, this is not
narrower spectral curve. Still, this narrow spectral adaptation.
range may limit the application of such
cameras for spectral adaptation. In spectral adaptation, filters are used
in order to suppress or transmit certain
Ultimately, an optical (IR) filter must be wavelengths. For discussion purposes,
selected that blocks all wavelengths filters can be described as short-pass
except the band where the object (SP), long-pass (LP), band-pass (BP), and
absorbs. This ensures that the object has narrow band-pass (NBP). See Figure 2.
high emissivity within that band. SP and LP filters are specified with a
Besides semitransparent solids, selective cut-on and a cut-off wavelength. BP and
adaptation can also be applied to gases. NBP filters are specified with a center
However, a very narrow filter might be wavelength and a half-width (half-power)
required for selecting an absorption wavelength, the latter being the width

Chapter 4

100
90
80
70 System response curve

60 Long-pass filter
50 Band-pass filter
40 Narrow band-pass filter
30 Short-pass filter
20
10
0
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Figure 2. Response curves for different types of filters
where spectral response has decreased to running just above the zero line, indicates
50% of its maximum. an excellent filter adaptation, i.e. the film
appears to be opaque to the camera, and
For temperature measurements on
no background radiation would disturb
transparent materials, the filter selected
the measurement of film temperature.
must provide a band of essentially
complete absorption. Incomplete Filters can also be classified according
absorption can be used, at least to their application temperature.
theoretically, provided that both Traditionally, cold filters, filters that
absorptance and reflectance are known are stabilized at or near the same
and stable at the absorption band. temperature as the detector, are the most
Unfortunately, absorption often varies accurate and desired filters for thermal
with both temperature and thickness of signatures. Warm filters, filters screwed
the material. onto the back of the optical lens outside
of the detector/cooler assembly, are also
An example of applying a NBP filter
commonly used but tend to provide
to the measurement of polyethylene
more radiometric calibration uncertainty
film temperature is shown in Figure 3.
due to varying IR emission with ambient
The blue curve in the figure shows the
temperature changes.
absorption band of polyethylene film.
The red curve shows the transmittance Once a filter is selected for use with
of a 3.45μm NBP filter, which is designed a particular camera, the camera/filter
to match polyethylene film. The green combination needs to be calibrated
curve shows the resulting transmission by the camera manufacturer. Then
through film plus the filter. This curve, the performance of the system should

Filter adaptation
1
0.9
0.8
3.45μm NBP filter
0.7
Transmission %
0.6 Polyethyllene
0.5 transmisssion
0.4
Resulting
g
0.3 transmisssion
0.2
0.1
0
3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4
Wavelength, μm
Figure 3. Application of an NBP filter to achieve nearly complete absorption and high emittance
from polyethylene film, allowing its temperature measurement
be characterized since accuracy and the camera/filter system can be created

sensitivity will be affected due to by the camera manufacturer. (See the
a reduction in energy going to the green curve in Figure 3.) In fact, this
detector. is generally required for permanent
cold filter installations to validate filter
Transparent Material response. Otherwise, (with supportive
Measurement Techniques spectral data) the user can proceed by
Production of sheet glass and thin plastic checking emissivity. This is a verification
film requires fairly tight temperature of emissivity efficiency for the overall
control to maximize production quality system response, including the target
and yield. Traditionally, temperature material and camera with installed filter.
sensors have been embedded at the Recalling Kirchhoff’s law,
orifice of the extruder, which provides RL + EL + TL = 1, or EL = 1 – TL – RL ,
rather coarse information about sheet/
film temperature. An IR machine it is clear that in order to get an emissivity
vision system can make non-contact value, transmittance and reflectance
temperature measurements and supply at the pass band of the filter must be
more usable data about the material as it known. The transmittance, T L , can
is extruded. However, as described above, be taken directly from a transmission
an appropriate filter is needed for the diagram like the one in Figure 3 (a value
IR camera to make the material appear of about 0.02 in that example).
opaque. Reflectance is less easy to characterize
To ensure that the proper filter was and usually is a function of material
selected, spectral response curves for thickness. However, a transmission

Chapter 4
Spectral transmission of polyethylene
100
90
80
70
25μm
60
50 125μm
40
250μm
30
20
10
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Wavelength, μm
Figure 4. Transmission bands for polyethylene films of three different thicknesses
diagram like the one in Figure 4 provides i.e., approximately 4% per surface. At
some indication of this parameter’s the absorption band, however, since
value. Using the blue curve for the the absorption in the material is almost
thinnest polyethylene material in Figure complete, we get reflection only on one
4, which has the lowest absorption, the side. Thus RL = 0.04.
transmission between absorption bands From this RL , and the T L value obtained
is seen to be approximately 90%. If there from the transmission graph (Figure
were no absorption bands at all, we 3 in this example), emissivity can be
could conclude that the reflection would calculated:
be 10%. Since there are some narrow
absorption bands under the curve, we EL = 1 – 0.02 – 0.04 = 0.94.
can estimate the reflection to be 8% in This value is entered into the camera’s
the spectral regions where absorption is measurement database before having it
very low. However, we are interested in calculate the temperatures from radiance
the reflectance where the absorption is observations.
high (i.e., where the material appears to
be opaque). Sheet and plate glass production have
similar temperature measurement
To estimate the reflectance of this requirements. The most common
polyethylene film, we must first make industrial varieties are variations of soda-
the reasonable assumption that its lime-silica glass. Although they may vary
surface reflectance stays constant over in composition and color, their spectral
the absorption bands. Now recognize characteristics do not change much.
that the 8% value is the result of Looking at the spectral transmittance of
reflections from both sides of the film, such a glass with different thicknesses

Spectral transmittance of Soda-Lime-Silica glass. Glass thickness in mm.
100
0 . 23
80
0.77
0.
60
Transmittance %
1 .6
40
3. 2
20
5. 9
0
2 .5 3 3 .5 4 4 .5 5 5 .5 6 6 .5 7 7 .5 8
Wavelength, μm
Figure 5. Transmission curves for a common industrial glass in five thicknesses from 0.23 to 5.9mm
(Figure 5), one can conclude that IR represents the LP filter response curve,
temperature measurement must be whereas the NBP filter response is shown
restricted to wavelengths above 4.3μm. in blue. The latter was selected for the
Depending on glass thickness, this may spectral location where glass becomes
require either a midwavelength (MW) or “black,” and has a center wavelength of
long wavelength (LW) camera/detector. 5.0μm.
MW cameras cover some portion of the
spectrum from 2–5μm, and LW cameras The reflectance of this glass is shown in
cover some portion within 8–12μm. Figure 7. Note the peak between 8 and
12μm, which must be avoided when using
In selecting a filter, the temptation an LW camera to measure the glass.
might be to go for an LP type with a
cut-on wavelength near the point where Another consideration is the camera’s
transmittance drops to zero. However, viewing angle, because glass reflectance
there are other factors to consider. For can change with angle of incidence.
example, LP filter characteristics can Fortunately reflectance does not change
interfere with the negative slope of much up to an angle of about 45° relative
the spectral response curve of thermo- to normal incidence (Figure 8).
electrically cooled HgCdTe (MCT) From Figure 8, a value 0.025 for the glass
detectors, which are used in both MW reflectance is valid when using either the
and LW cameras. A better choice may be 4.7μm LP or the 5.0μm NBP filter (Figure
a NBP filter. 6), because they both operate in the 5μm
In Figure 6, transmission characteristics region. Consequently a proper value for
of a glass, an SW camera, and two filters the glass emissivity in those cases would
are superimposed. The green curve be 1 – 0.025 = 0.975.

Chapter 4
Spectral adaptation to glass

100
90 Glass transmission cu
urve
80
Transmission %
70
SW/TE MCT spectral response
60
50
40
4.7μm LP filter curve
e
30
20 5.0μm NBP filter curvve
10
0
1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5 4 4. 5 5 5. 5 6
Wavelength, μm
Figure 6. Two alternative filters for glass measurement with a SW camera

50
40
30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 166

Figure 7. Reflectance of a common glass at normal (perpendicular) incidence
Transmission Band Applications is in most cases ordinary atmosphere,

For many applications, the user will but it could also be a gas or a mixture of
need to find a spectral band where the gases (e.g., combustion gases or flames),
medium through which the camera is a window, or a solid semitransparent
looking has minimum influence on the material.
measurement. The object of interest is at As is the case in absorption band
the end of a measurement path on the applications, a spectral transmission
other side of the medium. The medium measurement of the actual medium


0 .1 4
0 .1 2
0 .1 0
0 .0 8
0 .0 6
0 .0 4
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Figure 8. Glass reflectance as a function of camera viewing angle relative to normal incidence
would be the ideal starting point. The window between the absorption bands
objective is to find a band within the of H2O+CO2 around 3μm or CO2 at 4.2μm.
camera’s response curve where the Atmospheric effects on an LW camera
medium has minimum influence on IR are much less, since the atmosphere has
transmission from the target object. an excellent window from 8 to 12μm.
However, it is often impractical to However, cameras with a broad response
perform such a measurement, particularly curve reaching into the MW spectrum
for gases at high temperatures. In such may require an LP filter. This is particularly
cases it may be possible to find the true for high temperature measurements
spectral properties of gas constituents where the radiation is shifted towards
(or other media) in IR literature, revealing shorter wavelengths and atmospheric
a suitable spectrum for the measurement. influence increases. An LP filter with a
cut-on at 7.4μm blocks the lower part of
In most cases, IR camera manufacturers the camera’s response curve.
have anticipated the atmospheric
An interesting transmission band
attenuation problem. Camera
application is temperature measurements
manufacturers typically add a filter that
on a gas-fired furnace, oven, or similar
reduces measurement errors due to heating equipment. Objectives could be
inaccurate and/or varying atmospheric the measurement of flame temperature
parameters by avoiding absorption or the measurement of internal
bands of the constituent gases and components through the flames. In the
water vapors. This is especially needed latter case, an unfiltered IR camera will
at long measurement distances and be overwhelmed by the intense radiation
shorter wavelengths. For MW cameras, an from the flames, making measurement of
appropriate filter utilizes the atmospheric the much weaker radiation from internal

Chapter 4

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Figure 9. Flame absorption spectrum of a gas-fired furnace with two types for filters for different
measurement applications
objects impossible. On the other hand, much higher. This makes the absorption
any transmission through the flames from bands deeper and broader. A flame filter
cooler internal objects will make flame is needed for this application. See Figure
temperature measurements inaccurate. 9. This is a BP filter transmitting between
3.75 and 4.02μm. With this filter installed,
The flame absorption spectrum in Figure
the camera will produce an image where
9 reveals the spectral regions where these
the flames are almost invisible and
two types of measurement could be the internal structure of the furnace is
made. There is very little radiation from presented clearly (Figure 10).
the flames in the 3.9μm area, whereas
there is a lot of radiation between the 4.2 To get the maximum temperature of
and 4.4μm range. The idea is to employ the flames, a CO2 filter will show they are
filters that utilize these spectral windows as high as 1400°C. By comparison, the
for the desired measurements. furnace walls as seen with the flame filter
are a relatively cool 700°C.
For measurement of internal
components, you need to avoid strong
Conclusions
absorption bands because they attenuate
the radiation from the target object and Filters can extend the application of IR
they emit intensely due to the high gas cameras into areas that might otherwise
temperature, thus blinding the camera. restrict their use. Still, some preliminary
Although gas-fired combustion gases spectrophotometer measurements may
consist mostly of CO2 and water vapor, an be needed on the objects and media of
atmospheric filter is unsuitable because interest if spectral information cannot
gas concentrations and temperatures are be found in IR literature. Once a filter

is selected and installed, the camera/

filter system should be calibrated by the
camera manufacturer. Even with a well-
calibrated system, it is a good idea to
avoid errors by not using spectral regions
of uncertain or varying absorption
relative to the camera/filter system
response spectrum.
Figure 10. FLIR ThermaCAM® image of furnace

tubes with flame filter to allow accurate
temperature measurement
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Chapter 5
Ultra High-Speed limitations. Some were driven by

additional requirements that restricted
Thermography the maximum frame rates allowed. For
example, cameras that required analog
Recent Advances in Thermal Imaging
video output naturally restricted the
We have all seen high-speed imagery maximum frame rate due to the NTSC
at some point in our lives, be it a video and PAL format requirements of 30Hz or
of a missile in flight or a humming bird 25Hz, respectively. This is true regardless
flapping its wings in slow motion. Both of the detector focal plane array’s (FPA)
scenarios are made possible by high- pixel rate capabilities, because the video
speed visible cameras with ultra short monitor’s pixel rates are set by the NTSC
exposure times and triggered strobe or PAL timing parameters (vertical and
lighting to avoid image blur, and usually horizontal blanking periods).
require high frame rates to ensure the
captured video plays back smoothly. However, with new improvements in
Until recently, the ability to capture high- high-end commercial R&D camera
speed dynamic imagery has not been technologies, all these challenges have
possible with traditional commercial been overcome and we can begin
IR cameras. Now, recent advances in IR exploring the many benefits of high-
camera technologies, such as fast camera speed IR camera technology. The core
detector readouts and high performance benefits are the ability to capture
electronics, allow high-speed imagery. fast moving targets without image
blur, acquire enough data to properly
Challenges prohibiting high-speed IR characterize dynamic energy targets,
cameras were based primarily on readout and increase the dynamic range without
electronic designs, camera pixel clocks, compromising the number of frames
and backend data acquisition systems per second.
being too slow. Older readout designs
only allowed minimum integration Reducing Image Blur with Short
times down to about 10μs, which in Integration Times
some cases were insufficient to stop
motion on a fast moving target without With advanced FPA Readout Integrated
image blur. Similarly, targets with very Circuits (ROIC), IR cameras can have
fast temperature changes could not be integration times (analogous to exposure
sampled at an adequate frame rate to time or shutter speed in visible cameras)
accurately characterize the object of as short as 500ns. In addition, new
interest. Even with the advent of faster ROIC designs maintain linearity all the
IR cameras, there still remains the hurdle way to the bottom of their integration
of how to collect high resolution, high- time limits; this was not true for ROICs
speed data without overwhelming your developed only a few years ago.
data collection system and losing frames
The key benefit again is to avoid motion
of data.
blur as the target moves or vibrates
Not all challenges for high-speed through the field of view of the camera.
IR cameras were due to technology With sub-microsecond integration

Ultrahigh-Speed Thermography
times, these new cameras are more than Figure 1a shows a close-up IR image of
sufficient for fast moving targets such as the bullet traveling at 840m/s (~1900
missiles or in the following example, a mph); yet using the 1μs integration time,
bullet in flight. effectively reduced the image blur to
about 5 pixels.
Faster Than a Speeding Bullet Figure 1b shows a reference image
In the following experiment, a high of an identical bullet imaged with a
speed IR Camera was used to capture visible light camera set to operate with
and measure the temperature of a 0.30 a 2-microsecond integration time. The
caliber rifle bullet in flight. At the point of orientation of the bullets in the two
image capture the bullet was traveling at images is identical – they both travel from
supersonic speeds (800–900 meters per left to right. The bright glow seen on
second) and was heated by friction within the waist of the image is a reflection of
the rifle barrel, the propellant charge, and bright studio lights that were required to
aerodynamic forces on the bullet. Due to properly illuminate the bullet during the
this heat load, the IR camera could easily exposure. Unlike the thermal image, the
see the bullet even at the very short visible image required active illumination,
integration time of 1μs; so unlike a visible since the bullet was not hot enough to
camera, no strobe source is needed. glow brightly in the visible region of the
spectrum.
A trigger was needed to start the camera
integration time to ensure the bullet was
High-Speed Imaging for Fast Transients
in the Field of View (FOV) of the camera at
the time of frame capture. This was done Short integration times and high-
by using an acoustic trigger from the rifle speed frame rates are not always
shot, which locates the bullet along the paired together in IR cameras. Many
axis of fire to within a distance of several cameras have fast frame rates but not
centimeters. fast integration times or vice versa.
Figure 1a. Infrared image of a 0.30 caliber bullet Figure 1b. Visible-light image of an identical
in flight with apparent temperatures 0.30 caliber bullet in flight

Chapter 5
Still, fast frame rates are critical for Integrated Circuit Example
properly characterizing targets whose 100
temperatures change very quickly. 80
60
An application where both short 40
integration time and fast frame rate are 20
required is overload testing of integrated 0
circuits (ICs). See Figure 2. The objective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Time (ms)
of this test is to monitor the maximum Actual Data Under Sampled Data
heat load the IC experiences when

biased and reverse biased with current Figure 3. Maximum IC temperature data – actual
levels outside the design limits. Without vs. undersampled
high-speed IR technology, sufficient data
might not be captured to characterize for even simple applications that don’t
the true heat transients on the IC due necessarily appear to benefit from high
to under sampling. This would not only speed at first consideration.
give minimal data to analyze, but could
also give incorrect readings of the true Pixel Clock vs. Analog to Digital Taps
maximum temperature.
High-speed IR cameras require as a
prerequisite a combination of a fast pixel
clock and a higher number of analog to
digital (A/D) converters, commonly called
channels or taps. As a frame of reference,
most low performance cameras have two
channels or A/D converters and run at
lower than 40 megapixels/second clock
rates. This may sound fast, but when
you consider the amount of data, that
translates into around 60Hz in most cases.
High-speed IR cameras on the other
hand typically have a minimum of four
Figure 2. Integrated circuit with 800ms channels and have clock speeds of at
overcurrent pulse least 50 megapixels/second. In turn they
offer 14-bit digital data at frame rates of
When the IC was sampled at a frame
over 120Hz at 640 × 512 window sizes. In
rate of 1000Hz, a maximum temperature
order to increase frame rates further, IR
of 95°C was reported. However, when
cameras usually allow the user to reduce
sampled at only 500Hz, the true
the window size or number of pixels read
maximum temperature was missed and
out from FPA. Since there is less data per
a false maximum of 80°C was reported
frame to digitize and transfer, the overall
(Figure 3).
frame rate increases. Figure 4 illustrates
This is just one example of why high- the increase in frame rates relative to user
speed IR cameras can be so valuable defined window sizes.

range from 14 bits to around 18–22 bits

per frame.
Superframing involves cycling the IR
camera through up to four multiple
integration times (presets), capturing
one frame at each preset. This results in
multiple unique data movie files, one for
each preset. This data is then combined
by using off-the-shelf ABATER software.
The software selects the best resolved
Figure 4. Example of FPA window sizes relative pixel from each unique frame to build
to frame rates
a resultant frame composed of data
Newer camera designs offer 16 channels from all the collected data movie files at
and pixel clocks upwards of 205 varying integration times.
megapixels/second. This allows for very This method is especially beneficial for
fast frame rates without sacrificing the those imaging scenes with both hot and
window size and overall resolution. cold objects in the same field of view.
Typically a 14-bit camera cannot image
Preset Sequencing Increases simultaneously both hot and cold objects
Dynamic Range with a single integration time. This would
High-speed IR cameras have an result in either over exposure on the hot
additional benefit that does not relate object or under exposure on the cold
to high-speed targets, but rather to object.
increasing the dynamic range of the The results of superframing are illustrated
camera. By coupling a high-speed IR in the Beechcraft King Air aircraft images
camera with a data capture method in Figure 5, captured at two different
known as superframing, you can integration times. While the aircraft can
effectively increase the camera’s dynamic be clearly seen in the left image (Preset
Figure 5. Active aircraft engine imaged at integration rates of 2ms (left) and 30μs (right)

Chapter 5
0 = 2ms integration time), there are By applying some simple calculations
portions of the engine that are clearly a 100Hz camera with two Presets will
over exposed. Conversely, the right image provide an overall frame rate of 50Hz, well
in Figure 5 (Preset 1 = 30μs integration under the limits of our discussion of high
time), shows engine intake and exhaust speed IR imagery. This only reinforces
detail with the remainder of the aircraft the need for a high speed camera. If a
underexposed. 305Hz camera is superframed as in the
When the two images in Figure 5 are example above, a rate of over 150Hz per
processed in ABATER software, the best preset frame rate is achieved. This rate is
resolved pixels are selected and used well within the bounds of high speed IR
to build a single resultant superframed imaging.
image with no over or under exposed
pixels (Figure 6).
Conclusions
Sophisticated IR cameras are now
available with advanced readout
electronics and high speed pixel
clocks, which open the door for high
speed IR imagery. This allows us to
expand the boundaries of which
applications can be solved using IR
camera solutions. Furthermore, it allows
us to begin capturing more data and
increase our accuracy for demanding
applications with fast moving targets,
Figure 6. Superframed image created with quick temperature transients, and wide
ABATER software from Preset 0 and Preset 1 dynamic range scenes. With the release
data.
of this new technology in the commercial
As you may have figured out, the down IR marketplace, we can now begin to
side to this method of data collection realize the benefits of high speed data
and analysis is the reduction in the frame capture, once only available to the visible
rate by the number of Presets cycled. camera realm.

Written by Engineers...for Engineers.
46 years as the test/inspection authority

In print. Online.
FREE EE SUBSCRIPTION:
www.EvaluationEngineering.com

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Photon A320 A320G A20 A40 S65 SC640 SC4000 SC6000 STRATUS SC8000
InGaAs, VisGaAs, InGaAs, VisGaAs,
Sensor Type μbolometer μbolometer μbolometer μbolometer μbolometer μbolometer μbolometer InGaAs InSb
InSb, QWIP InSb, QWIP
Pixel Resolution 324×256 320×240 320×240 160×120 320×240 320×240 640×480 320×256 640×512 320×256 1024×1024
Pixel Pitch 38μm 25μm 25μm 35μm 38μm 38μm 25μm 30μm 25μm 30μm 18μm
0.4μm – 1.7μm 0.4μm – 1.7μm
0.9μm – 1.7μm 0.9μm – 1.7μm
Spectral Ranges 7.5μm – 13.5μm 7.5μm – 13.0μm 7.5μm – 13.0μm 7.5μm – 13.5μm 7.5μm – 13.5μm 7.5μm – 13.5μm 7.5μm – 13.5μm 1.5μm – 5.2μm 1.5μm – 5.2μm 0.9μm – 1.7μm 3.0μm – 5.0μm
3.0μm – 5.0μm 3.0μm – 5.0μm
8.0μm – 9.2μm 8.0μm – 9.2μm
Dynamic Range 14-bit 16-bit 16-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit 14-bit
Internal Temp Calibration t t t t t t t *O4C 28*1
t *O4C 28*1
Ambient Drift Compensation t t t t t t t t t

Pixel Clock 50MHz 50MHz 205MHz 205MHz
Full Frame Rate 30 fps 30 fps 60 fps 60 fps 30 fps 30 fps 30 fps 433 fps 132 fps 2,300 fps 132 fps
Simultaneous Simultaneous
Digital Data Output GigE or Serial Ethernet GigE 1394 Firewire 1394 Firewire 1394 Firewire 1394 Firewire Camera Link Full GigE, Camera Link Full
GigE and Camera Link GigE and Camera Link
Analog Video RS-170 RS-170 RS-170 RS-170 RS-170 RS-170, S-Video RS-170 RS-170
Command and Control RS-232 or GigE Ethernet GigE 1394 Firewire, RS-232 1394 Firewire, RS-232 1394 Firewire, RS-232 USB, 1394 Firewire USB, GigE, RS-232 USB, GigE, RS-232 RS-232 or 422 USB, GigE
Random Size and Random Size and Random Size and Random Size and
Windowing
Location Location Location Location
Motorized Focus t t Optional t t t Optional Optional
Auto Focus t t t t t Optional Optional
Built-in IRIG-B timing t t t t
Triggering Options t t t t t t t t t t t
Internal Battery Operation t t
Viewfinder/LCD Display t t
On Board Image Storage t t t t t t
SDK Support t t t t t t t t t t t
Lab View Compatibility t t t t t t t t t
f/1.3, f/1.4, f/1.4, f/1.7 f/2.5, f/4.1, f/2.5, f/4.1,
Aperture f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.2 f/1.0 f/1.0 f/1.1 Variable f/4.0
lens dependent *O(B"T7BSJBCMF
*O(B"T7BSJBCMF
Filtering Options t t t t
InSb
QWIP
1 meter
100mm
350mm
50mm 25mm
124mm 124mm 200mm
13mm
The Photon is 72mm 72mm 100mm
60/180/500mm
available with the 36mm 36mm 76mm 50mm 50mm 1 meter
18mm 18mm 36mm
following fixed lens 18mm 18mm 40mm 25mm 25mm 100mm
Available Optics 30mm 30mm 17mm InGaAs
configurations: 9mm 9mm 19mm 13mm 16mm 50mm
10mm 10mm 9.2mm ÿþþNN ĄĂþ¨ăÿĀ
14.25mm, 19mm, Close-up 150μm Close-up 150μm Close up 50μm 1× Microscope 8mm 25mm
ąăNN ĄĂþ¨ăÿĀ
35mm, 50mm. Close-up 80μm Close-up 80μm 2.5× Microscope

50mm
Close-up 50μm Close-up 50μm 4× Microscope
25mm
5× Microscope
ÿĄNN āĀþ¨ĀăĄ
60/180/500mm
ĆNN āĀþ¨ĀăĄ
50/250mm
Published by FLIR Systems Incorporated
WWWINFRAREDRESEARCHCAMERASCOMs
VERSION 1
T0001PL

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The Global Leader in Infrared Cameras

The Ultimate Infrared Handbook

The Ultimate Resource Guide for

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Europe, Middle East, Asia and Africa

The thoughts, ideas, opinions, and recommendations

Published by FLIR Systems Incorporated

IR Thermography – materials sensitive to IR wavelengths. FPA

Figure 1. Simplified block diagram of an IR camera

science of thermography, because it is 1 – emissivity). Since a perfect blackbody

Figure 3. Illustration of Planck’s Law

Get your plant ahead of the curve,

IR Detectors For atmospheric window. This is the range of

Figure 1. Simplified block diagram of an IR camera

Figure 2. Detectivity (D*) curves for different detector materials

are in the conduction band, meaning photocurrent, which is proportional to

Figure 3. Operating principle of quantum detectors

Figure 8. QWIP FPA mounted on a ceramics

Signal Without any

–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C

Signal First correction step Signal Second correction

–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C

Figure 10. After offset compensation, slope correction is applied.

–20°C +120°C –20°C +120°C

t High thermal sensitivity

Figure 13. Relative response curves for a number of IR cameras

TMWorld.com now offers more SPICE than ever.

Getting The Most From sphere equivalent to the square of the

Radiance vs. Measurement

t Color or gray scale settings object, which may also be shown as a

accompanied by atmospheric conditions ensure that the thermodynamics of the

temperature for that area. The reason Using Camera Specifications

Figure 10. IFOV (red squares) relative to object

identified based on a response and/or Conclusions

Leading the Way in Thermographic NDT

Large-Area Portable Automation Quality Vibrother-

Filters Extend IR spectral response. The spectral response

Figure 1. Relative response curves for a number of IR cameras

Spectral Adaptation “spike” in a gas. Even with proper

     

70 System response curve

40 Narrow band-pass filter

Figure 2. Response curves for different types of filters

be characterized since accuracy and the camera/filter system can be created

Spectral transmission of polyethylene

Figure 4. Transmission bands for polyethylene films of three different thicknesses

Spectral transmittance of Soda-Lime-Silica glass. Glass thickness in mm.

Spectral adaptation to glass

Figure 6. Two alternative filters for glass measurement with a SW camera

Figure 7. Reflectance of a common glass at normal (perpendicular) incidence

Transmission Band Applications is in most cases ordinary atmosphere,

is selected and installed, the camera/

Figure 10. FLIR ThermaCAM® image of furnace

1 800 GO INFRA (464 6372)

Ultra High-Speed limitations. Some were driven by

temperatures change very quickly. 80

required is overload testing of integrated 0

circuits (ICs). See Figure 2. The objective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

heat load the IC experiences when

$ %

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