Shri S’ad Vidya Mandal Institute

of Technology
College Campus, Old National Highway No.-8,
Bharuch-392 001

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Shri Patel Talha Anver (roll no:-

05 EL 27) & Shri Parmar Chintan (roll no:-05 EL 31) of

B.E.IV (7th Semester) Electrical engg, Exam No.

has satisfactorily completed his Seminar titled

“THERMOGRAPHY” for the term ending in Nov.-Dec.

2008-2009.

Date:

Signature of Guide

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am taking this opportunity to thank all those people who

have been a guiding force in their own special way. Their
presence has been a strong motivation in accomplishing this
task.

My great obligations towards shri H.S.Nankani (Seminar

Guide) for providing me the necessary support and feed
back during the development of the seminar, which was way
beyond my expectations, and it has indeed helped me to
identify the best in myself.

I also thanks to my parents and to the greatest GOD for

giving me blessing through which I can prepare this whole
presentation so successful and effective.

At the end I want to express thanks to all who directly or

indirectly involved in suggestions and modifications to
improve the seminar.

2
 INDEX
Sr. no Subject Pg. No.
1) Introduction 4
2) Electrical IR basics 5
3) Why electrical thermography? 5
4) Temperature and electrical 6
components
5) What electrical distribution should 7
be checked?
• General equipment list 7
6) Inspection and equipment 8
7) What is IR thermal imaging 9
8) Principle of thermography 10
• Definition
• Characteristics
9) Bolometer 11
10) Exception analysis 12
• Exception repair priority 12
1. Exception eg.: 1 13
2. Exception eg.: 2 14
3. Exception eg.: 3 15
11) Few problems and solutions 16
• Oil filled circuit breakers 17
12) Applications of thermography 18
• Transformers 18
• Insulators and bushings 19
• Conductors 20
• Radiators 21
• Electric motors 21
• A case of motor bearings 22
13) Benefits of infrared electrical 23
inspections
14) Disadvantages 25
15) Conclusion 26
16) References 27

3
INTRODUCTION

What is themography??--->infrared thermography is the

science of acquisition and analysis of thermal information by
using non contact thermal imaging devices.

Infrared Thermography in Power Engineering Systems.

Today’s requirement for an effective maintenance plan has
never been so critical to ensure the perfect operation of the
power systems. Thermal imaging has evolved into one of the
most valuable diagnostic tools to be used for predictive
maintenance (PdM).

Thermal imaging, also called thermography, is the

production of non-contact infrared pictures from which
temperature measurements can be made. This technique is
used to detect anomalies often invisible to the naked eye,
even while electrical systems are under load. When a
connection becomes loose there is a resistance to current
that can cause an increase in temperature and subsequent
failure of components, potentially resulting in unplanned
outages and possible injury. In addition, the efficiency of an
electrical grid becomes low prior to failure, thus energy is
spent generating heat, causing unnecessary losses. If left
unchecked, heat can rise to a point at which connections will
melt and break the circuit; as a result fires may occur.

Besides loose connections, electrical systems suffer from

load imbalances, corrosion, and increase in impedance to
current. Thermography will quickly locate hot spots,
determine the severity of the problem and help to establish
the time scale in which the equipment should be repaired.
Thermography is also particularly useful for inspecting
indoor and outdoor components such as motor control
centers, substations, breaker panels, switchgear,
transformers and circuit breakers. Thermography not only
detects high temperatures but can also be used to detect

4
temperatures that have fallen below recommended levels,
thus providing a very wide range of functions.

ELECTRICAL IR BASICS

Infrared thermography is used to perform inspections on

electrical equipment because excess resistance on electrical
apparatus indicates electrical faults such as loose
connections, overloaded or imbalanced circuits, faulty
breakers, damaged switches, faulty fuses and a wide range
of other unwanted electrical conditions. Before an electrical
component burns up, it heats up. Thermography is used to
see the excess heat (resistance) so that problems can be
found and maintenance personnel can act to correct the
problem before the component fails, causing damage to the
component, safety hazards and/or production downtime.

WHY ELECTRICAL THERMOGRAPHY?

Simple we all know as soon as new electrical components

are installed they begin to deteriorate. No electrical system
is 100% efficient. Current flowing through an electrical
system will generate a small amount of heat because of
electrical resistance. With time, the components and contact
surfaces of the electrical system will begin to deteriorate.
With the deterioration comes increased resistance and with
resistance, increased heat. This course will continue until
eventual failure. Fluctuating and high loads, vibration, metal
fatigue, age and specific operational environments such as
extreme ambient temperatures, wind, chemicals or dirt in
the atmosphere will increase the speed of degradation and

5
the number of faults in electrical systems. The defect will
normally alter the thermal signature at the component
surface due to the change in the amount of heat generated
and the heat transfer properties of the component. These
faults, if not found and taken care of, will lead to
catastrophic failures, unplanned shutdowns and losses of
production. Once a clear understanding is obtained on what
the normal thermal signature is for the many electrical
apparatuses and components, the thermography technician
will be able to quickly identify a thermal anomaly. On larger
more critical components such as transformers, circuit
breakers, capacitors etc., the baseline images and data will
be stored and compared to new data collected from each
inspection interval. It is the job of the thermographer to
identify, record, analyze and diagnose indications of
abnormal heat transfer in the electrical equipment or
components.

It is important that the data collected is accurate, repeatable

and is properly analyzed. This depends on many variables;
the main one is the thermographers’ level of understanding
of infrared instrumentation, background theories and the
level of field experience.

TEMPERATURE AND ELECTRICAL

COMPONENTS

Many fires in industry are directly related to faulty electrical

components. Costly Downtime is also often contributed to
electrical failures and problems. The principle behind an
electrical fault is very simple, as a connection deteriorates
the resistance to the flow of electrical energy increases. This
electrical energy is transformed into thermal energy, which
shows up as increased temperature. Wherever there is
increased resistance caused by a condition such as a bad

6
connection or overload, it will show up in the infrared image
as a brighter spot.

Temperature is an excellent indicator to the operating

condition and hence the reliability and longevity of an
electrical component. It is well understood that the life of
electrical components and materials is drastically reduced as
temperatures are increased.

WHAT ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

EQUIPMENT SLOULD BE CHECKED?
• Utility substations, transformers and feed poles
• Main incoming services, plant main knives, capacitor
banks, etc
• Main switchboards and disconnects
• Main distribution panels and main disconnects
• Uninterruptible power supplies
• Generator controls and transfer switches
• Main I-Line panels
• Lighting and receptacle panels
• Disconnects and combination starters
• Service disconnects for motors
• Machine control panels

General equipment list:-

Rotating machinery/loads
• Motors & Generators
• Pumps
• A/C units
• Fans
• Gear boxes
• Motor controls & adjustable speed drives

7
 • Lighting & Electrical systems
• Switchgear
• Transformers
• Cables/wiring
• Switches & Circuit breakers
• Grounding systems & Ground fault protection
• Surge arrestors
• Power factor correction
• Filters and reactors
• Outdoor bus structures
• Emergency systems
o UPS
o Generators

INSPTECTION AND EQUIPMENT

Frequency of inspection derives from a number of factors,
including safety, the criticalness of the equipment, the
expense of a failure, and the frequency with which problems
impact production and/or maintenance.
As assets age, are heavily loaded, or are poorly maintained,
inspections may become more frequent. When repairs or
modifications to equipment happen, conduct a follow-up
inspection.

8
Equipment type Max. time between
inspections
Transformers 12 months
440V motor control
centers-
6-12 months
Air-conditioned-
4-6 months
Non-air
conditioned or older
Electrical distribution 4-6 months
equipment
Large motors 12 months
Smaller motors 4-6 months

what is IR Thermal Imaging?

Thermal images are pictures of heat rather than light. The
technology is based on the fact that any object whose
temperature is above 0 °K radiates infrared energy.

An IR thermal imager captures a portion of this radiated

energy and provides a calibrated temperature presentation.
Through a variety of scanning techniques, a spatial map of

9
temperatures is generated and displayed or saved as a
computer file. The computer-compatible file format is
available for subsequent manipulation, display or for process
control.

Thermal imaging systems are available with a wide range of

capabilities, features, form factors and prices. Scan speeds
can range from "real time" to seconds per image. Systems
sensitive to 3-5 and/or 8-12 micron wavelength bands are
available. Detectors range from simple, single element,
thermo- electrically cooled to large format focal plane arrays
operating at room temperature. Thermal sensitivity of less
than .1° C is available.

Image structure ranges from 30K to >250K pixels per image;

spatial resolution can be as fine as 25 microns. The
technique has been used for years by military, law
enforcement and firefighting agencies and is increasingly
finding commercial uses in process control, reliability and
non-destructive testing (NDT).

Principle of thermography
Fig.
1

10
 Camera detects
infrared emitted from an
object with the help of a
sensor or detector called
micro-bolometer

It transfers the
amount of
energy into the
temperature

It displays as infrared
images
Fig.2

Definition of infrared thermography:

Infrared thermography is equipment or method, which
detects infrared energy emitted from object, converts it into
temperature, and displays image of temperature
distribution. To be accurate, the equipment and the method
should be called differently the equipment should be called
infrared thermograph and the method should be called
infrared thermography.

Characteristics of infrared
thermography:
1) It captures as temperature distribution on a surface,
and it can display as a visible information
2) Temperature can be detected from a distance without
contacting an object.
3) Temperature can be measured in real time.

11
BOLOMETER:-

Bolometer is a device for measuring the energy of incident

electromagnetic radiation. It was invented 1878 by an
American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley. It consists of
an "absorber" connected to a heat sink (area of constant
temperature) through an insulating link. The result is that
any radiation absorbed by the absorber raises its
temperature above that of the heat sink—the higher the
energy absorbed, the higher the temperature will be.
Temperature change can be measured directly or via an
attached thermometer (composite design).

The bolometer used in thermographic cameras or infrared

cameras is called micro bolometer.

A microbolometer is a specific type of bolometer used as a

detector in a thermal camera. Infrared radiation with
wavelengths between 8-13 μm strikes the detector material,
heating it, and thus changing its electrical resistance. This
resistance change is measured and processed into
temperatures which can be used to create an image. Unlike
other types of infrared detecting equipment,
microbolometers do not require cooling.

12
 Cross-sectional view
Of a micro-bolometer
Fig.3
EXCEPTION ANALYSIS

Below is an exception. One of the conductor terminals is

hot.
Hot Terminal Temperature…..203° F
Left Terminal Temperature….156° F
Temperature difference is …… 47° F
179.5°F

AR01

SP01 160

140

120
119.7°F

Fig. 4
When should you repair this
exception?

EXCEPTION REPAIR PRIORITY

CRITERIA-
Priority 0:- Temp. 10F or less – no corrective measures
required at this time.
Priority 1:- Temp. 10F to 20F – corrective measures
required at next maintenance period.

13
Priority 2:- Temp. difference 20F to 30F – corrective
measures required as scheduling permits.
Priority 3:- Temperature difference 30F to 100F –
corrective measures required as soon as possible.
Priority 4:- Temperature difference over 100F – corrective
measures required immediately.

Exception example # 1:-

Breaker connections

1 7 9 .5 °F

AR 01

SP01 160

140

120
1 1 9 .7 °F
Hot Spot
Temperature…...203F
Reference Repair Priority 3
Temperature….156F Corrective Measures
Temperature Required
Difference….47F As Soon
Fig. 5As Possible

14
 Exception example #02
Fuse Block

2 3 2 .4 °F

SP01 2 00

AR 01

1 50

1 00

8 7 .8 °F

Hot Spot
Temperature…...303F Repair Priority 4
Reference Corrective Measures
Temperature….170F Required
Temperature Immediately
Difference….133F Fig. 6

15
Exception example #03
Motor drive end bearing hot

Hot Spot
Temperature….127F Repair
Reference Temperature… Priority?
99F Mechanical
Temperature System
Difference..28F
Ambient Fig. 7
Temperature….74F

16
FEW PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Oil filled circuit breakers
A hot spot was identified on the test tap cover of the A
phase, The hot spot exhibited a ΔT of 12°F when compared
with B and C phase tap covers on the same OCB.

Visual inspection indicated a slight oil leak near the bottom

of the cover

• Oil leaks out of tap compartment.

• Moisture gets into tap compartment.
• Electrical breakdown occurs along the porcelain cone
surface.
• As tracking or arcing continues, deeper erosion occurs in
the cone.
• If erosion continues and compromises the porcelain cone,
tracking could pass to an adjacent compartment, causing an
explosion and resulting in catastrophic failure.

This is a good example of a relatively low temperature

differential that could have caused major equipment
damage and lost production.

17
Oil circuit breaker Infrared
image
Fig. 8

18
Test tap cone
Tracking within the
test
tap cone
Fig. 9

APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY

Transformers:-
Thermography is based on the fact that majority of the
components show an Increase in temperature when
malfunctioning.. This abnormal rise in temperature will be
reflected on the surface as hot spots. The thermography
study can detect the hot-spots immediately without any
physical contact with the object. The maintenance activity
can be planned depending upon the severity off the defect
found. All major transformers should have a normal thermal
signature. Once it is known, transformers can be analyzed
for fluid levels, clogged cooling tubes, internal and external
connections, internal arcing and general overheating. Air
cooled transformer coils can be evaluated for overheating or
imbalance as well as connection problems.

19
 Transformer Infrared image
showing
damaged spots
(bright colour)
Fig. 10

Insulators and Bushings:-

Problems with cracks or improper joints have been found in
certain insulators that affect the electrical and mechanical
strength of the insulator. When surface moisture is present,
a very small discharge current flow over the surface of the
insulator raising the temperature. When an insulator is
cracked, the discharge current flows down the crack and not
over the surface and the insulator shows up Slightly colder.
Due to improper connections the local heating may give rise
to hot-spot.

20
 Infrared image of
Transformer bushing
transformer bushing
Fig. 11

Conductors:-
Infrared thermography is used to indicate general
overheating due to overloading or undersized cables, high
resistance, poor connections and bad splices. Excessive
heating along a conductor may indicate an over loaded
conductor. Unbalanced load on a three--phase system with
one conductor warmer than the others will account for some
differences between conductors.

R G1: ε : 1. 00 SC: OFF 0 7 /0 8 /3 1

Max:4 0 .6 1 1 :4 6 :4 1

( 1 0 0 .0 )
47.0
47.0
44.5
44.5

42.0
42.0

b 39.5
39.5
a
29.9 37.0
37.0
40.6
34.5
34.5

32.0
32.0

29.5
29.5
21
27.0
27.0
( - 2 0 .0 )
 Fig. 12

Radiator:-

Heat dissipation is due to natural convention of the oil, more

temperature is observed at the top of the radiator and it
gradually reduces towards bottom. No variation along the
cooling surface shall be observed in any clogged tube or
chocked
1 ε:1.00 fins.
RG: FF These problems
SC:O can be easily identified.
07/06/16
Max:48.5 11:15:26

(100.0)
4
4
88.9
.9
4
4
66.9
.9

4
4
44.9
.9

a 4
4
22.9
.9

4 6 . 9 4
4
00.9
.9

3
3
88.9
.9

3
3
66.9
.9
3 7 . 1 3
3
44.9
.9

b 3
3
22.9
.9
(-20.0)

Fig. 13

22
Electric Motors:-
Thermal imaging can also help you track the temperature at
which your electrical motor is operating, which is crucial to
the longevity of the motor. For example, for every 10¬*C
above allowable maximum operating temperature, the life of
the motor is reduced by half. This damage is irreversible. In
many industries, this can amount to thousands of dollars a
year in lost profit. There is a wide variety of equipment that
can be included in an infrared mechanical inspection
program, such as: motors, pumps, fans, bearings,
generators, compressors, conveyor systems etc.

All cable runs, bus ducts, distribution panels, motor control

centers etc. should be checked to hotspots or heat
imbalances. This can identify loose connections, overloads,
unbalanced loads, and high neutral currents that need to be
corrected.

A case of motor bearings:-

Start with a newly commissioned and freshly lubricated
motor, and take a "snap shot" of the motor bearing housing
while the motor is running. Use this image as a baseline.
As the motor and its lubrication ages, the bearings wear and
heat-producing friction develops in the motor bearing,
causing the outside of the bearing housing to heat up. Take
additional thermal images at regular intervals, comparing
them to the baseline to analyze the motor's condition. When
the thermal images indicate an overheating bearing,
generate a maintenance order to replace or lubricate the
bearing housing and reduce or eliminate the possibility of
costly engine failure.

23
Fig. 14

BENEFITS OF INFRARED ELECTRICAL

INSPECTIONS

With most problems on an electrical system are preceded by

a change in its thermal characteristics and temperature,
whether hotter or cooler, a properly trained and experienced
thermographer is able to identify and analyze these
problems prior to costly failure occurring. Infrared electrical
inspections provide many benefits to the recipient. The two
key
advantages, from which the others stem, are:

1) The reduction in disassembling, rebuilding or

repairing components, which are in good operating
condition. This type of repair is meaningless and costly and
may lead to a 30 percent reduction of production.

24
Furthermore, it is not guaranteed that the component will be
in better condition after the repair, since the location of the
problem or cause was not established. With infrared
thermography you identify and hence repair only what
needs repairing.

2) Problems that truly exist will be identified

quickly, giving time to repair the problem before
failure. In most cases the problem is identified well before
the problem becomes critical. Depending on the
temperature and criticality of the component, the decision
can be made to repair immediately, repair at the first
opportune time, or monitor on a continual basis until the
critical temperature is reached or until the repair can be
scheduled. Identifying a true anomaly, scheduling the repair,
and eliminating the actual cause of the problem within a
proper time frame is the most efficient and cost effective
way to maintain the system.

The other advantages of an infrared inspection

program are based on the above overall advantages,
yet are no less important. They are:

1) Safety - failure of electrical components could be

catastrophic, injuring or even killing employees,
maintenance personnel or the public.

2) Greater system security - locate the problems

prior to failure greatly reduces unscheduled outages,
associated equipment damage and downtime.

3) Increased revenue - with more uptime, revenue is

maximized. With less maintenance on good components and
faster repairs of faulty components, maintenance costs care
is reduced leading to a better bottom line.

4) Reduced outage costs - the cost of an emergency

outage is ten times greater than planned maintenance.

25
 5) More efficient inspections - since all common
electrical problems announce themselves as an increase in
temperature, they are easily detected in a minimum amount
of time. No service interruption is required for infrared
inspections.

6) Improved and less expensive maintenance -

a) Precise pinpointing of problems minimize time
required for predictive and preventive maintenance,
b) Maintenance efforts directed to corrective
measures rather than looking for the problem,
c) Repair only what requires repairing, reducing
repair time and replacement of good components.

7) Reduce spare parts inventory- with improved

inspection techniques giving advanced warning of failure,
fewer spare parts are required in inventory. What would it
mean to the bottom line if your spare parts inventory could
be reduced by 10%?

8) Reduced operational costs- with the system up

and running for longer periods of time, the reduction and
improvement of inspections, maintenance, spare parts
inventory and outages will reduce the overall cost of
operations.

DISADVANTAGES

1) Cameras are expensive and are easily damaged

2) Images can be hard to interpret accurately even with
experience
3) Accurate temperature measurements are very hard to
make because of emissivities.

26
4) Most cameras have ±2% or worse accuracy.
5) Trained employees are required.
6) Ability to only measure surface areas

CONCLUSION

Understanding the effect of heat on the reliability of

electronic products and the integrity of manufacturing
processes is critical if problems are to be avoided. This
means the need to understand thermal management
techniques and the need for comprehensive data has never

27
been greater. The tools used in the past, contact probes,
thermocouples, fingers can't provide this thermal data
quickly or cost effectively. With the availability of thermal
imaging systems the engineer can now perform the required
analysis in a timely fashion without delaying product
development schedules, or interfering with a manufacturing
process.

1) Thus with the help of thermography we can detect

faults
2) The faults can be repaired well in advance.
3) Permanent damage is avoided.
4) Other than electrical application there are many other
applications.
5) They can be used in medical fields, mechanical field,
and many more fields.

REFERENCES

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1) www.temperatures.com
2) www.wikipedia.com
3) www.fsiir.com
4) www.compix.com
5) www.irananalyzers.com
6) www.wikipedia.org
7) www.nde2007.com

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