INVESTIGATING THE USE OF STREAM FLOW TO PUMP WATER FROM

LWAJJALI RIVER

BY

Matsiko Edwin S14B32/435

Kwarukunda Immaculate S14B32/326

A RESEARCH AND DESIGN REPORT

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

OF UGANDA CHRISTAIN UNIVERSITY.

Mukono, Uganda

2018
 ABSTRACT

This report contains the final year research and design activities carried out during the period of
study from January 2017 to April 2018.

Our final research project entails the investigating the use of stream flow to pump water from
Lwajjali River. The relevance of the research was to come up with a design of hydraulic system
that uses stream flow to pump water and is therefore more cost effective than the existing
pedrollo hydropower system.

Rivers have a constant source of energy that can be tapped. This energy source, the stream’s
velocity, can be easily utilized by installing a hydraulic system that uses stream flow as its
driving force to pump water to its desired location. With this system running continuously, a
75,000L tank can be filled at a flow rate of 0.0034m³/s over six hours with the existing minimum
velocity of 0.315m/s.

We both actively participated in the research project and an account of all the methodology used
and results acquired is presented in this report.

The challenges encountered during research project include;

We encountered witchcraft near the Lwajjali River where witch doctor instruments were near the
sectional width of a stream.

Objects such as stones in water affected the velocity of the float object in turn affecting the
acquired velocity of the stream.

Our recommendations include;

Self-sustaining hydraulic systems should be considered for pumping water and irrigation
purposes from a stream or river once an appropriate pump with the required Net Positive Suction

i
Head, impeller diameter and output Power requirement capable of overcoming the head of water
transmission have been selected.

Sensitization of urban and rural communities about the performance and operation of self-
sustaining hydraulic systems that can promote agriculture, livelihoods whilst ensuring pumping
of water at lower costs.

ii
 DECLARATION

I MATSIKO EDWIN and KWARUKUNDA IMMACULATE students of

UGANDACHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY hereby declare that the information included in this
report is from technical consultations and our personal analysis from the various method
statements. It has never been submitted by anyone to any academic institution for any award.

Name …………………………………………………..

Signature ………………………………………………

Date ……………………………………………………

Name …………………………………………………..

Signature ………………………………………………

Date ……………………………………………………

iii
 APPROVAL

I hereby certify that this field attachment report was written and complied by MATSIKO
EDWIN and KWARUKUNDA IMMACULATE on the account of the Final year Research
Project and proposal undertaken at UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY during the period
of study.

Approved by;

ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR

Name: …………………………………………

Signature: ……………………………………

Date: …………………………………….

iv
 DEDICATION

We dedicate this report to our families and friends especially our parents Mr.& Mrs.Matsiko and
Mr. & Mrs.Jossy have been there for us in every aspect of life and have contributed a great
percentage to whom and what we are now. Thank you all for your support and May the almighty
God reward you all!

We also dedicate it further to our academic supervisor, Mr. Amanyiire Willington for the advice
and knowledge he has passed onto us towards the achievement of our academic research goal.
We are sincerely grateful for your guidance and knowledge that you have passed on to us. Thank
you for your contribution towards our Engineering career.

We finally dedicate this piece of work to every student who is willing to pursue engineering as
their career.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to sincerely acknowledge the protection that God has provided to us during the four years
of study and through Final Year Research and Design project.

Special thanks go to Uganda Christian University for offering us an opportunity to pursue a

Bachelor in Civil and Environmental Engineering skills and Department of Faculty of Science
and Technology for the academic and technical they helped us acquire.

A group of professionals namely Willington.A, Rodgers.T, Arthur.O, Dr.Eleanor.W, Kenan.O,

Rodgers.M tirelessly aided in our guidance to acquire a proposal and achieve every objective of
our Final Year Research and design Project. We would like to thank you greatly for all the
knowledge you have passed on to us.

We would also like to appreciate the time and guidance our academic supervisor, Willington
Amanyire put aside for checking on our progress, guidance.

Finally, we wish to also thank our classmates for willingly sharing engineering knowledge and
ideas.

Thank you very much.

I also extend my appreciation to the Department of Engineering and Environment for their
countless efforts and work done persistently to ensure that we were armed with the required
knowledge and skills associated to Civil and Environmental Engineering.

vi
 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... iii

APPROVAL .................................................................................................................................. iv

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ v

List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................... xi

List of Equations .......................................................................................................................... xiii

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xv

CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Background and Introduction ............................................................................................... 1

1.1 Problem statement ................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Justification of study ............................................................................................................. 3

1.4.0 Scope of study .................................................................................................................... 3

1.4.1 Content scope ................................................................................................................. 3

1.4.2 Geographical scope ........................................................................................................ 4

1.4.3 Time scope ..................................................................................................................... 4

vii
CHAPTER 2: .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.0 Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Discharge Measurements ...................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Stream Discharge Measurement .................................................................................... 5

2.1.2Bucket and Stop watch Method ...................................................................................... 6

2.1.2.1Procedure for measurements ........................................................................................ 6

2.1.3 Float method .................................................................................................................. 6

2.1.3.1 Procedure for measurement ........................................................................................ 6

2.1.4 Current meter Method .................................................................................................... 7

2.1.5 Manning’s equation ....................................................................................................... 8

2.1.5.1 Preliminary Determinations ........................................................................................ 8

2.1.5.2 Procedure For partially filled round pipes .................................................................. 8

2.1.5.3 Procedure of Measurement (For rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal channels) ..... 9

2.2 Catchment Delineation.......................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Pump selection ...................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 24

3.0 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 24

3.0.1 DESIGN PROCESS DIAGRAM .................................................................................... 24

viii
 3.1 Determination of Head ........................................................................................................ 25

3.1.1 Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 25

3.2 Discharge Measurements .................................................................................................... 27

3.2.1 Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 27

3.3 Power requirement for the Pump ........................................................................................ 29

3.4 Pump Performance and System Curve Characteristics ....................................................... 33

3.5 Net Positive Suction Head .................................................................................................. 33

3.6 Buckingham Pi Theorem and Turbine Design.................................................................... 36

3.8.1 Data .............................................................................................................................. 36

CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 37

4.0 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 37

4.1 Power Requirement for the Pump ................................................................................... 37

4.2 System curve characteristics ........................................................................................... 41

4.3 Pump Performance Characteristics ................................................................................. 42

4.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ................................................................................ 43

4.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem ................................................................................................ 46

4.6 Turbine design ................................................................................................................ 47

4.6.1 Scaling of the turbine ................................................................................................... 47

ix
 4.7 SITE LAYOUT ................................................................................................................... 49

4.8 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 50

4.9 DESIGN BUGDET ............................................................................................................. 51

CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................. 52

5.1 Challenges faced during the Final Year Research Project .................................................. 52

5.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 53

6.0 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................. 54

7.0 REFRENCES .......................................................................................................................... 57

x
 List of Acronyms

L – Length

v – Velocity

T – Time

D – Distance

A – Area

SRTM – Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

DEM – Digital Elevation Models

Q – Flow rate

P – Power requirement

H – Total Head

Pumpefficiency = Efficiency of the pump

NPSHa – Available Net Positive Suction Head

NPSHr – Required Net Positive Suction Head

hatm – Atmospheric vapor pressure

hvapor – Saturated vapor pressure

Kfittings – Loss Coefficient due to Pipe fittings

Kpipe – Loss Coefficient due to Pipe

xi
f – Darcy Weisbach friction coefficient

HD – Dynamic head

K – Total Loss Coefficient

  Dynamic viscosity

  Kinematic viscosity

vh – velocity head

Re – Reynolds number

hf(local) – local losses

hlift – static suction lift

BHP – Brake Horsepower

WHP – Water Horsepower

UCU – Uganda Christian University

xii
 List of Equations

Equation 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 26

Equation 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 26

Equation 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 26

Equation 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 28

Equation 5 ..................................................................................................................................... 28

Equation 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Equation 7 ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Equation 8 ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Equation 9 ..................................................................................................................................... 30

Equation 10 .................................................................................................................................. 30

Equation 11 ................................................................................................................................... 30

Equation 12 ................................................................................................................................... 30

Equation 13 ................................................................................................................................... 31

Equation 14 ................................................................................................................................... 31

Equation 15 ................................................................................................................................... 31

Equation 16 ................................................................................................................................... 32

Equation 17 ................................................................................................................................... 33

xiii
Equation 18 ................................................................................................................................... 34

Equation 19 ................................................................................................................................... 34

Equation 20 ................................................................................................................................... 34

Equation 21 ................................................................................................................................... 34

Equation 22 ................................................................................................................................... 34

Equation 23 ................................................................................................................................... 35

Equation 24 ................................................................................................................................... 36

xiv
 List of Tables

Table 1: Calculation of Area of the pipe ....................................................................................... 37

Table 2: Calculation of velocity through the pipe. ....................................................................... 37

Table 3: Loss Coefficient values for the different pipe fittings .................................................... 38

Table 4: Calculation of Reynolds number .................................................................................... 38

Table 5: Calculation of the friction factor..................................................................................... 38

Table 6: Calculation of the Loss coefficient of the Pipe ............................................................... 38

Table 7: Calculation of total loss coefficient ............................................................................... 39

Table 8: Calculation of dynamic head .......................................................................................... 39

Table 9: Calculation of Power Requirement of the Pump ............................................................ 39

Table 10: Calculation of Water Horsepower ................................................................................ 40

Table 11: Calculation of Brake Horsepower ................................................................................ 40

Table 12: Calculation of velocity head ......................................................................................... 44

Table 13: Calculation of Head loss in suction pipe ...................................................................... 44

Table 14: Calculation of the local losses in the pipe due to the fitting items ............................... 44

Table 15: Calculation of Saturation vapor pressure head ............................................................. 45

Table 16: Calculation of Atmospheric Pressure head ................................................................... 45

Table 17: Calculation of available Net Positive Suction Head ..................................................... 45

xv
Table 18: The recommended turbine width for the respective stream velocities ......................... 48

Table 19: Design Budget .............................................................................................................. 51

xvi
 List of Figures

Figure 1 A delineated catchment showing the geographical scope of Lwajjali River.................... 4

Figure 2 Design Process Diagram................................................................................................. 24

Figure 3 Site Layout...................................................................................................................... 50

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

1.0 Background and Introduction

Water pumping is a basic and practical technique, far more practical than gathering it up with
human hands or lifting it in a hand held tool say a bucket for consumption. Water harvesting is a
technique used for collecting, storing and using water for irrigation and other uses. (Netherlands
Water Partnership, 2007)

Water pumping is required in situations where site conditions do not favor the use of gravity
supply. Gravity systems involve high capital costs but low operating costs whereas pumping
systems require lower capital costs and low to high operating costs depending on the mode of
operation of the pump. The choice between gravity supply, and pump supply systems is
therefore, an economic one.(Specifications & Pumping, n.d.)

Uganda Christian University pumps water from Lwajjali River to be used as a secondary source
of water for cases when water from National Water and Sewerage Cooperation is not readily
available. Currently the water is being pumped to Mukono Junior Primary School to guide in the
running of their daily domestic activities. The existing Pump system uses hydropower and is
ineffective during power surges, power failure or power loss. (UCU, 2017)

Rivers have a constant source of energy that can be tapped. This energy source, the river’s
current, can be easily utilized by installing a turbine system that will use the river current as its
driving force to pump water to its desired location. The primary input of such a system is the
current of the river and therefore, performance of the turbine will dependent upon the location of
the river. (Arko, n.d.)

1
1.1 Problem statement

Uganda Christian University harvests water from Lwajjali River in Ntaawo as a secondary
source of water for cases when water from National Water and Sewerage Cooperation is not
readily available.

The hydropower system used in pumping the water operates with an output of 2.2kW which
requires an annual fee amounting to 16,000,000Ushs for running of the system. This fee excludes
the maintenance costs which are 300,000Ushs every month thus bringing the total expenditure to
20,000,000Ushs which is expensive considering a hydraulic system that uses stream flow to
pump the water can be installed within the river to pump the water at lower costs.

Additionally, hydropower systems are affected by power surges and lack of electricity which
affects the capacity of these systems to pump water to their required destinations.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

Major objective

The overall objective is to determine the appropriate parameters for a hydraulic pump that will
be required to lift water to the sedimentary tank from Lwajjali River.

Specific objectives

 To carry out a Hydrological Assessment of Lwajjali River.

 To determine the pump performance and system characteristics required for the hydraulic
system.
 To size an appropriate turbine required to run the hydraulic system.

2
1.3 Justification of study

Hydraulic systems are simple, safe and more economical since they require a primary input of
stream flow, have the capacity to provide constant force and torque regardless of speed changes
and are self-sustaining hence not requiring use of electricity. Therefore the objective of the study
will be to determine the appropriate parameters for a hydraulic pump that will be required to lift
water from River Lwajjali to the sedimentation tank.

Advantages of a hydraulic system over an electrical and mechanical fluid pump system

 A hydraulic system is simple, safe and more economical since it requires a primary input
of stream flow whereas electrical and mechanical systems require electrical input and
manpower respectively.
 A hydraulic system has the capacity to provide constant force and torque regardless of
speed changes whereas the force and power generated by electrical and mechanical
systems are dependent on the speed of the stream.
 Hydraulic systems are self-sustaining and do not require use of electricity while electrical
pumps require an electrical input and in the case that this effort isn’t available, the system
is unfeasible.

There is need to develop a pumping mechanism that does not require use of electricity or fuel to
ensure a constant supply of water at a relatively cheaper cost.

The proposed hydraulic system uses stream flow to pump water thus eliminating the need to use
electricity to pump water to the sedimentation tank.

1.4.0 Scope of study

1.4.1 Content scope

Literature review on catchment delineation, hydrological assessment, pumps performance and

system curves and turbine sizing.

3
1.4.2 Geographical scope

River Lwajjali is located in Central Uganda. The source of the river is located in a swamp, west
of the village of Kisweera, in Mukono District. It flows in a northwestern direction at first, then
turns north and then northeast to empty into River Sezibwa in Kayunga District at its border with
Luweero District, east of the village of Kiziba.

Figure 1 A delineated catchment showing the geographical scope of Lwajjali River

1.4.3 Time scope

April 2017 – April 2018

4
 CHAPTER 2:

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Discharge Measurements

Discharge refers to the quantity of water flowing down per unit time.

Stream discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a channel cross section by the
average velocity of the water in that cross section.

2.1.1 Stream Discharge Measurement

There are many various methods used to estimate flow with some methods measuring flow
directly while others measure velocities that are used in specified equations in order to calculate
flow. The method chosen to measure stream discharge depends on a variety of factors
including: the configuration of the site desired accuracy, the expected range of flow rates, the
type of flow system, overall cost.(Michaud & Wierenga, 2005)

Discharge should be measured as close to the point where it enters the river or stream as
possible. For a case where there is a pipe that directs discharge into the stream or channel, then
measurements should be taken at the end of the pipe whereas if a site contains multiple locations
of discharge into the receiving water, the measurements should then be obtained from the
locations that contribute the representative volume of discharge to the receiving
water.(“Discharge measurements,” n.d.)

Stream discharge can be measured using float gauging (float method), volumetric gauging
(bucket and stop watch method), current metering, structural methods, dilution gauging (constant
injection or gulp methods), and slope-area methods. (Michaud & Wierenga, 2005)

5
2.1.2Bucket and Stop watch Method

The bucket and stop watch method involves measuring the time it takes to fill a
container of a known volume. This methodology works for systems with fairly low flow
volume and its main limitation is that the discharge usually falls from a pipe in such a way
that the bucket can be placed underneath it to capture all the discharge. Buckets of any size can
be used as long as it does not fill up too fast to get an accurate measurement. (“Measuring
discharge,” n.d.)

2.1.2.1Procedure for measurements

i. Locate the stream’s discharge pipe. If discharge occurs via a channel, then a temporary
dam may need to be placed across the channel with the discharge directed through a
single outlet pipe.
ii. Place a container of known volume directly under the discharge pipe so that all of the
discharge flows into the container.
iii. Using a stopwatch, time how long it takes to fill the container.
iv. The process is repeated three times to obtain an average.

2.1.3 Float method

For a case where discharge from the site flows through an open ditch or channel, the float
method can be used. This method involves measuring the velocity of a neutral buoyancy object
and multiplying this by the average cross-sectional area of the stream.

2.1.3.1 Procedure for measurement

i. Bush and grass clearing that is to say slashing away grass from the chosen stream channel
section.
ii. A wooden stand post is fixed in the adjacent ground near the stream and a known
distance is measured using a tape measure and a second wooden stand post is fixed too.
iii. Flagging tape is placed at the second wooden stand post to act as a finish line.

6
 iv. The floating object (bottle top) is gently released into the stream from the beginning of
the section.
v. The amount of time it takes for the bottle top to cross the second marked section is
recorded and the process repeated several times and the average time calculated.
vi. The velocity of the stream is computed by dividing the length of section by the average
time the bottle top took to move through the section.
vii. The stream width is measured using the tape measure.
viii. Since the stream is trapezoidal, the cross sectional area of the channel is estimated using
the trapezoidal area equation. The respective parameters in this equation are obtained by
lowering a meter ruler in the stream over its entire width from the start of stream width, at
a certain known width from the beginning, at halfway width, at known width and lastly at
the end of the stream in order to obtain the different depths of the stream over its entire
width. The cross sectional area of each section is calculated and added to acquire the total
cross section area of the channel
ix. The discharge is calculated by multiplying the cross sectional area and the velocity of the
stream

2.1.4 Current meter Method

This method measures velocity directly in order to calculate stream flow. Both water depth
measurements and velocity are taken at the same time and place in multiple locations across the
channel, using a flow meter.

For channels, that tend to be narrower than stream beds, fewer velocity measurements need to be
obtained thus usually taking one measurement in the middle of the channel and one nearer to
each side bank will be sufficient for the permit’s requirements to characterize the velocity in a
small channel. (Michaud & Wierenga, 2005)

In order to cope with the vertical distribution of velocity, measurements are tobe made at
different depths (d) within the water profile. If only two depths are used for measurement, then
an average of 0.2d and 0.8dwill give a good representation of the profile velocity, or 0.6d if only

7
one depth is used (Hewlett, 1982 p99). The transverse distribution of velocity can be
characterized by first dividing the channel cross-section into a number of segments.

2.1.5 Manning’s equation

This method is used for open channels and partially filled pipes when the flow moves by the
force of gravity only (not pressurized).

This method is commonly used for flow measurements because it is easy to use once a few initial
parameters have been obtained.

Discharge is acquired through use of an equation that requires obtaining values for the roughness
of the channel (determined from standard roughness tables), the cross-sectional area of discharge
flow, the hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter) and the slope of
the gradient. Since the slope and roughness are constants, discharge can be calculated once the
constants are obtained by simply measuring the depth of the discharge in the stream.

2.1.5.1 Preliminary Determinations

i. The slope (the “S” in the equation) of the stream or pipe is calculated.

Slope is the rise over the run and can also be calculated by dividing the elevation difference
by the length of the section.

ii. The roughness coefficient (the “n”in the equation) for the specific stream is calculated.

2.1.5.2 Procedure For partially filled round pipes

i. Measure the pipe diameter (D) and discharge depth (d).

ii. Divide the discharge depth by the pipe diameter (d/D)
iii. Use standard tables to calculate the roughness factor and cross sectional area of the pipe
or channel.

8
2.1.5.3 Procedure of Measurement (For rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal channels)

i. Measure the bottom and top width, and the depth of the discharge.
ii. Using standard tables, these values are used to determine the cross-sectional area (A) and
the hydraulic radius (R).

2.2 Catchment Delineation

A catchment is an area of land that is drained by a river and its tributaries.

Delineation is based on the topography and river network information of an area. GIS tools like
QGIS can be used to describe a boundary of a catchment when applied to a suitable digital
elevation model. Catchment Delineation involves the use of existing digital elevation models and
any available GIS algorithms and is often challenging if valley width is less than Digital
Elevation Model resolution. Vertical precision of Digital Elevation Models to a great extent
causes complications in flat, plain regions and also in terms of successive understanding of
hydrology and changes in underlying geology which bring about in coincidence of an operative
watershed with a topographic watershed.

QGIS tools can be used to generate an inferred river network and to define the catchment
boundary for any location on the network based on a Digital Elevation Model. Accurate digital
mapping products could also be utilized to increase the precision of river network used in the
process. (“Effective Catchment Management,” 2014)

2.3 Pump selection

The main principles of pump selection include;

 Process and design requirements

 Nature of pumped medium
 Key design parameters
 Fields of pumps application (selection) according to the created head
 Fields of pumps application (selection) according to the capacity
9
  Process and design requirements: Pump selection is usually determined by strict
requirements for a number of design or process parameters.(Considerations, 2005)

Centrifugal pumps have the ability to provide uniform distribution of a pumped medium
such as water as compared to piston-type pumps that require their design to be made in a way
that the crankshaft is arranged in numerous positions thus enabling the pump to make
reciprocating movements that give a uniformity condition. The delivery of water which is the
pumped medium in this case in discrete portions of set volume can also be a process
requirement. (Fao, 1999)

The pump process and design requirements are occasionally decisive that is to say the
choices of suitable types of pumps for various specific purposes are known as an issue of
field related experience.

Nature of pumped medium:

Characteristics of the pumped medium are a pivotal factor in selection of pumping equipment.
Different types of pumps are appropriate for pumping of various medium differing in toxicity,
abrasiveness, viscosity and many other parameters. Screw pumps have the ability to pump
viscous media with different inclusions without having any detrimental effect on the structure of
the medium and are therefore preferred in the food-processing industry. The material design of a
selected pump can be determined by how a pump relates to weathering, wear and tear.(Rams,
n.d.)

Key design parameters:

The key design parameters of pumps are related to performance capacity, head and power. There
various pumps that exist namely; Piston pumps, Gear pumps, Screw pumps, Centrifugal pumps
and among others. Pump operational requirements specified by different pump manufacturers
can be fulfilled by numerous types of pumps for a case that inclination is given to the type of
pump most suitable under existing values of key design parameters.(Thomas, 2005)

10
Flow rate is the quantity of medium pumped by a pump per unit of time. It is in most cases
denoted by letter Q and possesses various units namely l/s, m3/h, and among others. Return
leakages are disregarded in the flow rate quantity and the theoretical flow rate ratio can be
expressed by volumetric efficiency quantity:

Head refers is refers to the amount of energy conveyed by a pump to the pumped medium.

Power consumption (shaft power) refers to the power consumed by a pump during its operation
stages. Power consumption differs according to the type of pump being used to transport the
media and directly affects efficiency of a pump which is also affected by losses in the pump due
to bearings, friction or the pump components. (Considerations, 2005)

Preliminary design procedure for pumping system

(a) Designing of a pumping system require three steps namely;

 Surveying of site conditions;
 Pipeline selection;
 Pump selection.
 Surveying of Site conditions

Designing a pump helps outline the nature of the environment and its limitations in relation to
where the pumping system is to be located. The data required when a physical site survey has
been undertaken included static head that is required to be overcome during pumping and the
length of the pipeline.(Specifications & Pumping, n.d.)

Pipeline route and length

Surveys of the intended pipeline route can be used to determine the length of the pipe required or
to be used.

Determination of Static Head

Static head is refers to the height difference between suction reservoir and delivery reservoir.
11
(b) Pipeline selection

This step of selection is governed by a specified/recommended flow velocity for the water
pipelines. The specified flow velocity recommended for design of the water pipelines is selected
so that pressure losses as a result of fluid friction in pipeline are kept within acceptable limits to
guarantee that the pumping equipment size and costs are also kept within certain limits.(Pump,
n.d.)

The amount of pressure lost due to fluid friction in a pipe depends on several factors namely:
pipe fittings, overall length of the pipe, flow velocity within the pipe, pipe size in terms of
diameter and pipe material. The total dynamic pressure head that the pump must overcome to
some extent depends on the pressure lost due to the fluid friction in pipeline and hence making
pipeline data essential.(Specifications & Pumping, n.d.)

Pipe selection should therefore be done before that of the pump, because the pipe data will
greatly influence the selection of the pump.

(c)Selection of Pipe size

The selection of pipe in terms of diameter is a paramount step during design. The pipe diameter
to be selected should be such that the flow velocity remains within a specified range when the
pipe delivers the design flow rate. A recommended flow velocity or specified velocity within the
pipe is necessary in guaranteeing that the pressure lost due to fluid friction in the pipe is not too
high, whilst the discharge flow rate through the same pipe is also too low.(Specifications &
Pumping, n.d.)

The total head to be overcome is a key factor in pump selection since it dictates the size of pump.
The size of pump therefore depends on the friction loss in pipe and this in turn varies inversely
with the size of pipe that is to say the smaller the pipe selected, the larger the pump required for a
given set of design specifications.(Considerations, 2005)

(ii) Selection of Pipe material

12
The step involves selection of available pipe materials for water pipelines, these pipeline
materials being locally available material in this case.

(d) Selection of Pump

(i) Head loss due to friction in pipeline;

Once the selection of pipe size and material is made, the pressure head loss due to fluid friction
in pipeline can be determined.

Total pressure head in a pump can be calculated from the equation below;

................. (i)

Where;

= pressure head lost due to fluid friction in the pipe medium

=Total static head required to be overcome during pumping of the media

=Total static and dynamic pressure head required to be overcome during the process of
pumping

Choice of pump to satisfy specifications

Finally, the designer can now select the pump type and size required through considering the
discharge flow rate required to overcome the total head.

Specification of the total Pressure head required to be overcome by pumping system

Total pressure head refers to the sum of the static head, head loss due to friction and the dynamic
head loss due to fluid friction in pipeline. (Pump, n.d.)

The two components of pressure head are elaborated below:

13
  Total Static head

The total static head ( ) refers to the difference in the water level between the suction
reservoir and receiving reservoir or tank.

 Total static head is a function of site conditions between the suction and receiving
reservoir and is determined by a survey of site conditions.
 Pressure loss due to friction head in pipe
The friction head ( ) refers to the total pressure head lost due to fluid friction within a
pipe. The friction head loss within a pipe occurs or takes place as a result of the pipe
fittings originating from the suction inlet fitting through to the discharge pipe outlet.
Friction loss also depends on pipe material, its size, pipe length, and the type and number
of fittings for a given discharge flow rate. It is computed after the pipe specifications
have been determined.(Milnes, 2000)
 Total dynamic head
The total pressure head required to be overcome by a pumping system is therefore can be
calculated from the expression below:

................. (ii)

Where;

= pressure head lost due to fluid friction in pipe

= Total static head required to be overcome by pumping

= Total pressure head required to be overcome by pumping

Calculation of performance capacity for different pumps

The entire varieties of types of pumps are divided into two key groups with the calculation of
pump performance capacity having fundamental discrepancies. Pumps are subdivided into non
positive displacement and positive displacement pumps as per their operation.
14
The medium is pumped due to dynamic forces in non-positive displacement pumps and through
variation of volume of the pump in positive displacement pumps.(Specifications & Pumping,
n.d.)

Non positive displacement pumps include:

 Electromagnetic pumps
 Friction pumps (auger-type, vortex, disk, jet pumps)
 Impeller pumps (centrifugal, axial-flow)

Positive displacement pumps include:

 Impeller pumps
 Reciprocating pumps (piston and plunger, diaphragm pumps)
 Rotary pumps

Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps are one of the most numerous representatives of non-positive displacement
pumps that are widely used. Centrifugal pumps can be used for high head, low flow situations.
The working member of centrifugal pumps is put on a shaft impeller provided with blades
enclosed between disks and mounted inside spiral-shaped body.(Sornes, 2010)

The impeller rotation creates centrifugal force affecting the mass of pumped media inside the
impeller, and transfers it into part of kinetic energy and then into potential energy creating a
vacuum in the impeller that provides constant delivery of pumped medium from the suction pipe.
(Merkley & Allen, n.d.)The centrifugal pump to be used should first be filled with the pumped
medium so that the suction force developed is sufficient for optimal pump operation. Centrifugal
pump performance capacity can be calculated from the following equation:

( ) ( ) …………. (iii)

– Centrifugal pump performance capacity, m3/s

15
 – Widths of impeller pass through diameters and in (m)

– Inlet external diameter (1) and impeller external diameter (2) in (m)

–blade thicknesses, m

– number of blades

– Radial components of absolute velocities at impeller inlet (1) and its outlet (2), m/s

Calculation of Head

General formula of head can be calculated as below;

( ) ( ) …………… (iv)

Where;

– Head, m

–Tank intake pressure, Pa

– Receiving tank pressure, Pa

– Density of the pumped medium, kg/m3

– Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

– Geometrical height of the pumped medium lift, m

– head overall loss, m

Total resistance is composed of pipe friction losses and losses due to local resistances in the pipe
like pipe turns and branches, gate valves, passage widening and contraction. Overall pipeline
head losses are calculated by the formula:

16
 [ ( )]
∑ [ ] ( ∑ ) [ ] ………….. (v)

= head overall losses made up of pipe friction losses local resistance losses

Where;

λ = Friction coefficient

Pipeline length, m

Pipeline equivalent diameter, m

Flow rate, m/s

Gravity acceleration, m/s2

[ ] Velocity head, m

∑ Sum of all coefficients of local resistances

Calculation of Pump Power Consumption

Power used directly on transmission of pumped media energy is calculated by the formula
below:

…………. (vi)

Where;

– Useful power, W

– Density of the pumped medium, kg/m3

17
 – Gravity acceleration, m/s2

– Flow rate, m3/s

– Total head, m

Power developed by a pump shaft is usually larger than the amount of power required and the
excess is consumed during compensation of pump power losses. The interrelation between useful
power and shaft power is set by pump efficiency that is affected by the volumetric efficiency
(leakages through seals and openings), hydraulic efficiency (losses of head as the pumped
medium which in this case water, is flowing inside pump), and mechanical efficiency which
involves friction losses as a result of moving parts of the pump during its operation such as
bearings and glands.

……….. (vii)

Where;

– Power in pump shaft, W

– Useful power, W

– pump efficiency

In its turn, power developed by motor should exceed the shaft power so that energy losses during
transmission to the pump are compensated by the excess power.

( ) …………… (viii)

Where;

– Motor power consumption, W

– Shaft power, W

18
η – Transmission efficiency

η – Motor efficiency

Final motor generating capacity is calculated from motor power with regard to potential overload
during start up.

…………… (ix)

Where;

– Motor generating capacity, W

– Motor power consumption, W

– Power safety margin

Extreme suction head (for centrifugal pump)

Centrifugal pump suction occurs as a result of difference in pressure between vessel (stream)
from which the pumped medium (water) is taken. Cavitation in pumps occurs as a result of
excessive increase of the difference in pressure. Air bubbles form when the water boils and the
pressure in a pump drops below vapor pressure, a process known as cavitation if the pressure
increases to above the vapor pressure downstream and the bubbles formed collapse. The suction
head of centrifugal pump has to be limited in order to avoid negative influence of
cavitation.(“USACE3 - Water Distribution,” n.d.)

Geometric suction head can be calculated by the formula below:

……………(x)

Torque about a given axis is defined as the rate of change of angular momentum about that axis.

19
When fluid in this case water enters the eye of the impeller with no rotation velocity a centrifugal
pump, it will be immediately turned through as it enters the impeller. The fluid acquires
energy as it flows through the impeller and enters the casing of the pump where the kinetic
energy is very high. A high pressure and low velocity will be required for fluid to flow along the
pipe since a high velocity would result in a high head loss. It will therefore be of great
importance to convert the high kinetic energy to potential energy since it possesses a minimum
of energy loss. This will be achieved in the casing of the pump.(E. Chica, F. Perez, 2015)

The flow pattern can be summarized as follows;

•the pumped medium (water) enters the impeller through the eye with no tangential velocity

•the fluid then flows through the impeller as it acquires energy which is later discharged into the
pump casing of at a high velocity hence high kinetic energy.

•If the velocity of the fluid is too high within the pipe, casing of the pumping can therefore be
reduced to the velocity of the stream so as to convert the kinetic energy into potential energy.

• As the fluid flows round the volute (casing of the pump) and into the pipeline, the velocity has
to remain constant to minimize energy losses thereby satisfying the assumptions made in
deriving Euler’s equation.

If the flow rate is required to be increased, either the area or the velocity can be increased to
achieve the desired flow rate. Any substantial increase in the flow velocity would result in an
excessively high loss of energy hence the design has to be altered to increase the flow area. This
could be done by widening the pump casing and the impeller particularly at the inlet so that
when the fluid enters the impeller, it receives energy before it flows entirely in the radial
direction.(E. Chica, F. Perez, 2015)

Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a force influencing an object immersed in liquid for example a liquid like water
with presence of the force of gravity. Buoyancy force is opposite to the weight and therefore

20
directed vertically upwards. The amount of water in the vessel (steam) displaced by the object is
equal to the value of buoyancy force.(Balances, n.d.)

…………… (xi)

Where:
– density of a medium in which an object is placed (liquid or gas)
– gravitational acceleration force
– quantity of displaced liquid equal to the volume of an object immersed in the liquid.

Evaluation of errors arising from buoyancy force

Change of air density (variable buoyancy force) during mass measurement processes may cause
errors of indication in some cases. These will be neglected in this case. The size of the error can
also be related to the density of weighed sample and it’s mass.

Since the hydraulic pump has to float on water, it will involve selection of materials that have
relatively lower density than water. A positively buoyant hydraulic pump relies on the final mass
of the apparatus, and that the density of the water is greater than the average density of the
hydraulic pump. Ensuring the difference in density implies the use of the buoyant mass equation.

Buckingham Pi Theorem

Buckingham Pi Theorem involves creating non-dimensional Pi Groups for turbine size, stream
velocity, torque, viscosity, water density, RPM (rotation per minute) upon which the width, W
of the turbine will depend. (Arko, n.d.)

( ) …………………. (xii)

This theorem will guide in scaling the turbine.

21
Turbine Size

Turbine size directly relates to the performance of the hydraulic pump. A Large flow area over
the turbine results in high torque supplied to the shaft and bigger the turbine, the greater the
torque applied to the pump. Pipe diameter is based upon the pump fittings. The height of the
turbine will depend on river depth and the materials available for use during its design. (E.
Chica, F. Perez, 2015). Bicycle wheels can be used for the turbine diameter.

Turbines have an ability to take energy from a fluid and convert it into mechanical energy

Water current turbines, or hydrokinetic turbines, produce river current energy directly from the
flowing water in a river or a stream.

Water current turbines are also called hydro kinetic or in-stream turbines.

Turbines generate river current from the kinetic energy of a flowing stream of water without the
use of a dam or a barrage. These water current turbines can be installed in any flow with a
velocity greater than 0.5 m/s. This technology is cost effective because of low investment costs
and maintenance fees in comparison to other technologies. The continuous supply of river energy
current is also an advantage in comparison to the existing technology used to harvest the water
from River Lwajjali. The water current hydraulic pump uses components that are
environmentally friendly.(E. Chica, F. Perez, 2015)

Water current turbines generate an energy flux directly from the flowing water in a river or a
stream. This energy of the water stream is dependent on the density, cross-sectional area and
velocity.

When considering the possible use of a water current turbine on river applications, several issues
are of concern with regards to the power production performance.

The two most common small-scale water powered kinetic turbine concepts are axial flow turbine
and cross-flow turbine. The axial concept has a rotational axis of blades which is parallel to the
incoming water stream. The cross-flow concept on the other hand, has a rotational axis of blades
22
which is parallel to the water surface, but orthogonal to the incoming water stream.(Sornes,
2010)

The advantage of cross-flow turbines is that they can rotate unidirectional even with bi-
directional fluid flow. They are divided into two groups:

 Vertical axis; with an axis vertical to the water plane.

 The disadvantages associated with vertical axis turbines are: low starting torque, torque
ripple, and lower efficiency. These turbines may not be self-starting and therefore some
kind of external starting mechanisms need to be adopted.
 In-plane axis, with an axis on the horizontal plane of the water surface.

Turbine efficiency also depends on interactions between the turbine and site geography

Blockage effects such as papers or waste material will affect the individual turbine performance.
Narrower channels and flow effects from may improve turbine efficiency by funneling a higher
flow speed into the blades of the turbine.

Vertical turbine would be preferred for the turbine interactions since because they represent a
projected rectangular area whereas horizontal-axis turbines have a more circular projected area
of influence. The vertical-axis turbines will increase the energy/area density.

The turbine designed should be adaptable to different velocities experienced at different

geographical sites, and also within the nonhomogeneous conditions along the height and width of
an individual turbine.(Arko, n.d.)

23
 CHAPTER 3

3.0 Methodology

3.0.1 DESIGN PROCESS DIAGRAM

Hydrological assessment

 Determination of head
 Discharge measurements

Pump and System curve characteristics

 Pump power requirement

 System curve relationship
 NPSHa
 Pump performance characteristics

Turbine sizing

 Buckingham Pi theorem

Hydraulic design

Figure 2 Design Process Diagram

24
3.1 Determination of Head

Digital Elevation Models (DEM) were used to extract channel networks, delineate watersheds
and define a catchment area. The DEM were generated using point data sets from elevation data
or from aerial imagery using remotely sensed data. The Digital Elevation models were acquired
from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) earth explorer (Map data ©2018 INEGI
Imagery ©2018 NASA, TerraMetrics) as Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 1 Arc-
Second Global elevation data. This type of data offers worldwide coverage of void filled data at
a resolution of 1 arc-second and also provides open distribution of this high-resolution global
data set.

The coordinate capture system in QGIS was used to obtain the x and y coordinates that
represented the run and elevation namely whereas the rise (length from the stream to the
transmission tank or sedimentation tank) was obtained from Pythagoras theorem.

3.1.1 Procedure

i. Digital Elevation models were downloaded from the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) earth explorer (Map data ©2018 INEGI Imagery ©2018 NASA, TerraMetrics)
as Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 1 Arc-Second Global elevation data.
ii. QGIS software was now opened and the downloaded DEM files (tiff images) were
analyzed.
iii. A virtual raster mosaic was built and was saved as DEM mosaic.
iv. The DEM projection was then changed to the existing latitude and longitude of where the
river was flowing. The projection code was acquired from spatialreference.org as 32632
from utmwgs 36N and pasted into warp projection in the filter SRS. The file was then
saved DEM reprojected.
v. The area was then subset using quick map services in order to have a background map of
where on earth the river existed. This file was saved as DEM subset.
vi. The Geo processing plugin was now installed which availed a processing toolbox
provided by different service providers. The processing toolbox was then opened and the

25
 fill sink tool by Wang & Liu was used to calculate the flow directions. This was saved
flowdr. A filled DEM and flow directions map were the result.
vii. The properties of the flow directions map were opened so as to better adjust and
understand them. The render type was changed to single band pseudo color and a new
color map generated and the types of values required were changed to maximum and
minimum values. The result was a map with minimum value of -1 , maximum value of 7
and 9 classes with class representing a certain flow direction with -1 meaning the land is
flat and is where the water collects.
viii. The strahler order was calculated in order to determine which quantity of water can be
classified as a river. The raster calculator was used to create a Boolean map that is to say
strahler>= 6, thus each river larger or = to 6 would be selected. The rivers were now seen
on top of the open street map.
ix. The channel network and drainage basins a lorgarthim was now used to select channels
and basins larger or greater than strhaler 6.
x. The catchment was delineated using the upslope function from saga. The outflow point
needed to be identified and two plugins were installed namely Coordinate capture system
tool and geocoding tool. The Geocoding tool was used to identify an exact area near the
river since it used internet.
xi. A point was chosen from the delineated river using the coordinate capture tool and the
coordinates copied into the upslope area function to identify the catchment contributing
to outlet.
xii. QGIS 2threejs tool was lastly installed in order to visualize the catchment.

The run, elevation and rise were obtained using the following equations;

Run  x 2  x1 Equation 1

Elevation  y2  y1 Equation 2

Rise  ( run ) 2  (elevation ) 2 Equation 3

26
3.2 Discharge Measurements

Discharge is the volume of water flowing down a stream per unit time.

Stream discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a channel cross section by the
average velocity of the water in that cross section.

Considering the discharge from the stream was flowing through an open channel, the float
method of discharge measurements was preferred and it involved measuring the velocity of a
neutral buoyancy object and then multiplying the acquired velocity by the average cross-
sectional area of the river.

Discharges were acquired by the float method of discharge measurement from August 2017 to
December 2017 in Lwajjali River whilst discharges over the past three years namely 2016, 2015,
2014 were acquired from Engineer Ronnie Mukwana, the Uganda Christian University
Supervisor at the Bajjo treatment plant where Lwajjali River flows.

The float method of discharge measurement was used and involved the following equipment
namely; a measuring tape of 30m, a stopwatch, pen and paper for record keeping, two wooden
stand posts, a floating object (bottle top) and a one meter ruler.

After the data was acquired from the field, Microsoft Excel was used to table the data and
analyze

3.2.1 Procedure

i. Bush and grass clearing that is to say slashing away grass from the chosen stream channel
section.
ii. A wooden stand post was fixed in the adjacent ground near the stream and 5m was
measured using a tape measure and a second wooden stand post was fixed too
iii. Flagging tape was placed at the second wooden stand post to act as a finish line.
iv. The floating object (bottle top) was gently released into the stream from the beginning of
the section.
27
 v. The amount of time it took for the bottle top to cross the second marked section was then
recorded and the process repeated several times and the average time calculated.
vi. The velocity of the stream was then computed by dividing the length of section by the
average time the bottle top took to move through the section
vii. The stream width was measured using the tape measure
viii. Since the stream was trapezoidal, the cross sectional area of the channel was then
estimated using the trapezoidal area equation. The respective parameters in this equation
were obtained by lowering a meter ruler in the stream over its entire width from the start
of stream width, at a certain known width from the beginning, at halfway width, at known
width and lastly at the end of the stream in order to obtain the different depths of the
stream over its entire width. The cross sectional area of each section was calculated and
added to acquire the total cross section area of the channel
ix. The discharge was then calculated by multiplying the cross sectional area and the
velocity of the stream.

The discharge was calculated using;

Q  v  A Equation 4

Where v = velocity of water through the stream (m/s)

Q = flow rate through of the stream (m3/s)

A = cross sectional area of the stream (m2)

D
v Equation 5
T

Where D = distance travelled by the float object over the stream length.

T = Average time of the total time taken by each of the specimen (bottle top) to travel a
distance, D.

28
And

A  0.5 x h0  h1  Equation 6

Where x = sectional width of the stream

h = depth of the water in the stream at the different sectional widths.

Note: The diameter of the pipe used was in relation to the existing pipe diameter currently used
at the treatment plant for transmission of the water.

3.3 Power requirement for the Pump

The data required will be the discharge through the pipe, the total head, the density of water,
pump efficiency and the acceleration due to gravity.

The power requirement for the pump will be calculated using;

QH  g
power  Equation 7
pump efficiency

Where P = Power (W)

= Density (Kg/m3) = 1000 kg/m3 of water

Pump efficiency for a standard centrifugal pump is 85%.

Q  v  A Equation 8

Where v = velocity through the pipe (m/s)

Q = flow rate through the pipe (m3/s)

A = cross sectional area of pipe (m2)

29
And

Q
v Equation 9
A

Kfittings is associated with the fittings of the pipe required to pump the water from the stream to
the sedimentary tank. Values will be obtained from standard tables and a total Kfittings value will
be calculated by adding all the Kfittings values for each individual fitting within the pipe system.

The loss coefficient, K is given by

K  K fittings  K pipe Equation 10

Where;

fl
K pipe  Equation 11
D

Where; f = friction coefficient

L = pipe length (m)

D = pipe diameter (m)

The friction coefficient f will be found using a modified version of the Colebrook White
equation:

0.25
f Equation 12
k 5.74 2
[log{  }]
3.7  D Re 0.9

Where; k = Roughness factor (m)

Re = Reynolds number

30
The pipe roughness factor k is a standard value that was obtained from standard tables and is
based upon the material of the pipe, including any internal coatings, and the internal condition of
the pipeline. The material chosen for this study was high density plastic (HDPE).

Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity related with the smoothness of flow of a fluid and
corresponding to the energy absorbed within the fluid as it moves. Reynolds number will be
calculated using the following formula;

vD
Re  Equation 13


Where ( )

The dynamic head is generated as a result of friction within the system and will be calculated
using the basic Darcy Weisbach equation given by:

Kv 2
HD  Equation 14
2g

Water horsepower

Water horsepower refers to the energy added to water by the pump. The water horsepower will
be calculated from the following formula;

QH
WHP  Equation 15
102

Where Q = flow rate through the pipe (l/s)

H = head (m)

Brake horsepower

Brake horsepower refers to the available power of an engine. The required brake horsepower was
calculated from;

31
 WHP
BHP  Equation 16
Pump efficiency

32
3.4 Pump Performance and System Curve Characteristics

The system curve is a graphical representation between discharge and head loss in a system of
pipes and is completely independent of pump characteristics.

The basic shape of a system curve is parabolic because the exponent on the head loss equation
and on the velocity head term is nearly 2.0.

The system curve starts at zero flow and zero head if there isn’t any static lift or else the curve
will be vertically offset from a zero head value.

For the proposed flow system in which a pump is to be used, the system flow equation which
shows how actual head gained by the fluid from the pump is related to system parameters was as
follows;

h p  ( z 2  z1 )  KQ 2 Equation 17

Where (z2 – z1) = static head (m)

K = total loss coefficients and depends on pipe size, pipe length, friction factors and
minor loss coefficients.

A Friston pump performance curve was used to determine the pump performance characteristics.

3.5 Net Positive Suction Head

Air bubbles will form when the water boils and the pressure in a pump drops below vapor
pressure. This is known as cavitation if the pressure increases to above the vapor pressure
downstream and the bubbles formed collapse. Cavitation is a problem because of the energy
released when the bubbles collapse thereby causing noise, vibration, reduced efficiency in
pumps, reduced flow rate and head in pumps and physical damage to impellers and piping.

Required Net Positive Suction Head (NPSHr) is the minimum pressure head at entrance to the
pump such that cavitation does not occur in the pump. This value thus depends on the type of
33
pump, its design, size and also varies with flow rate at which the pump operates. This value is
usually availed by the pump manufacturer and increases with increasing flow rate or discharge
within a pump.

The available Net positive suction head (NPSHa) is equal to atmospheric pressure minus all
losses in suction piping, vapor pressure, and velocity head in suction pipe and static lift.

The available Net Positive Suction Head will be calculated from;

v2
NPSH a  hatm  hvapor  h f ( total )  hlift  Equation 18
2g

Velocity head

Velocity head will be calculated using;

v2
vh  Equation 19
2g

Head loss in suction pipe

Head loss in suction pipe will be calculated from the equation below;

l v2
h f ( pipe )  f Equation 20
D 2g

Local losses in the pipe are due the fitting items and therefore calculated using;

h f ( local )  K fittings  vh Equation 21

Vapor pressure, Atmospheric Pressure and static lift

Saturation vapor pressure head will be calculated from the equation below;

17 .27 T

hvapor  0.0623 e( T  237 .2 ) Equation 22

34
Where T= temperature of the water in

hvaporis in (m).

Mean atmospheric pressure head is estimated using;

hatm  10.3  0.00105 z Equation 23

Where atmospheric pressure head (m)

z = elevation above mean sea level (m) determined using barometric altimeter, location based
altimeter and GPS altimeter was 3807ft(1160.37ft)

Static lift is the vertical distance between the centerline of the pump and the elevation of the
water source when the pump is not operating. When the water elevation of the source is below
the pump elevation, the static lift will be positive whereas if the pump is at a elevation below the
water surface elevation, the static lift is negative.

35
3.6 Buckingham Pi Theorem and Turbine Design

This involves creating non-dimensional Pi Groups for turbine size, stream velocity, torque,
viscosity, water density, RPM (rotation per minute) upon which the width, W of the turbine will
depend.

W  f ( R, v, T ,  ,  ,  ) Equation 24

3.8.1 Data

The data required here will be the acquired stream velocity, water density, and viscosity, the
rotations per minute of the turbine and turbine width that will be required to create Pi groups and
accurately scale the turbine.

36
 CHAPTER 4

4.0 Results

4.1 Power Requirement for the Pump

Since Q = 12.5m3/h and flow will be pumped through a 0.1m pipe thus;

Table 1: Calculation of Area of the pipe

From equation 8; Discharge Diameter of pipe Area of pipe (m2)

through the pipe (m)
(m3/h)
12.5 0.1 0.0079

Table 2: Calculation of velocity through the pipe.

From equation 9; Discharge through the Area of the pipe (m2) Velocity through the
3
pipe (m /s) pipe (m/s)
0.0035 0.0079 0.44

The loss coefficient K is made up of two components namely; Kfittings and Kpipe

Kfittings is associated with the fittings of the pipe required to pump the water from the stream to
the sedimentary tank. Values were obtained from standard tables and a total Kfittings value was
calculated by adding all the Kfittings values for each individual fitting within the pipe system. The
table below shows the calculation of Kfittings for the system under consideration:

37
Table 3: Loss Coefficient values for the different pipe fittings

Fitting items Number of items Kfittings value Item total

Pipe entrance 1 0.05 0.05
90 c bend (short) 1 0.75 0.75
45 c bend 1 0.30 0.30
Non-return valve 1 1.00 1.00
Pipe exit 1 1.00 1.00
Total fittings 3.1

Table 4: Calculation of Reynolds number

From equation Velocity Diameter of Kinematic Reynolds

13; through the the pipe (m) viscosity, Number, Re
2/
pipe (m/s) (m s)
0.44 0.1 1.31 33587.79

A total pipe length of 28.132m, a pipe roughness factor (k) of 0.0014 mm and kinematic
viscosity of water 1.31×10-6 m2/s, were substituted into equation (12) to obtain;

Table 5: Calculation of the friction factor

From Roughness Diameter of Reynolds F

equation 12; factor (m) pipe (m) number
0.0000014 0.1 33587.79 0.0228

f was then substituted in equation (11) to obtain;

Table 6: Calculation of the Loss coefficient of the Pipe

From equation Length of pipe Diameter of pipe Friction factor (f) Kpipe
11; (m) (m)
28.132 0.1 0.0228 6.4141

38
Table 7: Calculation of total loss coefficient

From equation 10; Kpipe Kfittings K

6.4141 3.1 9.5141

The dynamic head is generated as a result of friction within the system and was calculated using
the basic Darcy Weisbach equation given by equation (14):

Table 8: Calculation of dynamic head

From equation 14; K Velocity through the Dynamic Head, HD

pipe (m/s) (m)
9.5141 0.44 0.0939

Total head, H = 6.701 + 0.0939 = 6.7949m

The power requirement for the pump was calculated using equation (7);

Pump efficiency for a standard centrifugal pump is 85%.

Table 9: Calculation of Power Requirement of the Pump

From Head (m) Density of Acceleration Pump Discharge Power

equation 7; water due gravity Efficiency (m3/s) (W)
(Kg/m3) (m/s2) (%)
6.7949 1000 9.81 85 0.0035 274.47

Power required to overcome a head of 6.7949m is 0.274kW.

Water horsepower

Water horsepower refers to the energy added to water by the pump. The water horsepower was
calculated from the following equation (15).

39
Table 10: Calculation of Water Horsepower

From equation 15; Discharge (L/s) Head (m) Water Horsepower,

WHP
3.472 6.7949 0.231 kW

Brake horsepower

Brake horsepower refers to the available power of an engine. The required brake horsepower was
calculated from equation (16);

Table 11: Calculation of Brake Horsepower

Substituting equation WHP (kW) Pump efficiency (%) Brake Horsepower

15 and pump efficiency (kW)
into equation 16;

0.274 85 0.272

The BHP value will be used to select a motor for the hydraulic system.

40
4.2 System curve characteristics

The system curve is a graphical representation between discharge and head loss in a system of
pipes and is completely independent of pump characteristics.

The basic shape of a system curve is parabolic because the exponent on the head loss equation
and on the velocity head term is nearly 2.0.

The system curve starts at zero flow and zero head if there isn’t any static lift or else the curve
will be vertically offset from a zero head value.

For the proposed flow system in which a pump is to be used, the system flow equation which
shows how actual head gained by the fluid from the pump is related to system parameters is as in
equation (17);

static K Q(m^3/h) Q^2 h

head(m)
6.701 9.5141 0 0 6.701
6.701 9.5141 1.5 2.25 28.107725
6.701 9.5141 3 9 92.3279
6.701 9.5141 4.5 20.25 199.361525
6.701 9.5141 6 36 349.2086
6.701 9.5141 7.5 56.25 541.869125
6.701 9.5141 9 81 777.3431
6.701 9.5141 10.5 110.25 1055.630525
6.701 9.5141 12 144 1376.7314
6.701 9.5141 13.5 182.25 1740.645725
6.701 9.5141 15 225 2147.3735

41
 A graph of hp against discharge
2500

2000

1500
hp

1000 Q(m^3/h)

500

0
0 5 10 15 20
Q(m^3/h)

At zero discharge, static head is equal to hp which represents hydraulic losses in the system.
Since the loss coefficient, K is constant, the more the discharge, and the more the hydraulic
losses in the system.

4.3 Pump Performance Characteristics

The Pump performance characteristics curve is included in the Annex where the following can
be observed about the behavior of the Pump.

 The duty point falls between 2.5-2.75 impeller curve lines.

 NPSHa= 6.8m
 2.75 inch impeller and 0.1-0.5 HP motor is required.

42
4.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Air bubbles will form when the water boils and the pressure in a pump drops below vapor
pressure. This is known as cavitation if the pressure increases to above the vapor pressure
downstream and the bubbles formed collapse. Cavitation is a problem because of the energy
released when the bubbles collapse thereby causing noise, vibration, reduced efficiency in
pumps, reduced flow rate and head in pumps and physical damage to impellers and piping.

Required Net Positive Suction Head (NPSHr) is the minimum pressure head at entrance to the
pump such that cavitation does not occur in the pump. This value thus depends on the type of
pump, its design, size and also varies with flow rate at which the pump operates. This value is
43
usually availed by the pump manufacturer and increases with increasing flow rate or discharge
within a pump.

The available Net positive suction head (NPSHa) is equal to atmospheric pressure minus all
losses in suction piping, vapor pressure, and velocity head in suction pipe and static lift.

The available Net Positive Suction Head was calculated from equation (18);

Velocity head

Table 12: Calculation of velocity head

From equation 19; Velocity through the pipe Velocity head (m)
(m/s)
0.44 0.0099

Head loss in suction pipe

Table 13: Calculation of Head loss in suction pipe

From equation Friction factor Length of Diameter of Velocity head hf (pipe)

20; pipe (m) pipe (m) (m)
0.0228 28.132 0.1 0.0099 0.0635

Local losses in the pipe are due the fitting items and therefore calculated from equation 21 as;

Table 14: Calculation of the local losses in the pipe due to the fitting items

From equation 21; Kfittings Velocity head (m) hf (local) (m)

3.10 0.0099 0.0307

Thus hf(total)= hf(pipe)+hf(local)= 0.0635+0.03069 = 0.0942m

Vapor pressure, Atmospheric Pressure and static lift

Saturation vapor pressure head can be calculated from the equation (22) as;

44
Table 15: Calculation of Saturation vapor pressure head

From equation 22; Temperature of the water (°c) hvapor (m)

10 0.125

Since T = 10 for the water as per the kinematic viscosity of water.

Where T= temperature of the water

hvapor is in (m).

Mean atmospheric pressure head is essentially a function of elevation above mean sea level
(msl). Mean atmospheric pressure head is estimated using;

Table 16: Calculation of Atmospheric Pressure head

From equation 23; z (m) hatm (m)

1160.37 9.0816

Where atmospheric pressure head (m)

z = elevation above mean sea level (m) determined using barometric altimeter, location based
altimeter and GPS altimeter was 3807ft(1160.37m)

Static lift is the vertical distance between the centerline of the pump and the elevation of the
water source when the pump is not operating. When the water elevation of the source is below
the pump elevation, the static lift will be positive whereas if the pump is at a elevation below the
water surface elevation, the static lift is negative.

Taking into consideration that the centre of the pump is 2m above the surface of water.

Table 17: Calculation of available Net Positive Suction Head

From hatm (m) hvapor (m) Velocity Static lift hf (total) (m) NPSHa (m)
equation head (m) (m)

45
18;
9.0816 0.125 0.0099 2 0.0942 6.8525

4.5 Buckingham Pi Theorem

Designing of a hydraulic system required scaling up of a turbine. Non-dimensional analysis was

used in order to precisely scale the turbine before the turbine testing was done using the
Buckingham Pi Theorem.

Non-dimensional Pi Groups were created respectively for turbine size, torque, and RPMbased
upon the dependent variable H and turbine width. H (head)became a function of turbine radius,
torque, and frequency of rotation, water density, viscosity, and stream velocity as a result of non-
dimensional Pi group analysis. The width of the turbine depended on the equation (22);

Upon completion of the Buckingham Pi Theorem process, three Pi Groups were created: for
size, for torque, and for frequency of rotation.

46
With the help of the above three non-dimensional Pi-groups, the scaling of the turbine was then
done to establish a recommended turbine width for a given stream velocity.

4.6 Turbine design

4.6.1 Scaling of the turbine

A Baseline Torque test that was acquired from the Current Driven Water Harvester system was
used to scale up the turbine depending on the non-dimensional Pi-groups. The graph below
represents the relationship between and .

47
The table below represents the recommended turbine width for a given stream velocity.

Table 18: The recommended turbine width for the respective stream velocities

Stream Velocity Turbine width

[ft/s] [ft]
0.5 89.30

48
1 6.05
1.5 1.42
2 0.60
2.5 0.36
3 0.26
3.5 0.22
4 0.19
4.5 0.18
5 0.17
5.5 0.16
6 0.16
6.5 0.16
7 0.15
7.5 0.15
8 0.15

From the minimum stream velocity, the turbine width could be established for conditions even
when the stream has low velocities. The minimum stream velocity from the acquired discharge
results was 0.315m/s was is approximately equal to 1ft/s thus the recommended turbine width is
6.05ft (1.844m).

4.7 SITE LAYOUT

SEDIMENTATION

TANK

49
 28.132m

6.701m
LWAJJALI RIVER

HYDRAULIC

SYSTEM

27.322m

Figure 3 Site Layout

4.8 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

 Use of readily available materials within the environment:

 Bicycle rims to make the turbine pulley.
 Bucket parts to make turbine blades.
 Pipes for water transmission from stream to the clarification tank.
 Ropes for fastening the pump system to the stream width.
 Logs where the system will be fastened on to.
 A belt to aid rotation of the pulley system.
50
  Minimum flow rate of 0.315m/s is required for the functioning of the system.
 Ability to overcome 6.7949m of vertical head.

4.9 DESIGN BUGDET

Table 19: Design Budget

Item Quantity Unit price (UGX) Total(UGX)

Axial centrifugal 1 728,000 728,000
pump
Belt 1 52,000 52,000
Ropes 4 500 2000
Bicycle rims 2 30,000 60,000
Pegs 4 5000 5,000

51
Plastic pellets 80kgs 20,000 160,000
Drum 1 30,000 30,000
Firewood 5bundles 10,000 50,000
HDPE pipes 3 30,000 90,000
Step pulley 1 92,000 92,000
Fasteners 2 7500 15,000
90° bend 1 185,000 185,000
45° bend 1 37,000 37,000
Plastic mold 1 350,000 350,000
Grand Total 1,856,500 UGX

CHAPTER 5

5.1 Challenges faced during the Final Year Research Project

 We encountered witchcraft near the Lwajjali River where witch doctor instruments were
near the sectional width of a stream.
 Objects such as stones in water affected the velocity of the float object in turn affecting
the acquired velocity of the stream.

52
5.2 Conclusion

Rivers have a constant source of energy that can be tapped. This energy source, the stream’s
velocity, can be easily utilized by installing a hydraulic system that uses stream flow as its
driving force to pump water to its desired location. With this system running continuously, a
75,000L tank can be filled at a flow rate of 0.0034m³/s over six hours with the existing minimum
velocity of 0.315m/s.

5.3 Recommendations

 Self-sustaining hydraulic systems should be considered for pumping water and irrigation
purposes from a stream or river once an appropriate pump with the required Net Positive
Suction Head, impeller diameter and output Power requirement capable of overcoming
the head of water transmission have been selected.
 Sensitization of urban and rural communities on the performance and operation of self-
sustaining hydraulic systems that can promote agriculture, livelihoods whilst ensuring
pumping of water at lower costs.

53
 6.0 APPENDIX

Bush and grass clearing of the channel stream section.

Measuring the stream width using a tape measure.

54
Determining the time taken by the object to cover a distance of 5m.

Measuring the depth of the stream at the different stream sectional widths.

55
56
 7.0 REFRENCES

Arko, B. (n.d.). CDWH – Final Report, 1–13.

Balances, R. (n.d.). Buoyancy Force.

Considerations, P. S. (2005). Energy Tips – Pumping Systems, (October).

Discharge measurements. (n.d.).

E. Chica, F. Perez, A. R.-C. and S. A. (2015). Design of a hydrokinetic turbine. Energy and
Sustainability, VI(137). https://doi.org/10.1186/2251-6832-4-32

Fao. (1999). Irrigation in Asia in figures, 236.

Measuring discharge. (n.d.), 1–6.

Merkley, & Allen. (n.d.). Pumps & System curves. Sprinkle & Trickle Irrigation Lectures,
123(226), 123–144.

Michaud, J. P., & Wierenga, M. (2005). ESTIMATING DISCHARGE AND STREAM FLOWS
A Guide for Sand and Gravel Operators, (05).

Milnes, M. (2000). The mathematics of pumping water. The Royal Academy of Engineering.
Retrieved from
http://www.raeng.org.uk/education/diploma/maths/pdf/exemplars_advanced/17_pumping_
water.pdf

Netherlands Water Partnership. (2007). Smart Water Harvesting Solutions. Netherlands Water
Partnership. Retrieved from
http://www.samsamwater.com/library/Smart_Water_Harvesting_Solutions.pdf

Pump, S. O. F. A. (n.d.). No Title, 1–14.

57
Rams, H. (n.d.). WATER-POWERED WATER PUMPING SYSTEMS Hydraulic Ram
Schematic.

Sornes, K. (2010). Small-scale Water Current Turbines for River Applications. Zero Emission
Resource Organization, (January), 1–19. Retrieved from www.zero.no

Specifications, D., & Pumping, F. O. R. (n.d.). 3.0 3.1 Water Pumping Systems Design, 1–15.

Thomas, T. (2005). Hydraulic Ram Pump Systems. MDG Publishing, Warwickshire.

USACE3 - Water Distribution.pdf. (n.d.).

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