Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.

Unit 2: Ecosystems
 What is an ecosystem?
 Structure and function of ecosystem;
 Energy flow in an ecosystem:
 food chain,
 food web and
 Ecological succession.
 Case studies of the following ecosystems:
a. Forest ecosystem
b. Grassland ecosystem
c. Desert ecosystem
d. Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)

[email protected]
1
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

What is an Ecosystem?
 The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction
between organisms and their environment.
 Ecosystem is a self-contained, dynamic system composed of a natural community along with its
physical environment
 The term ―Ecosystem‖ was first coined by A.G.Tansely, an English botanist, in the year 1953.

Components of an ecosystem

The components of the ecosystem are divided as:

1. Abiotic Components: Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors on an
ecosystem. The non-living factors are either resources or conditions. Important abiotic components can be
listed as follows:

1. Physical factors: They sustain and limit the growth of organisms in an ecosystem.

a) Light (Energy): Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is
the energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis;
a process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances.
Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet their photoperiodic requirement for flowering.

b) Temperature: The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by extremes in

temperature.

c) Water (Rainfall): The life on earth originated in water and is unsustainable without water.

d) Atmospheric gases: The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration. Carbon dioxide is used
by green plants during photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain bacteria and
through the action of lightning.

e) Soil: Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine
the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils. These characteristics along with parameters such
as pH, mineral composition and topography determine to a large extent the vegetation in any area. This
in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.

F) Latitude and Altitude: latitude has a strong influence on an area‘s temperature, resulting in change
of climates such as polar, tropical, and temperate. These climates determine different natural biomes.

From sea level to highest Peaks, wild life is influenced by altitude. An altitude increases; the air
becomes colder and drier, affecting wild life accordingly.

2. Organic compounds: They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link
between the biotic and abiotic components. Examples are: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic
substances.

[email protected]
2
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
2. Biotic Components: Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

1. Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food
through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain
rely on producers for food.

2. Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are
further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

a. Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.

b. Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a carnivore or
an omnivore.

c. Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. Tertiary
consumers can also be an omnivore.

d. Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural
predators.

3. Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and
decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling
nutrients to be reused by plants.

Ecotone: An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse ecosystems).

[email protected]
3
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
Ecotone : is the zone where two communities meet and integrate. For e.g. the mangrove forests
represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.

Other examples are grassland (between forest and desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt water)
and riverbank or marshland (between dry and wet).

Characteristics of Ecotone

 It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert).
 It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.
 Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an outgoing community decrease as
we move away from the community or ecosystem.
 A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the
adjoining communities.

Land & Water Ecotone Forest & Grassland Ecotone

 Edge Effect:

refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two habitats
(ecotone). Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species in the
ecotone is much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.

The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.

In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For example, the density of
birds is greater in the ecotone between the forest and the desert.

Importance of Ecotone

 They have a greater variety of organisms.

 They also offer a good nesting place for animals coming in search of a nesting place or food.
 They serve as a bridge of gene flow from one population to another because of the larger genetic
diversity present.
[email protected]
4
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 They can act as buffer zones offering protection to the bordering ecosystems from possible damage.
For example, a wetland can absorb pollutants and prevent them from seeping into the river.
 Ecotones are also a sensitive indicator of global climate change. A shifting of boundaries between
ecosystems is thought to be due to climate change. So, scientists and environmentalists are studying
ecotones with greater interest now.

Ecological Niche:
Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.
The functional characteristics of a species in its habitat are referred to as ―niche‖ in that common habitat.
In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions:

1. Habitat niche – where it lives,

2. Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces,

3. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & another requirement.

4. Food Niche – What is eats or decomposes 7 what species it competes.

Functions of Ecosystem

I) Energy Flow
II) Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical cycles)
III) Ecological Succession or Ecosystem development

I) Energy Flow: The flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which is
unidirectional.

Trophic level interaction (TLI): it deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected based on
nutritional needs. The study of TLI in an ecosystem gives an idea about the energy flow through the
ecosystem.

Trophic Level: Position of an organism in a food chain. (Trophe = Nourishment)

 Autotrophs- Green plants (Producer)

 Heterotrophs- Herbivores (Primary consumers)
 Heterotrophs- Carnivores (Secondary consumers)
 Heterotrophs- Carnivores (Tertiary consumers)
 Heterotrophs- Top carnivores (Quaternary consumers)

 Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.
There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat at each trophic level so that energy level
decreases from the first trophic level to upwards.
 This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not more than four-
five trophic levels (beyond this the energy available is negligible to support an organism).

The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely:

i. Food chain

[email protected]
5
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
ii. Food Web
iii. Ecological pyramids

Food chain:

 Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated
eating and being eaten link is called a food chain.
E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle.
 Each step in the food chain is called trophic level.
 A food chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.

Types of Food Chains:

i. Grazing food chain: The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the plant or plant part as their
food, constitute the grazing food chain. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is eaten by a
caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and lizard is eaten by a snake. In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton
(primary producers) are eaten by zooplanktons which are eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by
pelicans.

ii. Detritus food chain: This type of food chain starts from organic matter of dead and decaying animals
and plant bodies from the grazing food chain. Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms are
called detrivores or decomposers. The detrivores are eaten by predators.

Food Web:

 Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. Food web represents all the possible paths of
energy flow in an ecosystem.
 If any of the intermediate food chains is removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be affected
largely.
 The food web provides more than one alternative for food to most of the organisms in an ecosystem
and therefore increases their chance of survival.

[email protected]
6
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
Ecological Pyramids

 The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological position
(producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid.
 The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels. The length of each
bar represents the total number of individuals or biomass or energy at each trophic level in an
ecosystem.
 The food producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer
trophic levels are in between.

The ecological pyramids are of three categories:

i. Pyramid of numbers,
ii. Pyramid of biomass, and
iii. Pyramid of energy or productivity.

a) Pyramid of Numbers:

 Represents the total number of individuals of different species (population) at each trophic level.
 Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
completely inverted.
 It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of number
does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.

1. Pyramid of numbers – upright:

 In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level.

[email protected]
7
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 This type of pyramid can be seen in the grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem.
 The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) because of their abundance.
 The next higher trophic level is primary consumer – herbivores like a grasshopper.
 The individual number of grasshoppers is less than that of grass.
 The next energy level is a primary carnivore like rats.
 The number of rats is less than grasshoppers, because, they feed on grasshoppers.
 The next higher trophic level is secondary carnivore like snakes. They feed on rats.
 The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore like Hawk.
 With each higher trophic level, the number of individual decreases.

2. Pyramid of numbers – inverted

 In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic level.
E.g. Tree ecosystem.

b) Pyramid of Biomass:

 Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level
separately and measuring their dry weight.
 This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are
weighed.
 Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop.
 The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.

[email protected]
8
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

1. Pyramid of Biomass – upright

 For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a
smaller trophic level perched on top.
 The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next trophic level i.e.
primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic level i.e. secondary
consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount of
biomass.

2. Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted

 In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted form. (In
contrast, a pyramid of numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright)
 This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly.
 Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding
the producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape.

[email protected]
9
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

3. Pyramid of Energy

 To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most
suitable.
 An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each
transfer to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at
the bottom.

 Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 calories of light energy in a given day. Most of the energy is not
absorbed; some is reflected to space; of the energy absorbed only a small portion is utilized by green
plants, out of which the plant uses up some for respiration and of the 1000 calories; therefore only 100
calories are stored as energy-rich materials.
 Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the plant containing 100 calories of food energy. The deer use
some of it for its metabolism and stores only 10 calories as food energy. A lion that eats the deer gets
an even smaller amount of energy. Thus, usable energy decreases from sunlight to producer to
herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy pyramid will always be upright.
 Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the phenomenon of biological magnification – the tendency
for toxic substances to increase in concentration progressively with higher trophic levels.

[email protected]
10
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

Ecological Efficiency

 Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next.
 The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10
per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic
level.
 The decreases at each subsequent trophic level is due to two reasons:
i. At each trophic, a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up
in metabolism.
ii. A part of the energy is lost at each transformation.

Pollutants and Trophic Level – Biomagnification

 Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem.

 Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants), which cannot be broken down by detrivores,
not only move through the various trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level for a very
long duration.

Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:

 Bioaccumulation
 Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation

 Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other

substances in an organism.

 Bioaccumulation occurs when the rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism through
catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms), or excretion is lower than the rate of
accumulation of the substance.

 As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if
the environmental levels of the pollutant are not high.

[email protected]
11
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

Biomagnification

 Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each

tropical level with the passage of time.

 In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a long biological half-life (long-lived),
must not be soluble in water but must be soluble in fats. E.g. DDT.

 If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism.

[email protected]
12
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

II) Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical cycles)

 Energy flow and nutrient circulation are the major functions of the ecosystem.

 Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients of
food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.

 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and compounds makeup 97% of
the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms.

 In addition to these, about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the survival and good
health of plants and animals.

 These elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to living and then
back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion.

 This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere).

 Among the most important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle and the nitrogen nutrient
cycle.

 There are many other nutrient cycles that are important in ecology, including a large number of trace
mineral nutrient cycles.

[email protected]
13
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

Types of Nutrient Cycles

Based on the replacement period, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.

 A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized.

 Most gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.

 In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost
from the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavailable for immediate cycling.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Gaseous or Sedimentary
cycle

1) Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon
cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. and

2) Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the earth’s crust (soluble elements mostly found in earth‘s
crust) — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.

a) Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)

[email protected]
14
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

 Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared to oxygen and nitrogen.

 However, without carbon dioxide life could not exist because it is vital for the production of
carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants.

 It is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the
compound that carries genetic information).

 Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide (CO 2).

 Carbon cycle involves a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms.

 Carbon from the atmosphere moves to green plants by the process of photosynthesis, and then to
animals.

 By process of respiration and decomposition of dead organic matter, it returns to the atmosphere. It is
usually a short term cycle.

 Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the
peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which
take a long time to be released.

 In deep oceans, such carbon can remain buried for millions of years till geological movement may lift
these rocks above sea level.

 These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates into
streams and rivers.
[email protected]
15
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are organic compounds that were buried before they
could be decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time and geological processes into fossil
fuels. When they are burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide.

b) Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)

 Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is the most prevalent element in living organisms.

 Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many of the vitamins

 Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen that is available in the soil. Thus, nitrogen is
a limiting nutrient for both natural and agricultural ecosystems.

 Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms (N2) joined by a very strong triple covalent bond (N ≡ N).

 In nature, lightning and ultraviolet radiation provide enough energy to convert nitrogen to nitrogen
oxides (NO, NO2, N2O).

 Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and power-generating stations are also
sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides.

Nitrogen Fixing – Nitrogen to Ammonia (N2 to NH3)

 There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere, but the elemental form cannot be used
directly by most of the living organisms.

 Nitrogen needs to be ‗fixed‘, that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken
up by plants.

[email protected]
16
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

1. Nitrogen fixation

Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:

i. By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae),
ii. By man using industrial processes (fertiliser factories) and
iii. To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lighting.

 Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia

(NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+).

 Ammonia (NH3) is a molecule consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen, while ammonium (NH4+) is an ion
of ammonia that is formed by accepting a hydrogen ion.

 The enzyme, nitrogenase which is capable of nitrogen reduction is present exclusively in prokaryotes.
Such microbes are called N2-fixers. These include:

 free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria (non-symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria or nitrogen-fixing soil

bacteria) (e.g. aerobic Azotobacter and Beijemickia; anaerobic Clostridium and Rhodospirillum),

 symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium) living in association with leguminous

plants and non-leguminous root nodule plants and

 Some cyanobacteria (a major source of nitrogen fixation in oceans) (blue-green algae. E.g. Nostoc,
Anabaena, Spirulina etc.).

 Leguminous: denoting plants of the pea family (Leguminosae), typically having seeds in pods,
distinctive flowers, and root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

2. Nitrification – Ammonia to Nitrates

 Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of nitrogen by some plants.
 Others absorb nitrates which are obtained by oxidising ammonia and ammonium ions.
 Ammonia and ammonium ions are oxidised to nitrites or nitrates by two groups of specialized
bacteria.
 Ammonium ions are first oxidised to nitrite by the bacteria Nitrosomonas and/or Nitrococcus.
 The nitrite is further oxidized to nitrate with the help of the bacterium Nitrobacter.
 These steps are called nitrification. These nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs (they use
inorganic chemical energy sources to synthesise organic compounds from carbon dioxide).
 The nitrate thus formed is absorbed by plants and is transported to the leaves.
 In leaves, it is reduced to form ammonia that finally forms the amine group of amino acids,
which are the building blocks of proteins. These then go through higher trophic levels of the
ecosystem.
 Nitrification is important in agricultural systems, where fertiliser is often applied as ammonia.
 Conversion of this ammonia to nitrate increases nitrogen leaching because nitrate is more water-
soluble than ammonia.
 Nitrification also plays an important role in the removal of nitrogen from municipal
wastewater.
 The conventional removal is nitrification, followed by denitrification.
[email protected]
17
Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

3. Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid to Ammonia

 Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid (organic
nitrogen).
 These waste products, as well as dead remains of organisms, are converted back into inorganic
ammonia and ammonium ions by the bacteria. This process is called ammonification.

[email protected]
18
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 Some of this ammonia volatilizes and re-enters the atmosphere, but most of it is converted
into nitrate by soil bacteria.

4. Denitrification – Nitrate to Nitrogen

 Nitrate present in the soil is reduced to nitrogen by the process of denitrification.
 In the soil as well as oceans there are special denitrifying bacteria
(Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus), which convert the nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen.
 This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle.

Step 1: N2 Fixing ==> Nitrogen → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions

Step 2: Nitrification ==> Ammonia or Ammonium Ions → Nitrite → Nitrate

Step 3: Ammonification ==> Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → Ammonia or
Ammonium Ions
 Most of the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere. Rest is Nitrified (Step 2) to nitrates.
 Some of the nitrates is available for plants. Rest is Denitrified (Step 4).
Step 4: Denitrification ==> Nitrate → Nitrogen
 The amount of nitrogen fixed by man through the industrial process has far exceeded the
amount fixed by the Natural Cycle.
 As a result, nitrogen fixed by man has become a pollutant which can disrupt the balance of
nitrogen. It may lead to Acid rain, Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Blooms.

c) Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary cycle)

 Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality.

[email protected]
19
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 Unlike carbon and nitrogen, which come primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in large
amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and enters the cycle from erosion and mining activities.

 This is the nutrient considered to be the main cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-floating
microscopic plants (phytoplankton) in lakes (leads to eutrophication).

 The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust.

 On land, phosphorus is usually found in the form of phosphates.

 By the process of weathering and erosion, phosphates enter rivers, streams and finally oceans.

 In the ocean, phosphorus accumulates on continental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits.

 After millions of years, the crustal plates rise from the seafloor and expose the phosphates on land.

 After more time, weathering will release them from rock, and the cycle‘s geochemical phase begins
again.

d) Sulphur Cycle (Sedimentary cycle)

[email protected]
20
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

 The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and
inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic
sulphur.

 It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is carried
to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.

 The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which add a gaseous component.

 Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels
(coal, diesel etc.), from the surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.

 Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide.

 Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the earth after being dissolved in rainwater as
weak sulphuric acid (acid rain).

 Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and incorporated through a
series of metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes through the grazing food chain.

 Sulphur bound in a living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and
seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
[email protected]
21
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

III. Ecological Succession or Ecosystem development

 Definition: The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced
or changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession.
 Succession is a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological time scale.
 Succession occurs due to large scale changes or destruction (natural or manmade).
 The process involves a progressive series of changes with one community replacing another until
a stable, mature, climax community develops.
 The first plant to colonize an area is called the pioneer community.
 The final stage of succession is called the climax community.
 A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long-lasting.
 The stage leading to the climax community is called successional stages or seres.
 Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage in
succession or a seral community.
 Succession is characterized by the following: increased productivity, the shift of nutrients from the
reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.
 Succession would occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent. This is because
here seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much faster.

Types of Succesion:

1.Primary Succession

 Primary succession takes place an over where no community has existed previously.
[email protected]
22
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 Such areas include rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands
and lava flows, glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a retreating glacier), etc.
 In primary succession on a terrestrial site, the new site is first colonised by a few hardy pioneer
species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses.
 The pioneers over a few generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth and development.

2.Secondary Succession

 Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after the complete or
partial destruction of the existing community.
 A mature or intermediate community may be destroyed by natural events such as floods, droughts,
fires, or storms or by human interventions such as deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, etc.
 This abandoned land is first invaded by hardy species of grasses that can survive in bare, sun-baked
soil.
 These grasses may be soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous plants. These dominate the
ecosystem for some years along with mice, rabbits, insects and seed-eating birds.
 Eventually, some trees come up in this area, seeds of which may be brought by wind or animals.
 And over the years, a forest community develops. Thus, an abandoned land over a period becomes
dominated by trees and is transformed into a forest.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Succession

Unlike in the primary succession, the secondary succession starts on a well-developed soil already
formed at the site. Thus, secondary succession is relatively faster.

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

 When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself, the process is
called autogenic succession,
 while change brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession.
 Autogenic succession is driven by the biotic components of an ecosystem.

[email protected]
23
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
 Allogenic succession is driven by the abiotic components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem.

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession

 Succession in which, initially the green plants are much greater in quantity is known as autotrophic
succession; and
 the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is known as heterotrophic succession.

Ecological succession starting on a different types of areas or substrata are named as follows:

a) Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Succession starting on watery area like pond, swamp, bog.
b) Mesarch: Starting in an area with adequate moisture
c) Xerarch or Xerosere: starting in adry area with little moisture. They can be a following types
 Lithosere: starting on abare rock
 Psammosere: starting on asand
 Halosere: starting on asaline soil
Process Of Succession:

[email protected]
24
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)

Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of miles.
There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

1.Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
i. Forest Ecosystems
ii. Grassland Ecosystems
iii. Tundra Ecosystems
iv. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination
with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are
the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem

In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands,
savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra
type.

Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot
and the nights are cold.

2.Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two types,
namely:
i. Freshwater Ecosystem
ii. Marine Ecosystem

[email protected]
25
 Environmental Science notes (Yogesh R. Kadam M.Sc. Environmental Science, SPPU, Pune.)
Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

 Lentic ecosystem: still water ecosystem

Ex. Pond, Dam, Lake etc.

 Lotic ecosystem: flowing water ecosystems

Ex.River, Stream, Waterfall etc

[email protected]
26