Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world.

Historically, the term

refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with Greek philosophy of the pre-
Socratics such as Thales (c. 624 – c. 546 BC) and Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), and eventually
covering a large area of the globe.[1][2] The word philosophy itself originated from the Ancient
Greek philosophía (φιλοσοφία), literally, "the love of wisdom" (φιλεῖν phileîn, "to love" and σοφία sophía,
"wisdom").
The scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of (at least some of) the
ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. This included the problems of philosophy as they
are understood today; but it also included many other disciplines, such as pure mathematics and natural
sciences such as physics, astronomy, and biology (Aristotle, for example, wrote on all of these topics).

Ancient
Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy
Pre-Socratic period[edit]
Main article: Pre-Socratic philosophy
In the pre-Socratic period, ancient philosophers first articulated questions about the "archḗ" (the cause or
first principle) of the universe. Western philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western
Asia Minor, or Ionia, with Thales of Miletus, who was active c. 585 BC and was responsible for the opaque
dictum, "all is water." His most noted students were respectively Anaximander ("all is apeiron", meaning
roughly, "the unlimited") and Anaximenes of Miletus ("all is air").
Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, later lived in Croton in southern Italy (Magna
Graecia). Pythagoreans hold that "all is number," giving formal accounts in contrast to the
previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or
reincarnation.

Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BC

Classical period[edit]
Socrates[edit]

Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor

A key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed
Greek philosophy into a branch of philosophy that is still pursued today. It is said that following a visit to
the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in
order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. [3] Socrates used
a critical approach called the "elenchus" or Socratic method to examine people's views. He aimed to study
human things: the good life, justice, beauty, and virtue. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of
his many disciples wrote down his conversations. He was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the
Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death. Although his friends offered to help him
escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisted of
drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 BC.
Plato[edit]
Plato was a student of Socrates. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues,
which applied the Socratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of
Plato's dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and
the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute true reality and contrast with the
changeable material things he called "becoming".
Aristotle[edit]

Statue of Aristotle in Aristotle's Park, Stagira

Aristotle was a pupil of Plato. Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He
wrote about physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics
and logic. Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism.
Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great, who in turn conquered much of the ancient world at a rapid
pace. Hellenization and Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all subsequent
Western and Middle Eastern philosophers, including Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Western
medieval, Jewish, and Islamic thinkers.
Hellenistic period[edit]
Main article: Hellenistic philosophy
Following Socrates a variety of schools of thought emerged. In addition to Plato's Academy and
Aristotle's Peripatetic school, other schools of thought derived from Socratic philosophy included
the Academic Skeptics, the Cynics, the Cyrenaics, the Stoics, and the Neoplatonists. In addition, two non-
Socratic schools derived from the teachings of Socrates'
contemporary Democritus flourished, Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism.
Roman period[edit]
Main article: Roman philosophy
Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the traditions of Greek philosophy. Thorough study of Greek
philosophy was first introduced by Cicero. In Imperial times Epicureanism and Stoicism were particularly
popular, especially the latter, as represented by the works of Seneca the Younger and Marcus Aurelius.[4]

Medieval
St. Anselm of Canterbury is Credited as the founder of Scholasticism.

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages,
roughly extending from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance.[5] Medieval
philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and Hellenistic
philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then widespread
sacred doctrines of Abrahamic religion (Islam, Judaism, and Christianity) with secular learning. Early
medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, Neoplatonism, but, above all, the philosophy
of Plato himself.
Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and
unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of
individuation. The prominent figure of this period was Augustine of Hippo (one of the most
important Church Fathers in Western Christianity) who adopted Plato's thought and Christianized it in the
4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was
checked with the arrival of Aristotle's texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most
philosophers (including Anselm of Canterbury, the father of scholasticism) up until the 13th century.
The Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th and 9th century was fed by Church missionaries travelling from
Ireland, most notably John Scotus Eriugena, a Neoplatonic philosopher.

St. Thomas Aquinas, painting by Carlo Crivelli, 1476

The modern university system has roots in the European medieval university, which was created
in Italy and evolved from Catholic Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages.[6]
Thomas Aquinas, an academic philosopher and the father of Thomism, was immensely influential in
Catholic Europe; he placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to
use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing.
Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers Augustine of
Hippo, Boethius, Anselm, Gilbert de la Porrée, Peter Abelard, Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, Thomas
Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Jean Buridan; the Jewish
philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides; and
the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer, Ibn
Khaldūn, and Averroes. The medieval tradition of scholasticism continued to flourish as late as the 17th
century, in figures such as Francisco Suárez and John of St. Thomas.
Erasmus is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists

Renaissance[edit]
Main articles: Renaissance philosophy and 16th-century philosophy

Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome

The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought, [7] in
which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in
logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism. [8][9] The
study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly
interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as humanism.[10][11] Displacing the
medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed Petrarch in making man and his
virtues the focus of philosophy.[12][13]
At the point of passage from Renaissance into early/classical modern philosophy, the dialogue was used
as a primary style of writing by Renaissance philosophers, such as Giordano Bruno.[14]
How much of Renaissance intellectual history is part of modern philosophy is disputed. [15]

Modern[edit]
Main article: Modern philosophy
The term "modern philosophy" has multiple usages. For example, Thomas Hobbes is sometimes
considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political
philosophy.[16][17] By contrast, René Descartes is often considered the first modern philosopher because he
grounded his philosophy in problems of knowledge, rather than problems of metaphysics.[18]
Portrait of René Descartes, after Frans Hals, second half of 17th century

Portrait of John Locke, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1697

Modern philosophy and especially Enlightenment philosophy[19] is distinguished by its increasing

independence from traditional authorities such as the Church, academia, and Aristotelianism; [20][21] a new
focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building;[22][23] and the emergence of
modern physics out of natural philosophy.[24]
Early modern (17th and 18th centuries)[edit]
Main articles: 17th-century philosophy, Age of Enlightenment, and Early modern philosophy

Portrait of David Hume, by Allan Ramsay, 1754

Some central topics of Western philosophy in its early modern (also classical modern)[25][26] period include
the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural sciences for
traditional theological topics such as free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral
and political philosophy.[27] These trends first distinctively coalesce in Francis Bacon's call for a new,
empirical program for expanding knowledge, and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical
physics and rationalist metaphysics of René Descartes.[28]
Other notable modern philosophers include Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John
Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant.[26][29][30][31] Many other contributors were
philosophers, scientists, medical doctors, and politicians. A short list includes Galileo Galilei, Pierre
Gassendi, Blaise Pascal, Nicolas Malebranche, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Christiaan Huygens, Isaac
Newton, Christian Wolff, Montesquieu, Pierre Bayle, Thomas Reid, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Adam
Smith, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with Immanuel Kant's systematic
attempt to limit metaphysics, justify scientific knowledge, and reconcile both of these with morality and
freedom.[32][33][34]
Late modern (19th-century)[edit]
Main article: 19th-century philosophy

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, steel engraving, after 1828

Late modern philosophy is usually considered to begin around the pivotal year of 1781, when Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing died and Kant's Critique of Pure Reason appeared.[35]

Friedrich Nietzsche, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, c. 1875

German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the
German university system.[36] German idealists, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph
Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and the members of Jena Romanticism (Friedrich
Hölderlin, Novalis, and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel), transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that
the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.[37][38] Arthur
Schopenhauer's identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational will to live influenced later
19th- and early 20th-century thinking, such as the work of Friedrich Nietzsche.
The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian
metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and
organic development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)
and Science of Logic (1813–16) produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge.
As with the 18th century, developments in science arose from philosophy and also challenged philosophy:
most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation
found in philosophers such as Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.
After Hegel's death in 1831, 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of
philosophical naturalism, such as the positivism of Auguste Comte, the empiricism of John Stuart Mill, and
the historical materialism of Karl Marx. Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the
inception of the discipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to
formalization in the work of George Boole and Gottlob Frege.[39] Other philosophers who initiated lines of
thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include:

 Gottlob Frege and Henry Sidgwick, whose work in logic and ethics, respectively, provided the tools for
early analytic philosophy.
 Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, who founded pragmatism.
 Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, who laid the groundwork for existentialism and post-
structuralism.
Contemporary (20th and 21st centuries)
The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy are analytic philosophy, continental
philosophy and pragmatism.[40] They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive.
The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse
over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific
and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve,
and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Bertrand Russell, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre. The publication of
Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1) and Russell's The Principles of Mathematics (1903) is
considered to mark the beginning of 20th-century philosophy.[41] The 20th century also saw the
increasing professionalization of the discipline and the beginning of the current (contemporary) era of
philosophy.[42]
Since the Second World War, contemporary philosophy has been divided mostly
into analytic and continental traditions; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on
the continent of Europe. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy
remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction's usefulness.
Analytic philosophy[edit]
Main article: Analytic philosophy
In the English-speaking world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school for much of the 20th
century. The term "analytic philosophy" roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress
detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of
meaning above all other criteria. Though the movement has broadened, it was a cohesive school in the
first half of the century. Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by logical positivism, united by the
notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language.
Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning
with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the
legitimacy of analysis. Russell's classic works The Principles of Mathematics,[43] "On Denoting"
and Principia Mathematica (with Alfred North Whitehead), aside from greatly promoting the use of
mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of
the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence'
is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, and discussions on the
foundations of mathematics. These works also explored issues of ontological commitment and
metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell
often tackled with the aid of mathematical logic.

Gottlob Frege, c. 1905

Gottlob Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) was the first analytic work, according to Michael
Dummett (Origins of Analytical Philosophy, 1993). Frege took "the linguistic turn," analyzing philosophical
problems through language. Some analytic philosophers held that philosophical problems arise through
misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of human language.
In 1921, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. Years later, he
reversed a number of the positions he set out in the Tractatus, in for example his second major
work, Philosophical Investigations (1953). Investigations was influential in the development of "ordinary
language philosophy," which was promoted by Gilbert Ryle, J.L. Austin, and a few others.
In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine was having a major
influence, with the paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction
between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable.
Notable students of Quine include Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett. The later work of Russell and the
philosophy of Willard Van Orman Quine are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in
the second half of the 20th century. But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies
easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new
metaphysics" of possible worlds, as in the influential work of David Lewis. Recently, the experimental
philosophy movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research
techniques.

Patricia Churchland, 2005

Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, David Lewis, John
Searle, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Michael Dummett, John McDowell, Saul Kripke, Peter van
Inwagen, and Patricia Churchland.
Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional
questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of A Theory of Justice by John
Rawls and Anarchy, State, and Utopia by Robert Nozick, analytic political philosophy acquired
respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics,
with Roger Scruton, Nelson Goodman, Arthur Danto and others developing the subject to its current
shape.
Continental philosophy[edit]
Main article: Continental philosophy
Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe.
20th-century movements such as German idealism, phenomenology, existentialism,
modern hermeneutics, critical theory, structuralism, post-structuralism and others are included within this
loose category. While identifying any non-trivial common factor in all these schools of thought is bound to
be controversial, Michael E. Rosen has hypothesized a few common continental themes: that the natural
sciences cannot replace the human sciences; that the thinker is affected by the conditions of experience
(one's place and time in history); that philosophy is both theoretical and practical; that metaphilosophy or
reflection upon the methods and nature of philosophy itself is an important part of philosophy proper. [44]
The founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a
first-person perspective, while Martin Heidegger drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and
Husserl to propose an unconventional existential approach to ontology.
Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism—Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul
Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus—and finally post-structuralism—Gilles Deleuze, Jean-
François Lyotard (best known for his articulation of postmodernism), Michel Foucault, Jacques
Derrida (best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction).
The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has
also been influential in contemporary continental thought. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted
to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair
MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism.
Søren Kierkegaard, sketch by Niels Christian Kierkegaard, c. 1840

Existentialism[edit]
Main article: Existentialism
Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who,
despite profound doctrinal differences,[45][46] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the
human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. [47] In
existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential
attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd
world.[48] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both
style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[49][50]
Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich
Nietzsche are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended
beyond existentialist thought.[51][52][53]
German idealism[edit]
Main article: German idealism

Portrait of Immanuel Kant, c. 1790

Transcendental idealism, advocated by Immanuel Kant, is the view that there are limits on what can be
understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant
wrote his Critique of Pure Reason (1781–1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of
rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Although Kant
held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a conceptual or categorical
framework on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he
maintained that things-in-themselves existed independently of human perceptions and judgments; he was
therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Kant's account of things-in-themselves is both controversial
and highly complex. Continuing his work, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling dispensed with
belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy.
The most notable work of this German idealism was G.W.F. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, of 1807.
Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His
goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the
contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed
contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these
contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are
resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as
the "Hegelian dialectic".
Philosophers influenced by Hegel include Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach, who coined the term projection as
pertaining to humans' inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of
ourselves upon those things; Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels; and the British idealists, notably T. H. Green, J.
M. E. McTaggart and F. H. Bradley. Few 20th-century philosophers have embraced idealism. However,
quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an
important philosophical concept today.
Marxism[edit]
Main article: Marxism
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It
analyzes class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development
and a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxist analyses and methodologies influenced political
ideologies and social movements. Marxist understandings of history and society were adopted by
academics in archaeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art
history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical
psychology and philosophy.

Edmund Husserl, in the 1910s

Phenomenology[edit]
Main article: Phenomenology (philosophy)
Edmund Husserl's phenomenology was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the
structure of conscious experience in general.[54] An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project
was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl
called intentionality.[55] Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology
mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete
analyses. Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of
phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame
through the work of such philosophers as Martin Heidegger (formerly Husserl's research
assistant), Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Through the work of Heidegger and Sartre,
Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of existentialism.
Structuralism and post-structuralism[edit]
Main articles: Structuralism and Post-structuralism

Ferdinand de Saussure
Inaugurated by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs
through analyzing the discourses they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as
being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to
linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and
toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true
inner self, but language speaks man.
Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by post-
structuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came
to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for
example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and
thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines. While the distinction between the signifier and
signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp
the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an
ultimate interpretation impossible.
Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early 1970s,
encompassing thinkers as diverse as Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes and Jacques Lacan. Post-
structuralism came to predominate from the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as Michel
Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze and even Roland Barthes; it incorporated a critique of
structuralism's limitations.
Pragmatism[edit]
Main article: Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870. [56] It asserts that the
truth of beliefs consists in their usefulness and efficacy rather than their correspondence with
reality.[57] Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were its co-founders and it was later modified
by John Dewey as instrumentalism. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on
circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualized final truth as something established only by the future,
final settlement of all opinion.[58]

William James, in 1906

Pragmatism attempted to find a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight
(revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. It interpreted the meaning of a statement by the
effect its acceptance would have on practice. Inquiry taken far enough is thus the only path to truth. [59]
For Peirce commitment to inquiry was essential to truth-finding, implied by the idea and hope that inquiry
is not fruitless. The interpretation of these principles has been subject to discussion ever since.
Peirce's maxim of pragmatism is, "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical
bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the
whole of our conception of the object."[60]
Critics accused pragmatism falling victim to a simple fallacy: that because something that is true proves
useful, that usefulness is an appropriate basis for its truthfulness. [61] Pragmatist thinkers include
Dewey, George Santayana, and C. I. Lewis.
Pragmatism was later worked on by neopragmatists Richard Rorty (who was the first to develop
neopragmatist philosophy in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979)),[62] Hilary Putnam, W. V. O.
Quine, and Donald Davidson. Neopragmatism has been described as a bridge between analytic and
continental philosophy.[63]
Process philosophy[edit]
Main article: Process philosophy
Process philosophy is a tradition beginning with Alfred North Whitehead, who began teaching and writing
on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard University in 1924.[64] This tradition identifies
metaphysical reality with change.
Process philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy,
because it is usually only taught in continental departments. [65] However, other sources state that process
philosophy should be placed somewhere in the middle between the poles of analytic versus continental
methods in contemporary philosophy.[66][67]
Thomism[edit]
Main article: Thomism

Elizabeth Anscombe as a young woman

Largely Aristotelian in its approach and content, Thomism is a philosophical tradition that follows the
writings of Thomas Aquinas. His work has been read, studied and disputed since the 13th century,
especially by Roman Catholics. Aquinas enjoyed a revived mainstream interest beginning in
contemporary philosophy, among both atheists (Philippa Foot) and theists (Elizabeth
Anscombe).[68] Thomist philosophers tend to be rationalists in epistemology, as well as
metaphysical realists and virtue ethicists. They claim that humans are rational animals whose good can
be known by reason that can be achieved by the will. Thomists argue that soul or psyche is real and
immaterial but inseparable from matter in organisms. Soul is the form of the body. Thomists accept
Aristotle's causes as natural, including teleological or final causes. In this way, although Aquinas argued
that whatever is in the intellect begins in the senses, natural teleology can be discerned with the senses
and abstracted from nature through induction.[69]
Contemporary Thomism encompasses multiple variants, from neo-scholasticism to existential Thomism.[70]
The so-called new Natural lawyers like Germain Grisez and Robert P. George applied Thomistic legal
principles to contemporary ethical debates, while Freeman proposed that Thomism's cognition was most
compatible with neurodynamics. Analytical Thomism (John Joseph Haldane) encourages dialogue
between analytic philosophy and broadly Aristotelian philosophy of mind, psychology
and hylomorphic metaphysics.[71] Other contemporary Thomists include Stump, MacIntyre and Finnis.

Western philosophical subdisciplines[edit]

Western philosophers have often been divided into some major branches, or schools, based either on the
questions typically addressed by people working in different parts of the field, or notions of ideological
undercurrents. In the ancient world, the most influential division of the subject was the Stoics' division of
philosophy into logic, ethics, and physics (conceived as the study of the nature of the world, and including
both natural science and metaphysics). In contemporary philosophy, specialties within the field are more
commonly divided into metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and aesthetics (the latter two of which together
comprise axiology, or value theory). Logic is sometimes included as a main branch of philosophy,
sometimes as a separate science philosophers happen to work on, and sometimes just as a
characteristically philosophical method applying to all branches of philosophy.
Within these broad branches there are now numerous sub-disciplines of philosophy. At the broadest level
there is the division between analytic (the English-speaking world and Nordic countries) and continental
philosophy (in the rest of Europe). For continental philosophy subdividing philosophy between "experts" is
problematic for the very nature of the interdisciplinary task of philosophy itself; however, for most of
analytic philosophy further divisions simplify the task for philosophers in each area.
The interest in particular sub-disciplines waxes and wanes over time; sometimes sub-disciplines become
particularly hot topics and can occupy so much space in the literature that they almost seem like major
branches in their own right. (Over the past 40 years or so philosophy of mind—which is, generally
speaking, mainly a sub-discipline of metaphysics—has taken on this position within analytic philosophy,
and has attracted so much attention that some suggest philosophy of mind as the paradigm for what
contemporary analytic philosophers do).

Philosophy contrasted with other disciplines[edit]

Natural science[edit]
Originally the term "philosophy" was applied to all intellectual endeavors. Aristotle studied what would now
be called biology, meteorology, physics, and cosmology, alongside his metaphysics and ethics. Even in
the eighteenth century physics and chemistry were still classified as "natural philosophy", that is, the
philosophical study of nature. Today these latter subjects are popularly referred to as sciences, and as
separate from philosophy. But the distinction is not clear; some philosophers still contend that science
retains an unbroken — and unbreakable — link to philosophy.
More recently, psychology, economics, sociology, and linguistics were once the domain of philosophers
insofar as they were studied at all, but now have only a weaker connection with the field. In the late
twentieth century cognitive science and artificial intelligence could be seen as being forged in part out of
"philosophy of mind."
Philosophy is done primarily through self-reflection and critical thinking. It does not tend to rely
on experiment. However, in some ways philosophy is close to science in its character and method;
some analytic philosophers have suggested that the method of philosophical analysis allows philosophers
to emulate the methods of natural science; Quine holds that philosophy does no more than clarify the
arguments and claims of other sciences. This suggests that philosophy might be the study of meaning
and reasoning generally; but some still would claim either that this is not a science, or that if it is it ought
not to be pursued by philosophers.
All these views have something in common: whatever philosophy essentially is or is concerned with, it
tends on the whole to proceed more "abstractly" than most (or most other) natural sciences. It does not
depend as much on experience and experiment, and does not contribute as directly to technology. It
clearly would be a mistake to identify philosophy with any one natural science; whether it can be identified
with science very broadly construed is still an open question.
This is an active discipline pursued by both trained philosophers and scientists. Philosophers often refer
to, and interpret, experimental work of various kinds (as in philosophy of physics and philosophy of
psychology), but such branches of philosophy aim at philosophical understanding of experimental work.
Philosophers do not perform experiments and formulate scientific theories qua philosophers.
Theology and religious studies[edit]
Like philosophy, most religious studies are not experimental. Parts of theology, including questions about
the existence and nature of gods, clearly overlap with philosophy of religion. Aristotle
considered theology a branch of metaphysics, the central field of philosophy, and most philosophers
before the twentieth century have devoted significant effort to theological questions. So the two are not
unrelated. But other parts of religious studies, such as the comparison of different world religions, can be
easily distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished
from philosophy. These are closer to history and sociology, and involve specific observations of particular
phenomena, here particular religious practices.
The empiricist tradition in modern philosophy often held that religious questions are beyond the scope of
human knowledge, and many have claimed that religious language is literally meaningless: there are not
even questions to be answered. Some philosophers have felt that these difficulties in evidence were
irrelevant, and have argued for, against, or just about religious beliefs on moral or other grounds.
Mathematics[edit]
The philosophy of mathematics is a branch of philosophy of science; but in many ways mathematics has a
special relationship to philosophy. This is because the study of logic is a central branch of philosophy, and
mathematics is a paradigmatic example of logic. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, logic made
great advances, and mathematics has been proven to be reducible to logic (at least, to first-order logic
with some set theory). The use of formal, mathematical logic in philosophy now resembles the use of
mathematics in science, although it is not as frequent.
Eastern philosophy
Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South
Asia including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy which are dominant in East Asia
and Vietnam,[1] and Indian philosophy (including Buddhist philosophy) which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast
Asia, Tibet and Mongolia.[2][3]

An ancient image of Valluvar

Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical traditions (Sanskrit: dárśana; 'world views', 'teachings')[4] of
the Indian subcontinent. Jainism may have roots dating back to the times of the Indus Valley Civilization.[5][6][7] The
major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.[8] These
Hindu schools developed what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" merging orthodox Brahmanical and
unorthodox elements from Buddhism and Jainism.[9] Hindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian Srivijaya
empire and the Cambodian Khmer Empire. These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the
label Hinduism. Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life,[note 1] in South Asia. It
includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism[12] among numerous other traditions, and a wide spectrum of laws
and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is a categorization of
distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs.[13] Hinduism, with about
one billion followers[14] is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam. Hinduism has been called the
"oldest religion" in the world and is traditionally called Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal
way";[15][16][17] beyond human origins.[17] Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 2] or synthesis[18][note 3][18] of
various Indian cultures and traditions,[19][20][21] with diverse roots[22][note 4] and no single founder.[27]
Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE).
Important Indian philosophical concepts include dharma, karma, samsara, moksha and ahimsa. Indian philosophers
developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such
as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge
(epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.[28][29][30] Indian philosophy also covered topics
such as political philosophy as seen in the Arthashastra c. 4th century BCE and the philosophy of love as seen in
the Kama Sutra. The Kural literature of c. 1st century BCE, written by the Tamil poet-philosopher Valluvar, is
believed by many scholars to be based on Jain philosophies.[31][32]
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly
disappeared from India after the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and
south India.[33] The early modern period saw the flourishing of Navya-Nyāya (the 'new reason') under philosophers
such as Raghunatha Siromani (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva
Punatamakara and Yashovijaya (who formulated a Jain response).[34]
Orthodox schools[edit]
The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika or nāstika –
depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas are a valid source of knowledge; whether
the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife
and Devas.[35][36]
There are six major schools of orthodox Indian Hindu philosophy—
Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and five major heterodox schools—
Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Cārvāka. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyaranya for
instance identifies sixteen schools of Hindu Indian philosophy by including those that belong to
the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.[37][38]
Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana-sastras.[39][40]
In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of
Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages,
when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to
rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya
Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into
Yoga and Vedanta.
Sāmkhya and Yoga[edit]

King Amsuman and the yogic sage Kapila. The Samkhya school traditionally traces itself back to sage Kapila.

Sāmkhya is a dualist philosophical tradition based on the Samkhyakarika (c. 320–540 CE),[41] while the Yoga
school was a closely related tradition emphasizing meditation and liberation whose major text is the Yoga sutras (c.
400 CE).[42] Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can however be traced back all the way to the period of the
early Upanishads.[43] One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for
the existence of a God, while most Sāmkhya thinkers criticized this idea.[44]
Sāmkhya epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining
knowledge; pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (word/testimony of reliable sources).[45] The
school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution of consciousness and matter. Sāmkhya sources
argue that the universe consists of two realities, puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter).
As shown by the Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. 14th century CE), Sāmkhya continued to develop throughout the
medieval period.
Nyāya[edit]
The Nyāya school of epistemology, explores sources of knowledge (Pramāṇa) and is based on the Nyāya
Sūtras (circa 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE).[46] Nyāya holds that human suffering arises out of ignorance
and liberation arises through correct knowledge. Therefore, they sought to investigate the sources of correct
knowledge or epistemology.
Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge –
Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of
past or present reliable experts).[45] Nyāya also traditionally defended a form of philosophical realism.[47]
The Nyāya Sūtras was a very influential text in Indian philosophy, laying the foundations for classical Indian
epistemological debates between the different philosophical schools. It includes, for example, the classic Hindu
rejoinders against Buddhist not-self (anatta) arguments.[48] The work also famously argues against a creator God
(Ishvara),[49] a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period.
Vaiśeṣika[edit]
Vaiśeṣika is a naturalist school of atomism, which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception and
inference.[50] This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible
(anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu). Whatever we experience is a
composite of these atoms.[51]
Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they called padārthas (literally: 'the meaning of a word')
which included six
categories; dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity)
and samavāya (inherence). Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more
category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceived) and they
have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual
discrimination) and they are logical categories.[52]
Mīmāṃsā[edit]
Mīmāṃsā is a school of ritual orthopraxy and is known for its hermeneutical study and interpretation of
the Vedas.[53] For this tradition, the study of dharma as rituals and social duties was paramount. They also held that
the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions and mantras in rituals are
prescriptive actions of primary importance.[53] Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā
also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.[54] They
primarily held that the purpose of language was to clearly prescribe proper actions, rituals and correct dharma (duty
or virtue).[55] Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and
that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.[56]
A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the Mīmāṃsā Sūtra of Jaimini and major Mīmāṃsā scholars
include Prabhākara (c. 7th century) and Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (fl. roughly 700). The Mīmāṃsā school strongly
influenced Vedānta which was also known as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā, however while Mīmāṃsā emphasized karmakāṇḍa,
or the study of ritual actions, using the four early Vedas, the Vedānta schools emphasized jñanakāṇḍa, the study of
knowledge, using the later parts of Vedas like the Upaniṣads.[53]
Vedānta[edit]

Adi Shankara (8th century CE) the main exponent of Advaita Vedānta

Vedānta (meaning "end of the Vedas") or Uttara-Mīmāṃsā, are a group of traditions which focus on the
philosophical issues found in the Prasthanatrayi (the three sources), which are the Principal Upanishads,
the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.[57] Vedānta sees the Vedas, particularly the Upanishads, as a reliable
source of knowledge.
The central concern for these schools is the nature of and relationship between Brahman (ultimate reality, universal
consciousness), Ātman (individual soul) and Prakriti (empirical world).
The sub-traditions of Vedānta include Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-
dualism), Dvaita (dualism) and Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference).[58] Due the popularity of the bhakti
movement, Vedānta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period.
Other[edit]
While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools which are
sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:[37]

 Paśupata, an ascetic school of Shaivism founded by Lakulisha (~2nd century CE).

 Śaiva Siddhānta, a school of dualistic Shaivism which was strongly influenced by Samkhya.
 Pratyabhijña (recognition) school of Utpaladeva (10th century) and Abhinavagupta (975–1025 CE), a form of
non-dual Shaiva tantra.
 Raseśvara, the mercurial school
 Pāṇini Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)
Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools[edit]
Main article: Śramaṇa
The nāstika or heterodox schools are associated with the non-vedic Śramaṇic traditions that existed in India since
before the 6th century BCE.[59] The Śramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of non-vedic ideas, ranging from
accepting or denying the concepts of atman, atomism, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will,
extreme asceticism, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism.[60] Notable philosophies that arose
from Śramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Cārvāka, Ajñana and Ājīvika.[61]
Jain philosophy[edit]
Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems
of metaphysics, reality, cosmology, ontology, epistemology and divinity. Jainism is essentially a transtheistic religion
of ancient India.[62]:182 It continues the ancient Śramaṇa tradition, which co-existed with the Vedic tradition since
ancient times.[63][64] The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy includes a mind-body dualism, denial of
a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple
facets of truth, and a morality based on liberation of the soul. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of
being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to
achieve liberation.[65] It has often been described as an ascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-control,
austerities and renunciation.[66] It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth
is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival
philosophies.[67] Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's
decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.[68]
The contribution of the Jains in the development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical
concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksa, Samsara and the like are common with other Indian
religions like Hinduism and Buddhism in various forms.[69] While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings
of Mahavira and other Tirthankaras, various Jain philosophers from Kundakunda and Umasvati in ancient times
to Yasovijaya and Shrimad Rajchandra in recent times have contributed to Indian philosophical discourse in
uniquely Jain ways.
Cārvāka[edit]
Cārvāka or Lokāyata was an atheistic philosophy of scepticism and materialism, who rejected the Vedas and all
associated supernatural doctrines.[70] Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of
philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed the Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction,
and tautology.[71] They declared the Vedas to be incoherent rhapsodies invented by man whose only usefulness was
to provide livelihood to priests.[72]
Likewise they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept of liberation, reincarnation and accumulation
of merit or demerit through karma.[73] They believed that, the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was
the "reasoning of fools".[71] Cārvāka epistemology holds perception as the primary source of knowledge, while
rejecting inference which can be invalid.[74] The primary texts of Cārvāka, like the Barhaspatya sutras (c. 600 BCE)
have been lost.[75]
Ājīvika[edit]
Ājīvika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early
Buddhism and Jainism.[76]
Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable
and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Hindu
Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.[77] The Ājīvika
school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that
everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic
principles.[77][78] Ājīvika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy.[79] Ājīvikas were atheists[80] and rejected the
authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an ātman – a central premise of Hinduism and
Jainism.[81][82]
Ajñana[edit]
Ajñana was a Śramaṇa school of radical Indian skepticism and a rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They held
that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical
propositions;[83] and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They
were seen as sophists who specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. Jayarāśi
Bhaṭṭa (fl. c. 800), author of the skeptical work entitled Tattvopaplavasiṃha ("The Lion that Devours All
Categories"/"The Upsetting of All Principles"), has been seen as an important Ajñana philosopher.[84]
Buddhist philosophies[edit]
Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist ethics

The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to
c. 1200.

Monks debating at Sera monastery, Tibet, 2013

Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is
preserved in the early Buddhist texts. It generally refers to the philosophical investigations that developed among
various Buddhist schools in India and later spread throughout Asia through the silk road. Buddhist thought is trans-
regional and trans-cultural. It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri
Lanka and Burma.
Buddhism's main concern is soteriological, defined as freedom from dukkha (unease).[85] Because ignorance to the
true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering, Buddhist thinkers concerned themselves with
philosophical questions related to epistemology and the use of reason.[86] Key Buddhist concepts include the Four
Noble Truths, Anatta (not-self) a critique of a fixed personal identity, the transience of all things (Anicca), and a
certain skepticism about metaphysical questions. Buddhist thinkers in India and subsequently in East Asia have
covered topics as varied as phenomenology, ethics, ontology, epistemology, logic and philosophy of time.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed
'Abhidharma'. Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories
of Shunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology
or transcendental idealism.[87] The Dignāga (c. 480–540) school of Pramāṇa promoted a complex form
of epistemology and Buddhist logic. This tradition contributed to what has been called an "epistemological turn" in
Indian philosophy.[88] Through the work of Dharmakirti, this tradition of Buddhist logic has become the major
epistemological system used in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy and debate.[89]
After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan
Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions. In Tibet, the Indian tradition continued to be
developed under the work of thinkers like Sakya Pandita, Tsongkhapa and Ju Mipham. In China, new developments
were led by thinkers such as Xuangzang who authored new works on Yogacara, Zhiyi who founded
the Tiantai school and developed a new theory of Madhyamaka and Guifeng Zongmi who wrote
on Huayan and Zen.
Buddhist modernism[edit]
Main articles: Buddhist philosophy § Modern philosophy, and Buddhist modernism

Hu Shih and DT Suzuki during his visit to China in 1934

The modern period saw the rise of Buddhist modernism and Humanistic Buddhism under Western influences and
the development of a Western Buddhism with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy.
Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American
convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen
scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951). Buddhist modernism refers to "forms of
Buddhism that have emerged out of an engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of
modernity."[90] Forces which influenced modernists like Dhammapala, and Yin Shun included Enlightenment values,
and Western Science. A Neo-Buddhist movement was founded by the influential Indian Dalit leader B. R.
Ambedkar in the 1950s who emphasized social and political reform.[91]
Buddhist modernism includes various movements like Humanistic Buddhism, Secular Buddhism, the Vipassana
movement, and Engaged Buddhism. Chinese humanistic Buddhism or "Buddhism for Human Life" (Chinese:
人生佛教; pinyin: rénshēng fójiào) which was to be free of supernatural beliefs has also been an influential form of
modern Buddhism in Asia.[92]
Sikh philosophy[edit]
Main article: Sikh religious philosophy
Sikhism is an Indian religion developed by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) in the Punjab region during the Mughal Era.
Their main sacred text is the Guru Granth Sahib. The fundamental beliefs include constant spiritual meditation
of God's name, being guided by the Guru instead of yielding to capriciousness, living a householder's life instead of
monasticism, truthful action to dharam (righteousness, moral duty), equality of all human beings, and believing in
God's grace.[93][94] Key concepts include Simran, Sewa, the Three Pillars of Sikhism, and the Five Thieves.
Modern Indian philosophy[edit]

From left to right: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, (possibly) G. Bonet Maury. Parliament
of World Religions, 1893

In response to colonialism and their contact with Western philosophy, 19th century Indians developed new ways of
thinking now termed Neo-Vedanta and Hindu modernism. Their ideas focused on the universality of Indian
philosophy (particularly Vedanta) and the unity of different religions. It was during this period that Hindu modernists
presented a single idealized and united "Hinduism." exemplified by the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta.[95] They were
also influenced by Western ideas.[96] The first of these movements was that of the Brahmo Samaj of Ram Mohan
Roy (1772–1833).[97] Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) was very influential in developing the Hindu reform
movements and in bringing the worldview to the West.[98] Through the work of Indians like Vivekananda as well as
westerners such as the proponents of the Theosophical society, modern Hindu thought also had an influence on
western culture.[99]
The political thought of Hindu nationalism is also another important current in modern Indian thought. The work
of Mahatma Gandhi, Deendayal Upadhyaya, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo, Krishna Chandra
Bhattacharya and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan have had a large impact on modern Indian philosophy.[100]
Jainism also had its modern interpreters and defenders, such as Virchand Gandhi, Champat Rai Jain, and Shrimad
Rajchandra (well known as a spiritual guide of Mahatma Gandhi).

East Asian philosophies[edit]

Main articles: Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy

One of the main halls of the Guozijian (Imperial College) in downtown Beijing, the highest institution of higher learning in
pre-modern China

Chinese[edit]
East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the Western
Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century
to 221 BCE).[101][102] This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the
rise of the major Chinese philosophical schools (Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism) as well as numerous less
influential schools (Mohism, School of Names, School of Yin Yang). These philosophical traditions developed
metaphysical, political and ethical theories which, along with Chinese Buddhism, had a direct influence on the rest
of the East Asian cultural sphere. Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE),
through a gradual Silk road transmission and gradually developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen).
Confucianism[edit]
Main article: Confucianism

Confucius

Confucianism (Kǒngjiào — "Confucius' doctrine"), also known as "Ruism" (Rújiào — "doctrine of the scholars"), is a
Chinese philosophical system with ritual, moral, and religious applications.[103] The tradition developed around the
teachings of Confucius (Kǒng Fūzǐ, 孔夫子, "Master Kong", 551–479 BCE) who saw himself as transmitting the
values and theology of the ancestors before him.[104] Other influential classical Confucian philosophers
include Mencius and Xun Kuang who famously disagreed on the innate moral nature of humans.
Confucianism focuses on humanistic values like familial and social harmony, filial piety (孝, xiào), Rén (仁,
"benevolence" or "humaneness") and Lǐ (禮/礼) which is a system of ritual norms that determines how a person
should act to be in harmony with the law of Heaven. Confucianism traditionally holds that these values are based on
the transcendent principle known as Heaven (Tiān 天), and also includes the belief in spirits or gods (shén).[105]
Confucianism was a major ideology of the imperial state during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and was
revived as Neo-Confucianism during the Tang dynasty (618–907). During later Chinese dynasties like Song
Dynasty (960–1297) and the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a
resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Zhu Xi (1130–1200) and Wang Yangming (1472–1529)
became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state. Beginning in the Song
dynasty, confucian classics were the basis of the imperial exams and became the core philosophy of the scholar
official class. Confucianism suffered setbacks during the 20th century, but is recently undergoing a revival, which is
termed New Confucianism.[106]
Traditionally, East Asian cultures and countries in the cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism,
including Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam as well as various overseas
territories settled predominantly by Overseas Chinese, such as Singapore.
Legalism[edit]
Legalism (pinyin: Fǎjiā; school of "methods" or "standards")[107] was a philosophical tradition which focused on laws,
realpolitik and bureaucratic management.[108] Largely ignoring morality or idealized views of how society should be,
they focused on pragmatic government through the power of the autocrat and state. Their goal was achieving
increased order, security and stability.[109] They were initially influenced by Mohist ideas.[110] A key figure of this
school was administrator and political philosopher Shen Buhai (c. 400–337 BCE).[111] Another central figure, Shang
Yang (390–338 BCE), was a leading statesman and reformer who transformed the Qin state into the dominant
power that conquered the rest of China in 221 BCE.[112] Shen's successor Han Fei (c. 280–233 BCE) synthesized the
thought of the other Legalists in his eponymous text, the Han Feizi, one of the most influential Legalist texts which
was used by successive Chinese statesmen and rulers as a guide for statesmanship and bureaucratic organization
of the imperial state.[113][114]
Mohism[edit]
Mohism (Mòjiā; "School of Mo"), was founded by Mozi (c. 470–391 BCE) and his students. It was a major school of
thought and rival of Confucianism and Taoism during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (c. 770–
221 BCE). The main text of the school is the Mozi (book). The administrative thought of Mohism was later absorbed
by Legalism, their ethics absorbed into Confucianism and its books were also merged into the Taoist canon, as
Mohism all but disappeared as independent school after the Qin dynasty era.
Mohism is best known for the idea of "impartial care" (Chinese: 兼愛; pinyin: jiān ài; literally: "inclusive
love/care").[115] According to Master Mo, persons should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their
actual relationship to them. Mo also advocated impartial meritocracy in government which should be based on
talent, not blood relations. Mozi was against Confucian ritualism, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through
farming, fortification, and statecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to
identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that
maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the Will of Heaven, but rather than being
religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism.
Mohism was also associated with and influenced by a separate philosophical school known as the School of
Names (Míngjiā; also known as 'Logicians'), which focused on philosophy of language, definition and logic.
Taoism[edit]

The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, embroidery, 1860–1880

Main article: Taoist philosophy

Taoism (or Daoism) is a term for various philosophies and religious systems which emphasize harmony with
the Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: Dào; literally: "the Way") which is seen as the principle which is the source, pattern and
substance of everything that exists.[116] Taoism tends to emphasize virtues such as wu wei (effortless
action), ziran (naturalness), pu (simplicity), and spontaneity while placing less emphasis on norms and ritual (as
opposed to Confucianism). The attainment of immortality through external alchemy (waidan) and internal alchemy
(neidan) was an important goal for many taoists historically.[117]
Early forms of Taoism developed in the 4th century BCE, influenced by the cosmological theories of the School of
Naturalists and the I Ching. The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang was another philosophical school that synthesized
the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder.[118]
The Dao De Jing (Tao-Te-Ching, c. 4th century BCE), traditionally attributed to Laozi, and the Nan Hua
Jing (Zhuang Zi) are considered the key texts of the tradition.[119] The first organized form of Taoism,
the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school arose in the 2nd century CE. Xuanxue ("deep learning", also "Neo-Taoism")
was a major philosophical movement influenced by Confucian scholarship, which focused on the interpretation of
the Yijing, Daodejing, and Zhuangzi and which flourished during the third to sixth centuries CE.[120] The most
important philosophers of this movement were He Yan, Wang Bi, the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, Ge
Hong and Guo Xiang.[121] Thinkers like He Yan and Wang Bi focused on the deep nature of Tao, which they saw as
being best exemplified by the term "Wu" (nothingness, non-being, negativity).[122]
Other schools rose to prominence throughout Chinese history, such as the Shangqing school during the Tang
dynasty (618–907), the Lingbao school during the Song dynasty (960–1279) and the Quanzhen School which
develop during the 13th–14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty.[123] The later Taoist traditions were also
influenced by Chinese Buddhism.[124]
Modern East Asian philosophy[edit]
Chinese[edit]

Xiong Shili circa 1960

Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism (Jingxue), Neo-Confucianism
(Lixue), Buddhism, Daoism, and Xixue (“Western Learning” which arose during the late Ming Dynasty).[125]
The Opium war of 1839–42 saw the beginning of Western and Japanese invasions and exploitation of China which
was humiliating to Chinese thinkers. The late 19th and early 20th century saw Chinese thinkers such as Zhang
Zhidong looking to Western practical knowledge as a way to preserve traditional Chinese culture, a doctrine that he
defined as “Chinese Learning as Substance and Western Learning as Function” (Zhongti Xiyong).[126]
Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 and the end of the Qing Dynasty, the May Fourth Movement sought to
completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China (such as the old civil service system). There
were two major philosophical trends during this period. One was anti-traditional and promoted Western learning and
ideas. A key figure of this anti-traditional current was Yan Fu (1853–1921) who translated various Western
philosophical works including Smith's The Wealth of Nations and Mill's On Liberty.[127] There were also attempts to
incorporate Western ideas of democracy, and republicanism into Chinese political philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-
Sen (1866–1925) at the beginning of the 20th century. Another influential modern Chinese philosopher was Hu
Shih, who was a student of John Dewey at Columbia University and who promoted a form of pragmatism.
The traditionalists meanwhile sought to revive and fortify traditional Chinese philosophical schools. Chinese
Buddhist thought was promoted by thinkers like Yang Rensan and Ou-Yang Jingwu[128] while another influential
movement is New Confucianism (Chinese: 新儒家; pinyin: xīn rú jiā). New Confucianism is a traditionalist revival of
Confucian thought in China beginning in 20th century Republican China which is also associated with New
Conservatism. Key New Confucians of the first generation are Xiong Shili and Fung Youlan.[129] The second
generation (1950–1979) include individuals like Tang Junyi, Mou Zongsan, and Xu Fuguan, all three students of
Xiong Shili. Together with Zhang Junmai, the second generation published the New Confucian Manifesto in 1958.
The influence of Marxism on modern Chinese political thought is vast, especially through the work of Mao Zedong,
the most famous thinker of Chinese Marxist Philosophy. Maoism is a Chinese Marxist philosophy based on the
teachings of 20th-century Communist Party of China revolutionary leader Mao Zedong. It is based partially on earlier
theories by Marx and Lenin, but rejects the urban proletariat and Leninist emphasis on heavy industrialization in
favor of a revolution supported by the peasantry, and a decentralized agrarian economy based on many collectively
worked farms. The current government of the People's Republic of China continues to espouse a pragmatic form
of socialism as its official party ideology which it calls Socialism with Chinese characteristics. When the Communist
Party of China took over the reign, previous schools of thought such as Taoism and Confucianism (except Legalism)
were denounced as backward, and later purged during the violence of the Cultural Revolution which saw many
Taoist and Buddhist temples and institutions destroyed.
Japanese[edit]
Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker

Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy. Japan's rapid modernization
was partly aided by the early study of western science (known as Rangaku) during the Edo Period (1603–1868).
Another intellectual movement during the Edo period was Kokugaku (national study), which sought to focus on the
study of ancient Japanese thought, classic texts and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist
cultures.[130] A key figure of this movement is Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), who argued that the essence of classic
Japanese literature and culture was a sense called mono no aware ("sorrow at evanescence").[131]
In the Meiji period (1868–1912), the modernist Meirokusha (Meiji 6, formed in 1874) intellectual society
promoted European enlightenment thought. Meirokusha philosophers like Mori Arinori, Nishi Amane, and
Fukuzawa Yukichi sought ways to combine Western ideas with Japanese culture and values. The Shōwa
period (1926–1989) saw the rise of State Shinto and Japanese nationalism.
Japanese Buddhist philosophy was influenced by the work of the Kyoto School which drew from western
philosophers (especially German philosophy) and Buddhist thought and included Kitaro Nishida, Keiji
Nishitani, Hajime Tanabe and Masao Abe. The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the
formation of the Kyoto school is Critical Buddhism, which argues against several Mahayana concepts such
as Buddha nature and original enlightenment.[92]
Korean[edit]
Main article: Juche
Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official political ideology of North Korea, described by the regime
as Kim Il-Sung's "original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought".[132] The idea
states that an individual is "the master of his destiny"[133] and that the North Korean masses are to act as the
"masters of the revolution and construction".[133]

Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy

There have been many modern attempts to integrate Western and Eastern philosophical traditions.
Arthur Schopenhauer developed a philosophy that was essentially a synthesis of Hinduism with Western thought.
He anticipated that the Upanishads (primary Hindu scriptures) would have a much greater influence in the West
than they have had. However, Schopenhauer was working with heavily flawed early translations (and sometimes
second-degree translations), and many feel that he may not necessarily have accurately grasped the Eastern
philosophies which interested him.[134]
Recent attempts to incorporate Western philosophy into Eastern thought include the Kyoto School of philosophers,
who combined the phenomenology of Husserl with the insights of Zen Buddhism. Watsuji Tetsurô, a 20th-
century Japanese philosopher attempted to combine the works of Søren Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger
with Eastern philosophies. Some have claimed that there is also a definite eastern element within Heidegger's
philosophy.[135] For the most part this is not made explicit within Heidegger's philosophy, apart from in the dialogue
between a Japanese and inquirer. Heidegger did spend time attempting to translate the Tao Te Ching into German,
working with his Chinese student Paul Hsaio. It has also been claimed that much of Heidegger's later philosophy,
particularly the sacredness of Being, bears a distinct similarity to Taoist ideas. There are clear parallels between
Heidegger and the work of Kyoto School, and ultimately, it may be read that Heidegger's philosophy is an attempt to
'turn eastwards' in response to the crisis in Western civilization. However, this is only an interpretation.
The 20th century Hindu guru Sri Aurobindo was influenced by German Idealism and his integral yoga is regarded as
a synthesis of Eastern and Western thought. The German phenomenologist Jean Gebser's writings on the history
of consciousness referred to a new planetary consciousness that would bridge this gap. Followers of these two
authors are often grouped together under the term Integral thought.
Swiss psychologist Carl Jung was deeply influenced by the I Ching (Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese text that
dates back to the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty (. 1,700–1,050 BCE). It uses a system of Yin and Yang, which it
places into hexagrams for the purposes of divination. Carl Jung's idea of synchronicity moves towards an Oriental
view of causality, as he states in the foreword to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching.[136] He explains that
this Chinese view of the world is based not on science as the West knows it, but on chance.

Criticism[edit]
Some Western thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures. The German
philosopher Martin Heidegger is even reported to have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for
philosophizing.[137] It is still commonplace in Western universities to teach only Western philosophy and to ignore
Asian philosophy altogether, or consider only newer Western-influenced Asian thought proper "philosophy". Carine
Defoort, herself a specialist in Chinese thought, has offered support for such a "family" view of
philosophy,[138] while Rein Raud has presented an argument[139] against it and offered a more flexible definition of
philosophy that would include both Western and Asian thought on equal terms. In response, Ouyang Min argues
that philosophy proper is a Western cultural practice and essentially different from zhexue, which is what the
Chinese have,[140] even though zhexue (originally tetsugaku) is actually a neologism coined in 1873 by Nishi
Amane for describing Western philosophy as opposed to traditional Asian thought.[141]
According to the British philosopher Victoria S. Harrison, the category of "Eastern philosophy", and similarly "Asian
philosophy" and "Oriental philosophy" is a product of 19th-century Western scholarship and did not exist in East
Asia or India. This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root, but various
autochthonous traditions which have come into contact with each other over time.[142]