BARBA, Danah Meriel P.

BEED 2-A

ETHICS REVIEWER
MORAL FRAMEWORKS: CONSEQUENTIALISM
MORAL THEORIES
 are systematic attempts to establish the validity of upholding moral principles.
 Also termed as frameworks, they are considered as systems of interconnected ideas and
structures through which we can evaluate our reasons for valuing a certain decision or
judgment.
TYPES OF MORAL THEORIES
CONSEQUENTIALIST FRAMEWORK
 focuses on the possible effects of a given action. People who adhere to this framework desire to
promote the most good and consider an act as ethical if it achieves the best consequences. 

Advantage: This framework helps in decision-making especially when many people are involved. 

Disadvantage: We cannot easily predict the outcomes of our actions. Some decisions which we think will
produce good consequences may not be beneficial in the long run. 

Frameworks under this Type: Utilitarianism, Pragmatism, Epicureanism, Power Ethics

DUTY FRAMEWORK
 promotes loyalty to one’s duties and obligations. It aims to perform the right actions no matter the
outcome. 

Advantage: It provides clarity on the things we ought to do and not; geared towards treating everyone
with dignity and respect. 

Disadvantage: It appears rigid and impersonal and may require performance of duties which lead to
harm.  It lacks guidelines on how to prioritize conflicting duties when dilemmas are experienced. 

Frameworks under this Type: Divine Command, Stoicism, Kantian Deontology

VIRTUE FRAMEWORK
 emphasizes character formation and helps in identifying the character traits that motivate a
person to act.
 It is mainly concerned on the kind of person we are becoming and seeks to know how a virtuous
person would act in a given situation.
Advantage: Attempts to understand the influence of one’s emotions, beliefs, and experience on one’s
character; promotes education to develop ethical behaviors.

Disadvantage: Lacks clarity on the rules to apply in a given situation.

Frameworks under this Type: Virtue Ethics, Natural Law

VALUE OF STUDYING THE ETHICAL THEORIES 

 Understanding the ethical theories is valuable in one’s cultivation of capacity for moral choice.
Though not final and complete, these frameworks are a great help in developing our moral
valuation faculty. 
READINGS IN CONSEQUENTIALISM
Epicureanism
Epicurus of Samos (341-270 B.C.) is a Greek Philosopher who was known for his principle that the
end goal in human life is the pursuit of happiness/pleasure. He was known for “The Garden”
where he and his friends and followers practiced communal living.
There are Three As to achieve a good life for Epicureans; ataraxia, aponia, and moderate
asceticism.
Ataraxia
means living a tranquil life. For them, a happy life is free from fear specifically fear of god, and fear
of death. Their world view is that everything is made entirely of atoms and follows the law of
nature. God and souls are made of atoms and there is no life after death.
Aponia
is the absence of bodily pain. Epicureans believe that a happy life is free of pain. They believe that
overindulgence to food, drink, sex and any sensual pleasures may result to physical pain.
Moderate Asceticism is their advocacy for simple life that is free of fear and non-necessary and vain
desires. Instead of aiming for a lot of money, they work on the things that they love to do for a living like
baking, painting, and gardening.
The Three-fold Divisions of Desire
“Do not spoil what you have by desiring what you have not, remember that what you have now
was once among the things you only hoped for.” -Epicurus
The pursuit of happiness is not impossible for Epicureans. The natural and necessary desire for
basic needs can be easily satisfied and the natural world can provide more than what every person need;
food, clothing, shelter and occasional company of a friend. Pain of frustration arises when we aim for
luxury or natural and non-necessary desires; lavish meal, extravagant house, and romantic
relationship.
 The desire for power, fame, and extreme material wealth has no natural limit and are considered as
vain desire which is the hardest to pursue.
Finally, Epicureanism is a way of life that was embraced by followers of Epicurus who found pleasure
in living a meek communal life. Happiness seems to be an elusive term if a man’s passion is fixated on
material wealth, luxurious life, and intense romantic and sexual relationship.
UTILITARIANISM
“Utility is the tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a
community.”
BACKGROUND
Utilitarianism’s leading proponents, Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-
1873), both reacted on the previous prevailing beliefs about what is good—adhering to reason, following
one’s nature, or performing one’s duty.
MORAL CONCEPTS
Utilitarianism is interested with the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. It
maximizes the total amount of pleasure over displeasure for the greatest number and pushes for the
moral irrelevance of motive in evaluating actions.
Utilitarian’s emphasize that what we should try to do in our actions is maximize the utility in the
consequences of those actions in the long run. What matters is the total utility produced by that act and
not its short-term consequences. We must consider the long-range effects of that act.
Two Types of Utilitarianism
 Act Utilitarianism explains that an action is good if its over-all effect towards significant beings
(man and environment) produces more happiness than unhappiness. This theory also considers
the following attributes that contribute to the amount pain and pleasure an individual or group
may experience (Ethics for the Information Age, 2017):
 Intensity: magnitude of the experience
 Duration: how long it lasts
 Certainty: probability of its occurrence
 Propinquity: how near it is in space and time
 Fecundity: its ability to produce similar experiences
 Purity: extent to which pleasure is not weakened by pain or vice versa
 Extent: number of people affected
 Rule Utilitarianism emphasizes the compliance to moral rules which produce which lead to the
maximal increase in total happiness of everyone affected. In contrast with Kantian ethics which
focuses on duty, this theory considers universal following of moral rules to attain happiness.
Two Theories in a Nutshell:
  Act Utilitarianism applies the principle of utility to moral actions of each individual while Rule
Utilitarianism applies the said principle to moral rules.
PRAGMATIC ETHICS
BACKGROUND
Pragmatic ethics was an offshoot of Pragmatism, a philosophy which teaches that the
meaningfulness of an idea lies in its practicality. It originated in the United States in the late 19th century
and has influenced various fields such as law, education, politics, psychology, etc.
MORAL CONCEPTS
For Dewey, education plays an important role in reconstruction of a society. Given that we are
creatures of habit, education is beneficial in developing the most useful habits. Ideas that help us
progress, grow and develop are the ones considered as true and meaningful.
POWER ETHICS
BACKGROUND
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), a philosopher who popularized the quote, “God is dead,”
rejected religion and Christian morality. He espoused the idea of the superman and believed that the
fullest expression of human strength lies in the concept of will to power.
MORAL CONCEPTS
The Will to Power
As a psychological principle, he gave explanation on human behavior in terms of his drive for
domination over self, others, and surroundings. This desire can be expressed by philosophers in his
search for truth, artist in his motivation to create, and entrepreneurs in their quest for riches. Such drive
for power can be applied by a brutal dictator in his violence towards his subjects, or a mere human being,
in his attempt to hurt or take revenge towards his fellow.
Master vs. Slave Morality
Nietzsche contrasted master morality and slave morality in a way that is rooted in one’s will to
power. He explained that one can express the will to power by creating a set of values, imposing them,
and using them as means to judge others. The strong (master) attempt to impose their values on the
world, and the weak (slave) impress theirs by making the strong feel guilty about their pride and assets.

MORAL FRAMEWORKS: DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS

 MORAL FRAMEWORK OF STOICISM
 Stoicism though originated in the ancient period is regaining its popularity these days.
There are tons of practices and reading materials that we can read online or watch on
YouTube which shows the increasing number of followers of this way of life.
KANTIAN DEONTOLOGY
MORAL CONCEPTS
Deontology, originating from the Greek word deon, which means necessary, refers to the study of duty.
Kant, the main proponent of this ideology, asserted that human beings have rational will which is able to
act according to our determined principles. He firmly believed in the role of reason in helping cultivate
the desire to do the right thing.
MORAL FRAMEWORKS: VIRTUE ETHICS
ARISTOTELIAN VIRTUE ETHICS
 Aristotle attempts to identify what are the characteristics of human being that differentiate
it from other species. Every species has it own role in the universe. It is the fulfilling its role
well that defines what is the ultimate good of that thing or animal.
Happiness -- when one does what one is supposed to do, one feels fulfilment. In other words, when one
is supposed to be, one is happy. Happiness / satisfaction is considered to be a good thing. In fact
happiness is the ONLY really good thing in the sense that we don’t want it for the sake of another thing
(as a tool) but its own sake.
NATURAL LAW
 Man is in search for happiness. Many seek material pleasures while others value the
abstract and eternal things. For Aquinas, happiness cannot be found in experiencing
pleasurable sensations but through cultivation of moral character (Calano and Manebog,
2013).
SYNTHESIS: MAKING INFORMED DECISIONS
THE MORAL AGENT AND CONTEXTS
 One significant mark of maturity in humans is their readiness to cultivate their rational and
emotional faculties and harness them towards sound and responsible decision-making.
MORAL DELIBERATION
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American moral psychologist, formulated a theory in 1971 which explained
the moral development process in six stages divided into three levels:
I. Pre-conventional Level
At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong,
but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or hedonistic consequences of action
(punishment, reward, exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who enunciate the rules and
labels. The level is divided into the following three stages: 
 Stage 0: Egocentric judgement
 Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation
 Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation
II. Conventional Level 
At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family, group, or
nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. The attitude is not
only one of conformity to personal expectations and social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively
maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and identifying with the persons or group involved in it.
The level consists of the following two stages: 
 Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or "good boy-nice girl" orientation 
 Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation
Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level
The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and
application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from the
individual's own identification with the group. The level has the two following stages: 
 Stage 5: The social-contract legalistic orientation (generally with utilitarian overtones). 
 Stage 6: The universal ethical-principle orientation. 
THE ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Knowing the role of feelings and reason in the decision-making process enables us to authentically
understand moral issues at hand. Following the eight steps to moral reasoning process helps us eliminate
the tragedies a poor decision-making incurs. When moral dilemmas occur, our careful reflection of the
given principles may enable us to arrive at a sound decision.
WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS?
MORAL DILEMMAS are circumstances involving two or more conflicting choices on which a person
(moral agent) is obliged to prefer. Such options neither resolve the situation in a morally acceptable
manner (Steph, 2018). 
FRAMEWORK INTEGRATION
The moral principles discussed in the previous sessions provide various approaches towards a
moral issue. One must be aware of each of their strengths and weaknesses to be able to utilize them
carefully and effectively.
 CONSEQUENTIAL DUTY VIRTUE
IST
Decision- Outcome Obligation Character
making Focus
Trajectory Future effect Duties Motivating Traits
What is Good Action that will Doing the right What a virtuous person will do
end in the best thing always
result
Aim Most good Right action Character development

THE PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT

Principle
A human act from which two effects may result, one good and one evil, is morally permissible
under four conditions. If any of these conditions is violated, the action is not justifiable and should not be
done. 
Four Conditions of the Principle of Double Effect
 The nature of the act
The action must be morally good in itself, or at least morally indifferent.
 Not a means to an end
The good effect of the action must come before the evil effect or at least be simultaneous
with it. To do evil so that good may come of it is never permitted. Evil cannot be used as a means
or factor in the accomplishment of the good.
 The right-intention
The motive or intention prompting the action must be directed towards the attainment of
the good effect; the evil effect is only permitted as an incidental result.
 Proportionality
The good effect must be more important or least equally important as the evil effect. 
ETHICAL ISSUES
Analyzing Ethical Issues
ABORTION
There are two issues which involve abortion: the human status of the unborn and the right to live
of the child vs. right to privacy of the mother. The permissibility of this act depends on whether a person
believes a fetus to be subhuman, potentially human, or fully human.  If human life is prioritized over
personal privacy, abortion on the basis of the right to privacy is unjustified.  If the mother's right to
privacy takes priority over the baby's right to life, abortion is justified.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
The three basic views in capital punishment are reconstructionism, or the application of death
sentence for all serious crimes; rehabilitationism, which does not allow it for any crime; and
retributionism, which advocates death for some capital crimes. 
EUTHANASIA
There are two forms of euthanasia; active euthanasia, or “the intentional taking of another life,
whether by oneself or another, whether one is young or old,” and passive euthanasia, or “allowing
someone to die whether through withholding natural means of sustaining life (unnatural passive
euthanasia), or from withdrawing unnatural means of resisting irreversible sickness (natural passive
euthanasia).” (Geisler, 2010)
WAR
Does morality have a place in war? Realists answer that it does not have a place in it. It asserts
that all war is unjust and has no place in any ethical theory. Pacifists, on the other hand, believe that no
plausible moral theory can justify war. The Just War Theory which was developed by Augustine and
Aquinas provided conditions under which resorting to war is justified and measures on how to conduct
war in an ethical manner. 
SAME-SEX MARRIAGE
Same-sex marriage is a largely debated issue these days. At the onset of various gender
preferences and the shifting of male-female roles due to various factors, its adherents advocate to uphold
their rights. Celebration on one end and criminalization which leads to emotional clashes on the other are
what characterize various social responses towards this phenomenon. 
GENOCIDE
Gregory Stanton provided the eight stages of genocide: (1) Classification, where people are
divided into “us” vs. “them;” (2) symbolization, where symbols may be forced upon unwilling members
of a certain group; (3) dehumanization, where one group denies the humanity of others and equate
them with animals; (4) organization, where special units are trained and armed; (5) polarization,
where propagandas are broadcasted; (6) preparation, wherein victims are identified and separated out
because of their ethnic and religious identities; (7) extermination, due to their belief that their victims
are not humans; and (8) denial, where perpetrators deny that they have committed any crimes.