Moral Courage- the courage “to put your moral principles into action even though you may

be in doubt, are
afraid, or face adverse consequences.
Will- the capacity to act decisively on one’s desire
Developing the will
 develop and practice self-discipline,
 do mental strength training,
 draw inspiration from people with great courage,
 repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will, and
 avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will

Basic Theories and Frameworks in Ethics

1) Meta-ethics- consists in the attempt to answer the fundamental philosophical questions about the nature of
ethical theory itself
A. Cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments are propositions, hence, they can either be true or false
B. Non-cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments cannot be true or false, but they are most likely
expressions of emotions or exclamations.
C. Subjectivism is an ethical view that morality depends on the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, desires,
etc., rather than anything external.
D. Objectivism is an ethical view that morality is absolute (objective) wherein it is based on moral facts
and principles, rather than anything from the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, desires, etc.
2) Normative ethics- is the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what makes situations or events good
or bad and what makes people virtuous or vicious.
A. Deontology is a theory that bases morality on moral rules or duties
B. Teleology is a theory that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or results.
C. Utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism, is a theory that bases morality on the
consequences of actions.
D. Virtue ethics is a theory that is character-based rather than act-based like deontology or teleology.
When we say that it is character-based, it means that we judge or determine goodness (or badness) in
the person by judging the overall character or virtues that he/she possesses.
3) Applied ethics- is the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what makes situations or events good or
bad and what makes people virtuous or vicious
A. Bioethics - abortion, euthanasia, surrogate motherhood, cloning and genetic manipulation,
mutilation, etc.
B. Human Sexual Ethics - human sexuality, pre-marital sex, extra-marital sex, pornography,
contraception, loveless and casual sex, rape, etc.
C. Environmental Ethics - animal welfare and rights, environmental sanitation, pollution control,
kaingin, cyanide fishing, etc.
D. Business Ethics - harassment, job discrimination, employer-employee relationship, whistle
blowing, unprofessionalism, false advertising, etc.
E. Social Ethics - poverty, child labor, war on drugs, death penalty, racial discrimination, gender
discrimination, etc.

Aristotle: Telos; Virtue as Habit; Happiness as Virtue

 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is an Ancient Greek philosopher who has significant contributions to almost any
area of study such as Logic, Biology, Aesthetics and Ethics.
 Telos is a Greek term which means “end” (or purpose).
 Aristotle explains that a person acquires character excellence by habituation
 1) Moral virtues, and 2) Intellectual virtues
 happiness or “eudaimonia” is the summum bonum or the supreme good
St. Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law
 Known as the Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholastics
 Italian philosopher and theologian who ranks among the most important thinkers of the medieval time
period
 Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles
 Natural Law is based on the two fundamental authority the Bible and Aristotle
 “Good is to be done and pursued… and evil to be avoided”.
 Four primary types of law
 Eternal Law refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is ordered
 Natural Law is that aspect of the eternal law which is accessible to human reason
 Human Law refers to the positive natural laws
 Divine Law is a law of revelation, disclosed through sacred text or Scriptures and the Church
which is also directed toward man’s eternal end”
 In order to achieve true happiness, humans must follow certain natural laws
 the Primary precepts (which ensure self-preservation such as reproduction, education,
peaceful living in a society and worshipping God)
 the Secondary precepts (the ways in which the primary precepts can be put into practice)
 “believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that eternal happiness is the final end.
 habits (as virtues): (1) acquired habits and (2) infused habits
 infused virtues:(1) the moral and (2) the theological virtues
 Basic kinds of Moral Virtues
 Prudence – this virtue is an exercise of understanding that helps us know the best means in
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 solving moral problems in which we encounter in the concrete circumstances
Justice – The habit is an exercise of the will to give or render what is due to another
Fortitude – The habit of the will to exercise courage and bravery despite facing grave danger
especially when serious injury or threat to life is at stake
 Temperance – The habit is an exercise of the will to demonstrate proper control and restrain in
the midst of strong attraction to pleasurable acts
 Happiness entails the wholeness/totality of human being that involves body and soul to be united with
the highest good or the summum bonum, no other than God himself who is in heaven.

Immanuel Kant
 a German thinker regarded by many as the most significant philosopher in the modern era
 The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals and The Critique of Practical Reason
 Kant’s ethics is based primarily on an a priori foundation
 Reason alone; not feelings
 Kant regards man as a rational being acting on a principle/maxim (Categorical Imperative)
 Kant’s 3 Ethical Propositions (Mariano, 2016)
 An act must be done from duty in order for it to have an inner moral worth.
 An act done from sense of duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose, which is to be
attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined.
 Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative (Mariano, 2016)
The supreme principle of the moral law is the categorical imperative
Versus hypothetical imperatives, which can either be imperative of skill or imperative of prudence
 Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical Imperative (Mariano, 2016)
 Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law. (Principle of Universality)
 Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other person or in that of
any other, in every case as an end in itself, not as means only. (Principle of Humanity as End-
in-Itself)
 Act so that your will is what makes universal law. (Principle of Autonomy)

Rights Theory
 Legal rights refer to all the rights that you have (as stated in any existing law) as a citizen of the
Philippines, or any particular country.
 Moral Rights- refer to those rights attributed to all moral entities. These rights are independent and
precisely existed before any legal rights.
 Human Rights - “They are best thought of as being both moral and legal rights.

Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
 Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
 a theory that bases morality on the consequences of actions
 from the Latin term “utilis” which means useful
 The consequence is judged as right or wrong only when there is the presence of happiness.
Jeremy Bentham
 The basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is in its consequence they produced.
It is known as consequentialism. The consequence is judged as right or wrong only when there
is the presence of happiness. Happiness is the determining factor and basis for the morality of
an act in utilitarian point of view. The end or telos of every act is to produce happiness.
 What matters in every act that we do would be the amount of pleasure/happiness produced.
The greatest happiness produced should be chosen over other choices.

 Thus, it follows that human beings are inclined more to achieving happiness and as much as
possible avoid what is painful. Bentham emphasizes the quantity of happiness and pleasure in
every consequence of an action.
John Stuart Mill
 made the doctrine the subject of his philosophical treatise (Utilitarianism) published in 1863
 ‘the greatest happiness principle’ which states that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number
that is the measure of right and wrong”
 rejects the purely quantitative treatment of the principle of utility; second, he introduces the so-called
‘secondary principles’ which set the tone for a contemporary variant form of the theory called rule
utilitarianism”.
 qualitative hedonist

Business’s Fascination and Utilitarianism

 “If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent, then it is worth it, therefore, it is pain”

Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good

 John Rawls- He is one of the important political philosopher during the 20th century
 His main work is A Theory of Justice published in 1971
 proposes justice as fairness as an ethical framework
 The term fairness refers not to equality but equity
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  Justice is the first virtue of a social institution
 Distributive justice- everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the benefit of
whatever the society offers
The two principles of justice and fairness are as follows:
 “Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties
compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others”.
 “Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a) reasonably
expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and b) attached to positions and offices open to all”.
The Principles of Taxation and Inclusive Growth
 1987 Constitution, Article X - Section V- the government has the power to create sources of revenues
and to levy taxes, fees and charges. The government cannot support its existence and perform its
duties such as projects for the betterment of the land and its people without this power of taxation.
 “The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties. There can be no government without the
monetary aspects for its operations. This responsibility springs from the concept of rights and duties”
The Role of Economics and Inclusive Growth
 “The goal of every economic growth is to increase the production of scares resources so that every
people’s wellbeing shall be sustained. This happens only when the resources are well-distributed for
the macro-level, which is the (economic growth from regional, national and international level), down to
micro-level, which is (economic growth from the personal level that addresses their aspirations,
capabilities, productivities and opportunities)”

Moral Challenges of Globalization

 Globalization- as “the continuing world-wide economic integration, recently facilitated by emerging
information technologies, that has also affected the environment, culture, and politics of different groups
of people”
 The moral challenges: 1) the rise of radical inequality, 2) the problem of managing global environment
to prevent global ecological collapse, and 3) the intrusion of international economic organizations on
indebted nations
 3 universal values shared by all cultures (Rachels)
 1) caring for the young, 2) murder is wrong, and 3) telling the truth.
 5 generations existing in our time
 1) traditionalists, (2) baby boomers, (3) generation X, (4) generation Y or the millennials, and (5)
generation Z
 the Millennials, who were born from 1981 to 2000, are also called the “digital natives
 the Generation Z are those who were born in 2001 to present, the era of mobile technologies such as
smartphones, tablets, iPad, etc
 things that the Filinnials care more about than their millennial counterparts from other countries
 1) 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily on their parents for advice, 2) on adulthood, Filinnials
value close family relationships, 3) Filinnials are more active in social media and are more easily
influenced by peers, etc

The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in Ethics

 Religion is a “specific fundamental set of beliefs and practices generally agreed upon by a number of
persons or sects” (dictionary.com).
 Religion and ethics are not the same, but the role of religion is important in a globalized world. Inter-
religious dialogues are now being done thereby eliminating the gap or disharmony among religions and
“working together to promote peace, justice and social harmony”

"Even the most rational approach to ethics is defenseless if there isn't the will to do what is right."  
Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918 – 2008)

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