5.

HINDU GODS

5.1 Vedic Gods

The Vedic gods are those who feature prominently in the Rig Veda. There
are a few more Gods/demons mentioned in other Vedas, especially the
Atharvana Veda, but they are not considered here. These gods were
worshipped through rituals and sacrifices. Temples exist only for Puranic
Gods and not for Vedic Gods, as we shall see later.
According to the Vedas, the Absolute Brahman created the Gods and humans
in such a way that they had to be mutually dependent. Gods have powers
but their food has to be supplied by the humans. Humans can make food but
they need favors from Gods. Thus a mutual help becomes necessary. Gods
give rains to humans and the humans provide food to the gods - externally
through the sacrificial fires and internally through the digestive fire
in their stomachs.
Though several gods are mentioned in Rig Veda, a few are mentioned more
often than others. More than half the hymns in it are addressed to just 3
gods, namely, Indra, Agni and Soma, in that order. About 20
Gods/Goddesses have been covered in this article in the descending order
of the number of hymns dedicated to them in the Rig Veda.
1. Indra (289 hymns)
Indra is the lord of the heavens. He is the god of thunder and rain and
a great warrior. Vayu is his friend and servant and the 8 Vasus are his
advisors. He is currently one of the Ashta dik palas (rulers of the 8
directions) and lord of the east.
His vehicle is a white elephant named Airavata, born during the churning
of the ocean of milk for amrit. His weapon of lightning is called
Vajrayuda. He is always concerned with his status and survival (like any
other ruler) and will go to any lengths of scheming to keep his chair. He
fought many demons and brought victory to the gods. The slaying of
Vritrasura is his most famous achievement.
Indra’s Kingdom is near the mythical Mount Meru. He is benevolent to his
devotees and delivers rain to end droughts. In the Hindu creation myth
(Purusha Suktam), he and Agni are born from the mouth of Purusha,
attesting to their superiority over others. (The other parts of Purusha’s
body gave birth to the other Gods and several life forms).
In Indian mythology, the clouds are the divine cattle and the sound of
thunder is Indra’s fight with the demons who are forever trying to steal
these celestial cows. It rains when Indra milks his herd. Apart from
protecting the cattle of his worshippers, Indra had also created the
rivers and streams by shaping the mountains with his axe.
Indra’s amorous adventure with Ahalya and its disastrous consequences are
well known. The adventures of Arjuna , the son of Indra in the epic
Mahabharata and Indra’s role in helping his son to defeat his rival Karna
are equally well known.

Many of his other adventures are described in the Rig Veda. He was
involved in a famous fight against the Dasas (or Dasyus), which is
described as an Aryan-Dravidian clash by the Westerners. Indra’s enemy
Vala once stole Indra’s cattle and hid it in the depths of a mountain.
Vala was tracked down with the help of the Maruts. One thunderbolt from
Indra was enough to split the mountain and release the herd.
Indra is known for his fondness of the elixir drink soma. He often gets
drunk and suffers from its after-effects. However, the divine doctors
Ashvins restore him back to health.
Indra’s most celebrated exploit is his battle with the demon Vritra, who
had transformed himself into a fearsome snake with no less than 99 coils.
The coils were blocking up the rivers and streams on earth and causing a
great drought. Vritra scared away the other Gods but Indra, fortified
with soma, killed Vritra with his thunderbolt. This earned Indra a new
surname ‘Vritrahan’ - the ‘slayer of Vritra’.
Indra is an important deity in other cultures as well. He is called Sakra
in Buddhism and rules over the 33 gods. In Cambodian tradition, he is
known as Pah En, the god of the sky and is the most popular god. They
think that he lives atop Mt. Meru or Prah Sumer along with his servants -
the Yeaks (Yakshas), fearsome ogres with fangs and red eyes. In the Cham
religion of Vietnam, he is the god of thunder and rides a white elephant.
The Chinese identify him with the god Ti-shi. Indra is still worshipped
in some places of Rajasthan during Inder Puja. They pray to him for rains
to prevent the frequent droughts prevalent in this desert state.
Indra is frequently portrayed wielding a thunderbolt (vajra) but he may
also carry the chakra (discus), an ankusa or elephant goad and an axe,
the tanka. In later Buddhism, Indra’s thunderbolt becomes a diamond
sceptre, the Vajrayana.
2. Agni (218 hymns)
Agni is the master of sacrifices and wealth. His receives the sacrifices
from the priests and sends them to the other gods. He is kind and giving.
He is symbolically depicted as having 2 heads, 6 eyes, 7 hands, 3 legs
and 4 horns with a pot belly and long flowing hair. His seven hands
represent his seven flames and the three legs represent the three worlds
which he rules – one foot in each world. His pot belly shows his love for
rich food with ghee. His consorts are Svaha and Svadha. The smoke is his
banner. The Ram, a typical sacrificial animal, is his vehicle.
He is said to be a son of Dyaus (sky) and Prithivi (earth). He is also
called the son of Brahma, and is then named Abhimani. He is also a child
of Kasyapa and Aditi and thus one of the 12 Adityas. He is also a son of
Angiras, king of the Pitrus.
Agni has many names: Vahni (receiver of sacrifices); Vitihotra,
(sanctifies the worshipper); Dhananjaya (conquers riches); Jivalana (who
burns); Dhumaketu (whose sign is smoke); Chhagaratha (rides on a ram);
Sapta jihva (has seven tongues).

He is next only to Indra in importance, having come out of the mouth of

Purusha, along with Indra. In the human body he represents the eyes and
the digestive fire. Before the emergence of Shiva, Agni was the God of
destruction. He was both feared and revered by his devotees. Symbolically
he represents insatiable desire and hunger for food.
Almost every mandala of the Rig Veda starts with a hymn to Agni. The
Vedic hymns often describe him as the supreme god and creator. Narayana
Suktam describes Atman or soul as a blue flame of the size of a thumb.
Other elements such as the water and earth are his manifestations. He is
the thunderbolt of Indra and the light of Surya. Later, he became one of
the Ashta dik palas and lord of the southeast quarter.
Agni brings the willing Gods from the heavens and makes them sit on the
grass with him near the sacrificial altar. Agni, Indra and Surya
constitute the first trinity of Hinduism. Their places latter went to
Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu respectively.
His popularity declined during the Puranic period. The Agni Purana, for
example, is not about Agni but about all other thing. Agni simply becomes
one more divine in that Purana. Perhaps the Purana has been corrupted
over a period of time.
The Veda says that Agni has ten forms - the first five are material forms
and the next five are ritual forms. The material forms are: 1.The
ordinary fire 2. Lightning 3. Sun 4. The digestive fire (jatharaagni) 5.
Destructive Fires (forest fires, fires during pralaya)
The ritual forms are: 1.Fire produced from sticks for rituals 2.Fire
given to a student during upanayanam 3. The fire kept in the house for
domestic rituals 4. The southern fire of the ancestors, used in certain
rituals 5. The funeral fire used for cremation.
Agni, was the earliest Angiras, a Seer. Addressed as immortal Jatavedas
(in Durga Suktam and other places), many-hued effulgent gift of Dawn,
bearer of offerings and the charioteer of sacrifice, Agni is the Lord of
Red Steeds, loves songs and a friend of all.
Some hymns praise Him as the Super God. "Agni is the Vaisvanara, the
center of all people. He is in the sky as well as at the center of the
earth." ‚Restless, he ascends the sky, unveiling nights and all that
stands or moves, as he the sole God is preeminent in greatness among all
other Gods."
3.Soma (123 hymns)
Soma gives the gods and humans inspiration to get up and do things. He
gives joy and bliss and rids people of diseases. He is the strength of
gods and mortals. He is also the lord of our speech. Soma, as a god, is
believed to be the personification of Soma juice. He is a god, a magical
plant, and the juice of that plant at the same time. He is the king of
plants, and the giver of immortality (amrita). It is one of a few plants
deified by the humans, though there are a large number of sacred plants
in every culture. Soma is sometimes equated with the moon god. Soma is
one of Shiva’s names as well. Soma is a god of the flowing waters, a god
of inspiration and ecstasy.

What is the origin of Soma? It was Indra who first discovered Soma. Soma
is also seen as a form of Indra. Another myth says that goddess Sarasvati
(one who is Full of Juice - ras–juice) found Soma in the Himalayas and
brought it to the other deities. (Found in River Saraswathi?) Soma gave
Indra supreme powers, which he used to kill his enemies. Some myths say
that Soma was the son of either Dharma or Varuna.
Soma seems to be very similar to hoama, which was consumed by the
Zoroastrians around the same time. Zend Avesta, the sacred scripture of
the Zoroastrians, discusses the rituals that used the plant hoama. Modern
researchers had identified Soma with several plants including ephedra,
rhubarb, chicory, and hashish (cannabis sativa). Very recently it was
identified as a wild mushroom known as Amanita muscaria or the fly-
agaric. (Can our doctors make some great medicines out of them, after
praying to Soma?)
Soma played an important role in some of the famous rituals like the
consecration of the king (raja suya), the ‚drink of power' ritual
(vajapeya), and various fire rituals (agnistoma). Soma has been equated
with many Vedic deities and directly compared with Surya and his
mythological horses, hari.
Soma’s inebriating qualities are compared with the subtlety of Agni’s
flames. Both Soma and Agni were the major sacrifices described in the Rig
Veda. Hence, they were distinctly connected regarding their communication
with the other Vedic deities.
4.Ishvara (Supreme God – not Shiva) (118 hymns)
Ishvara is a philosophical concept in Hinduism, meaning the Supreme
controller in a monistic way. Ishwara is best described in the Ishavasya
Upanishad -"ishavasyam idam sarvam" which means whatever there is in this
world is Ishvara. He is the world, he fills everything there is in the
world. In latter Saivaite traditions, the term is used as a name for
Shiva with a prefix ‘Maha’-"Maheshvara" ("great lord").
5.Ashvins (56 hymns)
They are twins and Usha is their sister. They are the sons of Saranyu
(the daughter of Tvashta) and Vivasvant. In another place they are
mentioned as the sons of heaven (Dyaus). Pusan is their son. They travel
in a chariot with three spokes. They are heavenly doctors and visit the
earth thrice a day to help mortals with heavenly medicines. The twins are
always youthful, athletic, handsome, brilliant and compassionate. They
restored the eyesight of Syavana rishi and also his youth. They help
those in need - from old women to soldiers left behind by an army.
6.Varuna (46 hymns)
Varuna rules the world and enforces law and order. He is the God of the
moral law. With thousand eyes, he protects the world and knows everything
happening. Things happen in this world because of his wishes. He punishes
those who transgress from this law but forgives them out of compassion if
they repent and pray.

By activating Vayu, the lord of the wind, he sustains life by giving rain
and crops. He was the chief deity in the beginning, but lost his place to
Indra and became the second best after Indra (RV 2.12). He is now one of
the Ashta dik palas and presides over the west. He is also the lord of
water, oceans and aquatic animals. He rides a chariot pulled by 7 swans
and he has four hands.
7.Maruts (38 hymns)
They are the lords of storm and destruction. They cause huge storms that
shake the earth and bring darkness even during day time. They are
ferocious. Still, they are not wicked. They give strength to humans to
overcome obstacles and to become rich.
8.Mitra (28 hymns)
He is Varuna’s mitra (friend). Together, they guard the world and uphold
the order. They make all the things happen in the world- from the river
flowing to the rain falling. He is associated with the morning light
while Varuna is associated with the night sky. In the Rig Veda, Mitra is
always with Varuna with whom he forms a dvandva – a pair. The two share
the same characteristics but Varuna is clearly the superior.
9.Ushas (21 hymns)
Usha is dawn and a daughter of the sky. She wakes up every living
creature when the sky starts to lighten up. She is the goddess of light
and beauty as she brings light and everything beautiful into the lives of
the humans.
10.Vayu (12 hymns)
Vayu rules over the winds and is the lord of beauty and intelligence. He
has a swift mind and is also called the lord of thoughts. He is very
intelligent and brings light to the earth and heaven. He is shown with 4
hands and is blue in color. He rides a deer to indicate his speed. He is
one of the Ashta dik palas and lord of the North West.
11.Savitr (11 hymns)
Savitr is also the sun lord like Surya (refer Gayatri Mantra). While
Surya represents the blazing sun, Savitr is the hidden sun- the sun
before sunrise and after sunset. He has golden eyes, golden hands and
golden tongue.
12.Rbhus (11 hymns)
Rbhus are the three sons (Rbhu, Vibu, Vaja) of Rishi Sudhanvan, from the
Angira lineage. They were mortals, raised to the ranks of Gods (promote
IAS cadre?). They had extra-ordinary skills with their hands, learnt from
Tvashta, the divine engineer. They built a chariot for Indra and created
from their minds two excellent horses for Indra’s chariot. They
successfully restored youth to their own parents. They are invoked during
one of the Soma yagas.
13.Pusan (10 hymns)
Pusan is the son of Ashwins and is the lord of paths and a guardian of
cattle. He protects the people from wild animals and prevents them from
entering dangerous paths. He is also a close friend of Indra and Surya.
14.Brihaspati(8 hymns)
He is the friend, philosopher and guide of Indra and is the giver of
wisdom and wealth. He drives away diseases and protects us from enemies.
He is the priest of heaven. He sees to it that the unworthy do not enter
the heaven.
15.Surya (8 hymns)
Surya is the lord of light and power. He destroys diseases and hence
gives good health to people. He has a golden complexion with radiant
hair. He rides swiftly across the sky in his golden chariot drawn by 7
horses. Both Surya and Savitr are his names in Veda. Although the hymns
to him are not too many, his worship was very common in ancient days,
which continues till date. It is to him that the Gayatri mantra is
addressed.
16.Twelve Adityas (6 hymns)
The 12 Adityas are the sons of Aditi and Kasyapa, lords of light and
represent the 12 months in a year. They are the upholder and enforcer of
law. They drive away the darkness. They never sleep and are always
protecting everyone from evil and harm.
17.Vishnu (6 hymns)
Vishnu is a kind and loving god and the protector of people. He upholds
the threefold existence i.e. the heaven, the earth and the living
creatures. He is also one of the Adityas. He rose in prominence later
during the Puranic days.
18.Rudra (5 hymns)
Rudra is the god of storm and lightning and the ‘bringer and provider of
medicines’. He wields the lightning bolt and bow and arrow and brings
fear to people and animals. He is fierce and well built, with golden
color and braided hair. He is strong and adorns himself in golden
ornaments. He is also a peaceful God. He is perhaps an amalgamation of
several regional and tribal gods under one name. He is an early form of
Shiva. In the Rudra Anuvaka of Yajur Veda, the name ‚Shiva' is first used
to distinguish his auspicious nature from his fierce appearance.
19.Yama (4 hymns)
Yama is the lord of Justice and the ruler of the dead that go to hell. He
has two dogs that have four eyes and wide nostrils, which guard the way
to his world. He rides a he-buffalo carrying a mace and noose, which he
uses to drag the dead to hell. He looks over the deeds of people and
provides them with the appropriate punishment. He is one of the Ashta dik
palas and lord of the South.
20.Saraswathi (3 hymns)

Saraswathi means ‘full of juice’ and is the goddess of the river and
helper of gods. She has seven sisters. She punishes people that look down
upon gods. She is also a giver of water to the people. She provides
people with strength and wealth.
That brings an end to the brief descriptions. However, there are many,
many more Vedic Gods with at least one hymn in Rig Veda to his/her
credit.
Are there really 33 crores of Gods, as popularly believed, in Hinduism?
No, there are 4 special groups of Gods, totaling 33 - of which 8 are
Vasus, 11 are Rudras, 12 are Adityas plus the two Ashwinis. Each one of
them is counted as one crore!
Our dead ancestors are identified with them, as we invoke them during the
ceremonies. The father/mother is a Vasu, the grandfather/grandmother, a
Rudra and the great grandfather/great grandmother an Aditya.
5.2 A Hundred Peripheral Hindu Gods
While many of the Vedic Gods are unknown entities to the majority of the
present generation of Hindus, the Puranic Gods are perhaps better known
entities to the same majority. Before you dismiss this statement with a
casual nod, I would like to point out there are at least 100 regular
Hindu Gods about whom you may not know much. They are mostly peripheral
Gods and are treated as groups than as individuals, but 100 is a big
number. Many are around since the Vedic days and a few are later
additions.
The Hindu pantheon does not stop with the Trinity, their consorts,
children (including Manmatha, Ayyappan), incarnations, assistants
(Hanuman) and vehicles (Garuda and Nandi). Who are then the missing Gods?
There are 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, 2 Ashwinis, 8 Dik Palas, 9
Grahas and 49 Maruts. Add Prajapati and you get exactly 100!
The numbers, names and origins of these Gods vary across the Hindu texts
- as one move from the Vedas to the Brahmanas to the Upanishads to the
epics to the Puranas. Some groups of Gods do exist from the Vedic days,
but the Vedas do not always give their precise numbers or names.
Yajur Veda (7.19) is perhaps the first to enumerate the Gods. It mentions
11 gods in heaven, 11 in intermediate space and 11 on earth. This kind of
classification of Gods into overlords of the earth, heaven and
intermediate space (anthariksha), continues till date.
In Brihadaranya Upanishad, Yajnavalkya asserts that there are only 33
gods in all. The other Gods are only their manifestations. He mentions
the 8 Vasus, the 11 Rudras, the 12 Adityas, plus Indra and Prajapati. The
last two were replaced later by the Ashvin twins - Nasatya and Dasra
(representing the Sunrise and Sunset).
The Ramayana give the same count (8+11+12) but gives the last two places
to the ashvins. (adityAM jaj~nire devAs trayastriMshad ariMdama |AdityA
vasavo rudrA ashvinau

cha paraMtapa). Mahabharata mentions only the first three groups -

ihAdityAsh-cha rudrAsh-cha vasavash-cha maharShibhiH and is silent on the
last two.
The 33 deities were later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect of
fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of space, movement and
air in the mid-region; and Surya the energy and life that sustains and
governs all existence, in the heavens. This provided the basis for the
evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
later.
Of them, the eight Vasus are the five elements (fire, earth, air, sky,
water) plus the sun, the moon and the stars. They are so called because
this universe is ‘placed’ (vasavah) in them. The eleven Rudras are the 10
organs in the human body and the mind. (ten pranas and the Atman in
another version). Death results when they leave the body and the
relatives start weeping (rud) and hence the name- Rudras. Adityas are the
12 months in the year. They move along carrying (adadanah) all this with
them.
The three deva groups are the same as Bhuh, Bhuvah and Svah and are the
presiding figures for Agni (speech), Water (Mind) and Earth (Prana). The
Gayatri, Trishtubh and Jagati chandas, having 8, 11 and 12 syllables in a
pada are often associated with the three groups. Vasus are equated to Sat
(that which exists), Rudras to Chit (consciousness) and Adityas to Ananda
(bliss). Together they represent Sat Chit Ananda or the Brahman.
The only Vasu who is explicitly named in the Rig Veda is Agni. Three
Adityas - Mitra, Varuna and Aryaman also find a place in Rig Veda. Amsha
and Daksha are also in many lists of Adityas but they are not made any
offerings in Rig Veda. Rudra seems to be a general name but no specific
name seems to exist in the Vedic Samhitas.
Presently, we remember the 3 groups in a different way. While honoring
our ancestors, we equate the 1st generation (parents) with the Vasus, the
2nd generation (grandparents) with Rudras and the 3rd generation (great
grandparents) with the Adityas.
Vasus: The name Vasu means 'Brilliance' or 'Wealth Givers'. They were
Indra’s attendants earlier. The name Vasava for Indra comes from this but
is not found in the Vedas, but appears later. Much later, the Vasus were
attached to Vishnu. In the Ramayana, the Vasus are the children of
Kasyapa and Aditi, while in the Mahabharata, they are the sons of Manu or
Brahma Prajapati.
The varying lists of the names of the Vasus in different texts, are
sometimes attributed to the deities themselves have several names.
Brihadaranya Upanishad gives one list which tallies with the list given
in Shatapatha Brahmana. Mahabharata gives a different list, which is
preferred by the later texts. The Vishnu Purana equates the Vasu Prabhasa
with the lights of the Nakshatras and the pole star Dhruva to the akasa.
The Mahabharata tells how the Vasus led by "Prithu" (a male form of
Prithvi perhaps) stole the cow of sage Vasishta and were cursed by the
Rishi to be born as mortals. They were born as children to King Santhanu
and Ganga Devi. Seven of them, who were only

accomplices in the crime, were drowned immediately in the waters of Ganga

by the mother herself and freed from the curse. Prithu became Bhishma and
had a long life.
The 11 Rudras are considered to be the 10 organs of the human body and
the mind (or 10 pranas + atman). Brihadaranya Upanishad states that since
the Rudras leaving the body makes people ‘cry’, they are called Rudras
(rud – to cry). Chandogya Upanishad endorses the idea and says ‚Rudras
are the ones who make cry". The names the 11 Rudras have several
variants. For example, Nirriti ( a Dik Pala) figures in Matsya Purana’s
list of Rudras but not in the list of Mahabharata.
The Harivamsa makes Kasyapa and Surabhi, the mother of all cows, the
parents of the Rudras. Vamana Purana describes Rudras as the sons of
Kasyapa and Aditi. (In fact it describes all the 33 Gods as children of
Kasyapa and Aditi). It says that the Rudras aid Vishnu in his fights
against the demons. Rudras wear lion-skins (not tiger skins), sport
matted-hair and carry serpents around their necks. They have yellow (not
blue) throats, hold tridents and skulls and have the crescent moon on
their foreheads. Kapali is the chief Rudra but Bhagavat Gita declares
Sankara as the best Rudra. Both Kapali and Sankara became names of Shiva
later.
Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana (3:3) mention with minor variations
that Rudra – here identified with Shiva – was born from the anger of
Brahma. The furious Rudra was in Ardhanari form - half male and half
female. He was nameless and so he cried for a name. Brahma gave him the
name Rudra (Rud-to cry). Then Rudra divided himself into two: the male
and female. The male form split into 11 Rudras. The female form split
into 11 Rudranis and married the Rudras. Bhagavata Purana also prescribes
the worship of the Rudras to gain virile power.
There are others who claim that the whole story to be a concoction of the
sects opposed to Rudra, who, being the God of the Thunder, produces a
roaring or ‘howling’ noise which was twisted into crying, having the same
Sanskrit root.
In Vedas, Rudra ganas, rather fearful in nature, are described as
subjects of Rudra or as friends, messengers and aspects of Rudra. The
Satapatha Brahmana mentions that Rudra is the prince and Rudras are his
subjects.
Both Rig Veda and Krishna Yajur Veda state that the Rudras rule the
Anthariksha - the space between the earth and the heaven. As wind-gods,
the Rudras represent the prana. The Rudras preside over the second stage
of creation, the mid-day offering in a yagna and the second stage of life
– from the 24th to the 68th year of life. Rudra should be pleased in
case of sickness during this period of life. The Mahabharata says that
the Rudras are friends of Indra and his son Skanda is a friend of Yama.
Rudras wear golden necklaces which are "like lighting-illuminated
clouds".

Adityas mean sons of Aditi. Their father was Kasyapa. Aditya, in the
singular refers to the Sun God Surya. The Rig Veda mentions 7 Adityas
along with Martanda, who was 0rejected by Aditi for some reason.
Taittiriya Samhita gives the eighth name as Vivasvan. In some other
place, 9 Adityas are confirmed, including Martanda and Vivasvan. The
Satapatha Brahmana give their number as 8 in one place and as 12 in
another place.
The Bhagavata Purana lists 12 Adityas, one for each month of the year and
assigns different functions to them. 1-3. Indra, Vishnu, Surya –
destruction of enemies of the gods. 4. Dhata - creates living beings. 5.
Parjanya - showers down rain. 6.Tvashta - lives in the trees and herbs.
7.Pusha - makes food grains grow. 8.Aryama - lives in the wind. 9.Bhaga -
is in the body of all lives. 10.Vivasvan - is in fire. 11.Amshuman - is
again in the wind. 12.Varuna-Mitra, is in the waters, the moon and in the
oceans.
The Rig Veda describes the Adityas as bright and pure as streams of
water. They are free from all guiles and of blameless perfection. They
uphold the Dharma. The Linga Purana gives a different list of Adityas
that includes Brahma and Indra is the head of the Adityas. In Chandogya
Upanishad, Aditya is a name of Vishnu, since Vamana, an avatar of Vishnu,
is the son of Aditi. Vishnu Purana gives yet another list of Adityas.
Bhagavat Gita declares Vishnu as the best of the Adityas.
The ashvin brothers get the last two positions in the list of thirty
three. When exactly they got into the list replacing Indra and Prajapati,
given by Yajnvalkya is not clear. Indra and the Ashvins had already been
discussed in these columns. We will now discuss Prajapati.
Prajapati is identified as the first god, and creator of all other gods
and beings. The Rig Veda (10.21) mentions the Hiranya Garbha - the
‚golden egg.' The first God hatched from this egg and with his first
breaths, created the gods Agni, Indra and then Soma. All other things,
including Devas and Asuras, light and darkness, air, earth, sky, seasons
and planets came out of him.
Prajapatis appear freshly in every new cycle of creation, called
manvantara.
His female part was Vac, the sacred word. Through his daughter Usas, the
goddess of dawn, he became the father of all living things. All his
daughters, including Usas, are married to Soma. (There are versions where
Ushas is his wife). He is also called Viswakarma. (All-Accomplishing).
Post Vedic scripts call Prajapatis (in plural) as Brahma’s ‚mind-sons'
but the number varies. Most texts give their number as ten: Marichi,
Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Daksha, Vasishtha, Bhrigu and
Narada. Others state seven, some others twenty one. Prajapati constructed
a great altar to perform sacrifice and Agni came to live in it. then
Prajapati sacrificed himself to his tapas, and created yajna.
Purusha Suktam is a variant of this theme. Building a fireplace for yagna
is still treated as restoring the dismembered pieces of Prajapati (or
Agni).
Prajapati took the form of the boar to raise the earth out of the waters
and it later became the legend of Varaha avatar. The horse sacrifice or
asvamedha is dedicated to Prajapati, who has later been identified with
several other Gods, including Brhama, Vishnu, Shiva, Agni, Indra, Bharata
and Kapila. In the Rig Veda, Prajapati appears as an epithet for Savitr,
Soma, Agni and Indra, who are all praised as equal and the same.
However, this Prajapati is a metaphor, since there is no supreme deity in
the Rig Veda. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Prajapati emanates from Purusha
(cosmic spirit). The Pancavimsa Brahmana (Ch. 13) present Prajapati as a
mother, who becomes self-pregnant and generates all living creatures. The
evil Mrtyu seizes these beings in his womb, but these beings, since they
are part of the eternal Prajapati, want to live long like him.
In Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.266), Prajapati is a spiritual teacher. His
student Varuna lives with him for 100 years and learns the art and duties
of being the "king of gods". The Chandogya Upanishad quotes him as
follows: ‚When someone discovers that self and perceives it, he obtains
all the worlds, and all his desires are fulfilled, so said Prajapati.
(8.7.1)
In the Mahabharata, Brahma is declared as a Prajapati. He creates many
males and females, and imbues them with desire and anger – a desire to
reproduce themselves and anger, to prevent them from becoming gods. The
Bhagavat Gita describes Krishna as Prajapati. Prajapati is invoked during
the wedding ceremonies and prayers are offered to him for prosperity,
progeny and harmony between the couple.
The Maruts are often identified as sons of Rudra and Prisni. Their
number varies from 27 to 60 (three times 60 - Rig Veda 8.96.8). They are
violent and aggressive and armed with golden weapons (lightning and
thunderbolts). They have iron teeth and roar like lions. They reside in
the north and ride golden chariots drawn by red horses. Rig Veda (6:66)
gives a vivid account of how a rain-storm metamorphoses into storm
deities.
In the Vedas, the Maruts are a troop of young warriors and Indra’s
subjects. They wear golden helmets and breastplates and use their axes to
split the clouds that are capable of shaking mountains, so that rain
could fall.
The Puranas tell an interesting story about Maruts. Diti, the mother of
the demons, requested her husband Kasyapa, (also the husband of Aditi,
the mother of the Gods), for a son who would kill Indra, the enemy of her
sons. Diti had to remain pregnant for a century to produce such a son.
When the tired Diti was sleeping at dusk (not meant for sleeping), Indra,
with his powers, entered her womb and split the embryo into 49 (7x7)
pieces. The wizened Diti asked Indra himself to add her 49 sons to his
own army.
With this, the 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, 2 Asvins, Prajapati and 49
Maruts have been discussed. Only the 8 Dik palas and the 9 planets are
left out of the 100. Of the 8

Dik Palas or directional Gods, Indra, Agni, Yama, Varuna and Vayu are
Vedic Gods and have already been covered. The three left out are Nirriti,
Kubera and Ishana.
Kubera is the half brother of Ravana in Ramayana. He is the god of riches
and the guardian of the North. Kubera (aka Gaviputra Vaisravana) is the
mind son of Pulastya. Brahma rewarded Kubera with immortality, lordship
of riches, Lanka for his capital and the Pushpaka vimana for his vehicle,
which could fly.
Pulastya doubled himself as Vaisravas and sired Ravana and his siblings
through three different wives. Ravana, with his powers obtained through
tapas, expelled Kubera out of Lanka and grabbed his Pushpaka Vimana as
well.
In Ramayana, Kubera is the grandson (not the son) of Pulastya. He took
over Lanka, built by Visvakarma for the demons, who had left the place
due to the fear of Vishnu. Kubera had a grand palace and nice gardens.
Sage Bharadvaja, while welcoming Rama and Lakshmana in his ashram, makes
Kubera's garden rise in his ashram, to please Rama.
Kubera is the King of the Yakshasas, who are savage beings. They said
"Let us eat" as soon as they were born and are always on the watch for
prey. Kubera married Yakshi or Charvi. Two of his sons, due to a curse of
the sage Narada, became trees in Gokula. The infant Krishna uprooted the
tress and released them from their curse.
The goddess Nir?ti (??????) is the guardian of the southwest. Her name
means "absence of rhythm"(the divine order). She represents deathly
hidden realms and sorrows. She is considered to be the Dhumavati, one of
the 10 manifestations of Shakti. She is also named Alakshmi and she wears
a black dress and iron ornaments. She uses a large crow as her vehicle
(or rides a man) and carries a sword. Her idol can be seen in the
Rajarani Temple in Bhubaneswar. The idol holds a sword and a severed head
and stands over a prostrate body, like Kali does.
Rig Veda mentions Nir?ti in a few places like (X.59), mostly to seek her
protection or requesting her to leave the sacrificial site. In the
Taittiriya Brahmana (I.6.1.4), Nir?ti’s sacrificial shares are mentioned
as only dark husks. In Shatapatha Brahmana (V.2.3.3) she is mentioned as
living in the kingdom of the dead. In Hindu astrology, she owns the star
Moolam, belonging to Ketu.
In the Mahabharata, Nirriti is the wife of Adharma and her three sons
are: Bhaya (fear), Maha-Bhaya (great fear) and Mrityu (death). Another
version says that she is the daughter of Adharma and Himsa (violence).
However, Bhagavatam claims that she came out of Brahma’s body. Nirriti is
the chief of the demons in Puranas.
Later, the Mahanirvana Tantra had changed Nirriti’s sex and origin – she
becomes a God of dark green hue, riding a horse and wielding a sword.
Mahabharata in Adi Parva, Chapter 66, Verse 2, describes him as a Rudra
and in Adi Parva, Chapter 129, Verse 63,

says that Nirriti attended the birth-day party of Arjuna. Sometimes,

Nirriti is worshipped for the destruction of one’s foes.
Isana, the last of the Dik palas, is an aspect of Shiva and represents
the northeast direction, which duty he inherited from Soma. No major
alternate version seems to be available, in his case. He represents
knowledge and prosperity and from whom the universe originates. He is
also known as Sthanu, and Jishnu. Shaiva Agama claim that Shiva performs
five actions - creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, and
revealing grace. Each of the five actions corresponds to a name and form
of Shiva with varying attributes. Isana as the fifth face reveals Grace.
According to Vastu Sastra, the north-eastern direction is the most
important of all directions, being ruled by Shiva. Pra?a enters into the
house from the Isana corner and exits via Nir?ti corner.
Isana is depicted riding a bull and holding a trident. He has the colour
of a pure crystal (spatika). He wears a crescent moon on his head. He has
a white body resembling the kunda flower (a jasmine variety) or the full
moon; he has five heads with ja?a-maku?as; three eyes on each of his five
faces. His consort is Vikesi. His son is called Lohita?ga (Mars). Isana
has reduced his ego to ashes and has absolute love for the universe.
We will skip the nine planets for want of space but they are far better
known anyway than, say Prajapati or Nirriti.
5.3 Mother Goddess
The idea of treating the Divine as the Eternal Mother is elaborated only
in Hinduism and it is a unique contribution of Hindus to the global
religious culture. It is an ancient tradition in India and it is found in
all religious texts, starting from the Vedas. The Puranas and the Tantras
developed the concept to its final stages.
The adoration of the female principle has been in evidence from the very
beginning of Indian civilization. The female figurines (a small statue,
representing a God, human or animal) in terracotta found at Mohenjo-daro
are comparable to similar artifacts excavated from archaeological sites
from all over the world. The general view is that these figurines
represent the Great Mother or Nature Goddess. The concept probably
started from a deep-rooted idea of the humans shared instinctively by the
ancient people across cultures. The Mother worship still flourishes only
in India.
Manu declares that ‘the daughter is the highest object of tenderness’ and
‘the mother is revered a thousand times more than the father’. Women, as
manifestations of the Divine Mother, have been offered worship at every
stage of their lives -- as virgins, as married women and as mothers. The
Divine Mother of the universe is also the Eternal Virgin.
Devi in the Vedas: Swami Vivekananda points out to a Vedic hymn to the
Goddess: ‚I am the light. I am the light of the sun and moon; I am the
air which animates all beings.' The

idea implied by it is that, ‘I am the power that is in all beings.’ The

power felt within is the Atman; the power outside is nature and the
interaction between the two sums up the human life.
There is a general misunderstanding that the worship of the female is a
non-Vedic practice. It is not so. In Rig Veda, deities like Aditi and
Saraswati are described as ‘motherly’. Rig Veda uses phrases such as Agni
is always father and mother to humans’ (Pita mata sadaminmanusanam - Rig
Veda 6.I.5); Agni! sustains all beings like a mother’ (mateva yadbharase
paprathano janam janam - 5.15.4) and ‘ (O Usha!) let us be dear to you
like sons to a mother (vayam syama maturna sunavah; 7.8i.4).
With the simplicity of a child, Vedic seers look upon heaven and earth as
Father and Mother and pray to them for protection from sin and guidance
in the moral order. Aditi is mentioned at least eighty times in the Rig
Veda. She is not only the mother of the gods, but also of humans as well.
The ‘Durga Sukta’ of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, a beautiful hymn, conceives
Agni as the Divine Mother Durga:
Tamagnivarnam tapasa jvalantim vairocanim karmaphalesu justam Durgam
devim saranamaham prapadye sutarasi tarase namah
I take shelter in the Goddess Durga. She is fiery in her glow and
radiant. She is the power of the Supreme Being in many forms. She is in
our actions and their results. O Durga, You are good in steering us
expertly across difficulties; salutations to thee.
In another Vedic hymn Rishi Kushika invokes Night as Mother. She is the
daughter of the heaven above and fills the worlds, protects all lives
from evils, and gives them peaceful shelter in her lap.
The Devi Sukta of the Rig Veda (10.125.1-8) is among the most studied
hymns, which declares that the Supreme Reality to be a goddess. Vak, the
daughter of the sage Ambhrina, after having realized Brahman, has this
joyful outpouring:
I have created all worlds at my will without being forced by any higher
Being, and I dwell within them. I fill the earth and heaven, and all
created entities with my greatness and dwell in them as eternal and
infinite consciousness.
The Rig Veda mention numerous goddesses including Saraswati, Parvati,
Prithvi, Aditi, Vak, Nirriti, Ratri, Aranyani (forest) and strange names
such as Dinsana, Raka, Puramdhi, Parendi, Bharati and Mahi. All the
goddesses are ultimately seen as aspects or manifestations of one Devi,
the Supreme power, but it must be accepted that the Goddesses are not
mentioned as frequently as gods. Verses dedicated to Parvati suggest that
her characteristics were not fully developed in the Vedic era.
Devi is discussed in the Upanishads. We had seen how in the Kena
Upanishad, Uma Haimavati, the power of Brahman, shows Agni, Vayu, and
Indra, who were full of pride, how powerless they were. The Devi
Bhagavata takes up this legend and records

how Indra praised the Supreme Mother through several hymns. Shankara and
Sayana (the Vedic commentator) declare that Uma, who imparts the
knowledge of Brahman to the Gods is vidya or ‘spiritual knowledge’
personified.
The Mundaka Upanishad speaks of seven female powers-- Kali (black),
Karali (terrible), Mano java (swift thought), Sulohita (blood red),
Sudhumra varna (smoke- hued), Sphulingini (scattering sparks), Vishwa
ruche (all beautiful) - as the seven swaying tongues of the sacrificial
fire.
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to maya, that conceals the power of
the Supreme, is of a female form (4.10;6.8). Minor Upanishads like the
Devi Upanishad, Tripura Upanishad, and Bahvricha Upanishad (all in the
list of 108 standard Upanishads) glorify Devi to the sky, calling her
Brahman itself. Terms like yantra, bindu, bija, mantra, chakra etc.,
popularized by the Tantra schools later, are frequently found in Devi
Upanishad. There are several more Devi-based Upanishads like the
Guhyakali Upanishad, which are outside the list of 108 but speak high of
Devi.
The Ramayana’s ‘Bala khanda’ tells the story of goddess Uma who marries
Rudra (Shiva). The Mahabharata also mentions Pradyumna’s worship of Devi
Katyayani and Aniruddha’s hymn to Goddess Chandi. There is also a hymn by
King Yudhishthira to Goddess Durga. This hymn contains some descriptions
of the Goddess which became more popular during the Puranic times. In
some versions of Mahabharata, Krishna prompts Arjuna to pray to Durga and
Arjuna chanted a beautiful hymn.
In the Puranas, Ratri is described as originating from maya and is called
Bhuvaneshwari, the sovereign mistress of the worlds. Durga Saptashati,
calls Mother Durga as Kala Ratri, Maha Ratri and so on. A link can be
established between the Vedic Goddess Ratri and the Puranic Goddesses
Kali and Parvati.
Three major texts from the Puranas on Devi deserve a detailed discussion.
Brahmanda Purana contains the famous Lalitha Sahasra Nama, the thousand
names of Goddess Lalita. The text is used to not only for Lalita but
several other Goddesses, including Durga, Parvati, Kali, Lakshmi and
Saraswati. This sahasranama is used for parayana (recitations), archana
and homa.
The Gods request Lalita Devi to kill Bhandasura. The Sahasranama
describes her as she starts for the war. She is accompanied by various
Devis whose glories are also praised. For example, Sampatkari Devi leads
the elephant regiment (# 66) and Aswarooda Devi leads the cavalry (# 67).
Lalita herself is riding the Sri Chakra Chariot (chakraraja – # 68).
Lalita kills Bhandasura's army with the Paashupathastra (#81), and
destroys him and his city with the Kameshvara astra (#82). After praises
from the devas (#83), she gives life back to Manmatha for the good of the
world (#84).

The second text is the Devi Mahatmyam, which forms chapters 81- 93 of
Markandeya Purana. It is also known as the Durga Saptashati (700 slokas)
or Chandi Pata. Chandi or Chandika is the name of the Goddess in the
text. Chandi means "fierce, violent or cruel (for evil forces) and the
word is not found in Vedic literature. The Devi Mahatmya is the authority
for Shakta philosophy and they treat it on par with the Bhagavat Gita.
Perhaps, it could also be the other way. Incidentally both have exactly
700 slokas each.
Its 13 chapters are divided into three charitas (episodes). In the first
episode (Ch.1), Devi, as Mahakali comes out Vishnu’s Yoga Nidra and makes
Him kill two Asuras called Madhu and Kaitabha. In the second episode (Ch.
2-4), all Gods team up, and create Goddess Durga, who then kills
Mahishasura. In the final episode (Ch. 5-13) the Goddess kills the demons
Chanda and Munda and earns the name Chamundi.
The demon Raktabija is killed in Ch.8. Every drop of blood he sheds,
becomes another Rakthabija, as it touches the earth. Goddess Kali is
created and she ferociously drinks up Raktabija's blood, before it falls
on earth, thus preventing the uprising of further demons. Sumbha and
Nisumbha are killed in chapters 9 and10. The later chapters sum up Devi’s
glories. The names Chandi, Chandika, Ambika and Durga are synonymous in
the text. It also reveals the Navakshari, the nine-lettered mantra (Om –
Aim Hreem Kleem Chamundsyai Vitchae).’ Aim Hreem Kleem represent
Saraswathi, Lakshmi and Kali and also Chit, Sat and Ananda respectively
and also Anna, Prana and Manas. The three forms of Devi represent the
three gunas: Saraswati (Sattva); Lakshmi (rajas) and Kali (tamas). This
mantra is the basis of the Atharva Shirsha Upanishad (aka the Devi
Upanishad).
Durga slaying Mahisha is a popular subject in Hindu art. The earliest
image of Durga is perhaps the one at a cave temple in Mahabalipuram (7th
century CE). It is also found in Kailasanatha temple at Ellora (mid-8th
century CE). The earliest shrine dedicated specifically to Devi perhaps
is the one at Chidambaram (12th century CE).
In the ‘Devi Kavacha’, an auxiliary of the Devi Mahatmyam, the Devi is
conceived of in nine forms (Nava Durga): Shailaputri, daughter of the
mountains; Brahmacharini, dwells in Brahman; Chandraghanta, who has the
moon for her bell; Kushmanda, the fertile; Skandamata, mother of Skanda;
Katyayani, the daughter of Rishi Katyayana; Kalaratri, the dark night of
dissolution; Mahagauri, the light of knowledge; and Siddhidatri, who
bestows success.
The Nava Durgas rule over the 9 planets as follows: Sun (Kushmanda), Rahu
(Maha Gauri), Sani (Kaala Ratri), Ketu (Sidhi Daatri), Brahaspati
(Katyayani), Mars (Brahmacharini), moon (Shailaputri), Budha (Skanda
Mata) and Shukra (Chandra ghanta).
The third important text on Devi in the Puranas is Devi Bhagavatam. It is
one of the Upa Puranas but is considered a Maha Purana by the Shaktas.
The text consists of twelve Skandha (sections) with 318 chapters. It
declares Devi as the origin of all existence, the

creator, the preserver and the destroyer of everything and the one who
gives spiritual liberation. While other Puranas may revere Devi, this
text declares her as the primary divinity. It gives its own version of
the essence of the Vedas.
This book contains an embedded text called Devi Gita, or the "Song of the
Goddess". In that, the Goddess explains that she is the Brahman that
created the world, asserting the Advaita premise that spiritual
liberation occurs only when one fully understands one's own soul and the
Brahman.
In the Tantras, (Shakta agamas) the Prakriti and Purusha of the Sankhyas
are identified with Shakti and Shiva. Similarly, the maya of Vedanta is
viewed as the Shakti of Brahman. In later traditions, these pairs are
identified with Vishnu and Lakshmi or Krishna and Radha or any other God
and his consort.
The ten Maha Vidyas are another way of representing the Devi. Their
origin is linked to the legend of Daksha Yagna. Sati, insulted by her
father Daksha, assumes ten largely fearsome forms of the Maha Vidyas:
Kali, Tara, Shodashi, Bhuvaneshwari, Bhairavi, Matangi, Chhinnamasta,
Dhumavati, Bagala, and Kamala. Some opine that the ten Maha Vidyas are
different local deities who were later assimilated into the Mother
Goddess. The Shaktas take them as different aspects of the same Great
Mother, suited to the taste and temperaments of the spiritual aspirant.
The ten Maha Vidhyas are also linked to the ten avatars of Vishnu, in one
version of Devi Bhagavata: Dhumavati (Matsya), Bagalamukhi (Kurma),
Bhairavi (Varaha), Chinnamasta (Narasimha), Tripura Sundari (Vamana),
Matangi (Parasurama), Tara (Rama), Kali (Krishna), Kamala (Buddha),
Bhuvaneswari (Kalki)
Similarly, ten manifestations of Shiva are seen as the counterparts of
the ten Maha Vidyas: Mahakali (Mahakala), Tara (Tar), Bhuvaneshwari
(Bhuvaneshwaran), Shodashi (Shodasha/Sri Vidyesh), Bhairavi (Bhairava),
Chhinamasta (Chhinamastak), Dhoomvati (Dhoomvan), Baglamukhi
(Baglamukha), Matangi (Matanga), Kamala (Kamal).
After Sati ended her life by entering the sacrificial fire, Shiva was
overcome with grief and he started roaming the universe with Sati’s
corpse on his shoulder. Fearing that Shiva’s grief and anger would ruin
the universe, the gods appealed to Vishnu for help. Vishnu, with his
discus, cut the corpse into 51 pieces and they fell all over the Indian
sub-continent, including the present Pakistan, Nepal and Bangla Desh.
Each place where a piece fell, became a Shakti pita.
The maya mentioned in Advaita splits into Maya, Mahamaya and Yogamaya in
Shaktam. Maya is the one who fools humans and takes them to the world of
illusion. Maya promotes greed, anger, and arrogance. Her effect is the
highest during Kali Yuga.

Maya is controlled by Mahamaya, who controls the gods and teaches them
the ‘Do’s and ‘Don’t’s so that they ultimately get connected to Devi. She
also puts Vishnu to mystic Sleep (Yoga Nidra) and wakes him up in time to
slay demons like Madhu and Kaitabha.
Yogamaya controls Mahamaya and destroys evil forces like Shumbha and
Nishumbha. She gives humans physical strength, health and satvik
attributes and removes anger, greed and arrogance from them.
Amba is the power who resides in the Kundalini in a coiled form. When the
Kundalini is raised from the sacrum bone of a human being, she rises with
it, goes up towards the brain, opening up the six nerve centers along the
spine, called chakras (mooladhara, Swadisthana, manipura, anahata,
vishuddi, Agnya) and reaches the sahasrara chakra in the brain. There she
connects with the divine.
There are other forms of the Mother Goddess. For example, Annapoorna
Devi, as the name suggests, is the mother who provides food to her
children. She is worshipped during Akshaya Tritiya and during Deepavali
in the Northern regions, especially in Banares. Sarvamangala Devi is the
Goddess who is kind and spreads happiness all around. In fact, it is Devi
Sati, who is worshipped through Sarvamangala. There is a temple for her
in Bodh Gaya in Bihar. Devi is also worshipped as Jagaddhatri (upholder
of the world) and as Vasanti (spring goddess). Amba or Jagdamba, the
mother of the universe, is popular in Gujarat. In Maharashtra, she is
worshipped as Bhavani. She is the inspiration of Maratha warriors out at
war. She killed the asura, Matanga.
Goddess Mookambika has a famous temple at Kollur in Karnataka. She killed
Mookasura. Tripurasundari, aka Lalita, signifies beauty and the glory of
the three worlds. She is the foremost and purest form of Adi Shakti. She
is made up of three different Goddesses - Shodashi – the Goddess of
youth, Lalita – who signifies childhood and Rajarajeshvari who is the
Queen.
There are also local Devis apart from the regular ones. Tamilnadu,
especially boasts of a large number of local Gods and Goddesses. They
usually have their temples outside the village or near cremation grounds,
to highlight their roles as village guardians. Thus they are called as
Ellai Deivam (Border Gods) or Kaaval Deivam (Guardian Gods). Some Devis
are also found inside the villages, but the Gods generally stay out.
The statues of such deities are huge and fierce looking. Sometimes they
are simply plain stones. They carry weapons like trident, sickle or
sword. We also see lots of terracotta figures of horses, elephants, human
forms and birds near them. Their officiating priests are never Brahmins.
They often act as fortune tellers (kodangi). The priesthood remains in
the same family. The worship is non-Vedic and follows local traditions.
The popular Ammans (Devis) are Angala Amman, Kulumayi, Pidari, Mari
Amman, Katteri, Iranyayi, Pechchi, Kaththayi, Ellai Amman, Poovadaikari,
Pachchai Amman

and Solai Amman. Some of them may have Puranic roots – Kaththayi may be
Katyayani and Iranyayi may be Hiranmayi or Lakshmi. Pechchi may stand for
speech in Tamil and thus represent Saraswathi.
Mostly, females who died as virgins and ladies who sacrificed their lives
for a social cause or to prove their chastity are elevated to the status
of a Goddess. A female killed by injustice is often deitified to save the
village from her wrath later. Kannagi, Maachani Amman, Palayanur Neeli
and Nalla Thangal come under one of these categories. Female characters
from the Mahabharata like Draupati, Kunti, Gandhari and Hidimbi are also
worshipped.
Some popular deities evolve to more acceptable norms. The garland of
skulls in many cases has now become a garland of lemons. Faces look more
benign. Animal sacrifices are stopped in some cases and the deities had
become vegetarian. Idols of Ganesha and Murugan get added in some temples
to identify the deity with Parvati. Regular temples with big towers get
constructed for them and Vedic worships take place in them.
The Navaratri is the most important festival for the Devi and is
celebrated all over India in different forms. There are two Navaratris.
The Chaitra Navaratri ends with Rama Navami and the popular Sharada
Navaratri ends with Durga Puja and Dussehra.
During Navaratri, the traditional Nava Durgas, mentioned earlier, are
worshipped. The celebrations vary from place to place. Some people fast
while others feast. Some revere the Devi while others revere Rama.
The Navaratri is popular in the Vaishnavo Devi temple in Katra, close to
Jammu. In Gujarat, prayers are dedicated to a clay pot called garbo,
symbolic of the womb of the universe. The garba dance uses dandiyas
(Kolattam in Tamil - sticks), coordinated movements and striking of
sticks between the dancers and teasing between the genders. In Karnataka,
Navaratri is called Dasara and it is the state festival (Nadahabba). In
Mysore, on the last day, the king will be riding an elephant in a
procession.
Tamil Nadu celebrates it with a display of dolls called Golu. People set
up their own creative themes in their homes Golu, invite each other to
visit their homes and exchange gifts and sweets. This tradition is also
found in Andhra Pradesh where it is called Bommala Koluvu, and in
Karnataka where it is called Gombe Habba or Gombe totti. In Telengana,
the women produce Bathukkamma, an artistic flower decoration, using
marigolds, which revere the three Devis.
Ayudha Puja usually coincides with the 10th day, when weapons are
maintained, decorated and worshipped. Tradesmen and farmers similarly
worship their own equipment of the trade.

The Rajputs especially worship their weapons and horses during Navratri,
and offer a goat as sacrifice to a goddess called Kuldevi – the family
deity. Nowadays, the tradition of animal sacrifice is being substituted
with vegetarian offerings in many places.
That is evolution for you.
5.4 The Legends of Brahma
Brahma and Brahman
Before we proceed, let us clearly understand the four terms - Brahma,
Brahman, BrAhman (Brahmin) and Brahmanas. Brahma is a male deity, in the
Puranic literature, who creates the world and the life forms. Brahman is
an abstract concept, found mainly in the Upanishads. BrAhman (Brahmin) is
a caste among the Hindus, who started as priests and preservers of sacred
literature but now follow different professions. The Brahmanas are books
and one of the four components of the Vedas.
The existence of a distinct deity named Brahma is seen only in late Vedic
texts but the spiritual concept of Brahman is far older. In Sanskrit, the
noun stem brahman can form either a neuter noun or a masculine noun. The
masculine noun becomes Brahma. The neuter noun is Brahman. Hence many
scholars suggest that the deity Brahma may have emerged as a personalized
version of Brahman in the beginning.
Brahma’s life span
According to Hindu cosmology, there are 14 worlds. Seven are below the
earth, ending with Paataala. Seven more are above, starting with the
earth. The highest is Brahma loka, presided over by Brahma. That shows
Brahma’s importance. Perhaps, worlds like Vaikunta and Kailasa were not
known when this idea was formulated.
Brahma is the deity, who creates time. Human time is correlated to
Brahma's time. A Maha kalpa, equal to 4.32 billion years, is one day of
Brahma. His night is equally long. Linga Purana gives the calculations as
follows:
There are four Yugas called Krita Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali
Yuga. We are now in Kali Yuga. The duration of all the four Yugas put
together, called a Maha Yuga, is 12,000 divine years or 4.32 million
mortal years. It is divided as 4:3:2:1 between the four Yugas
respectively. One day for the divines is equal to one year for the
mortals. (The number of days in the year is taken as 360).
A thousand Maha Yugas is one Maha Kalpa or 4.32 billion mortal years! The
universe exists only for a single ‘Maha kalpa’ and then gets dissolved in
a ‘pralaya’! Then Brahma sleeps for 4.32 billion years. When he gets up,
he creates the world again. It repeats on a daily basis for 100 Brahma
years. Then Brahma dies and is reborn after 100 Brahma years and the
whole process repeats. Similar calculations for Shiva or Vishnu do not
seem to exist.

Brahma’s birth and creation of the universe

There are several variants to this theory of creation in the texts. There
is the first creation followed by several secondary creations is one
theory. A continuous process of creation, evolution, dissolution and re-
creation is another. Brahman or Purusha is always the first creator,
while Brahma or a Prajapati for each cosmic cycle (kalpa) is usually the
secondary creator.
The Shatapatha Brahmana says that Brahma was born of the supreme Brahman
and the female energy known as Maya. Wishing to create the universe,
Brahman first created the water, in which he placed his seed. This seed
transformed itself into a golden egg, from which Brahma appeared. Hence,
Brahma is also known as ‘Hiranya garbha’.
After being born, Brahma created 11 forefathers of the human race
(‘Prajapatis’) and the seven sages (Saptarishis) out of his mind to
assist him in the creation process. They are his ‘Manasa putras’ (born of
mind). The list includes the four Kumaras, Daksha, Kardama, Narada,
Marichi, Kratu, Pulaha, Pulasthya and the rest.
Then Brahma created the four types of lives: gods, demons, ancestors, and
men. The first man was Manu. The demons were born from Brahma's thigh and
so he abandoned his own body which then became Night. Next, Brahma
created the gods and abandoned his body again, which then became Day.
Hence demons are strong at night and gods rule the day. Brahma then
created ancestors and men, each time abandoning his body and they became
Dusk and Dawn respectively.
Then he made all living creatures upon the earth.
The gods feared that men could become powerful and challenge the reign of
Gods. Therefore, they asked Brahma for a way out. The Mahabharata says
that then Brahma created women. He also created desire (kama) and anger
(krodha) as its assistant. All creatures under the influence of desire
and anger got attached to the females."
Then Brahma created Death. Some texts say that she was the first female
created by Brahma. That was to ensure the balance to the universe and to
prevent its over-crowding. Death is graphically described in the
Mahabharata as "a dark woman, wearing red garments, with red eyes and red
palms and soles, adorned with divine ear-rings and ornaments". She is
given the job of "killing all creatures" without exception.
Death was sad at this order. She wept and begged Brahma to change her job
but Brahma was firm and sent her away. Death performed tapas for
thousands of years to please Brahma but Brahma would not budge. So,
Death, still sobbing, performs her duties. Her tears falling on the
earth, become diseases. Her tears ensure that the diseases are on the
increase.
Anyway, thanks to death, the mortals can never become gods.

Brahma and the Trinity

The earliest mention of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth
Chapter of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad. (verse 5.1, aka Kutsayana Hymn).
It equates the Atman with Brahma and with other manifestations of
Brahman: "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra, thou art
Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Indra, thou art All."
The next verse (5.2) equates Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva with the three
gunas - Rajas, Sattva and Tamas - respectively. The Upanishad says: That
part of him which belongs to Rajas, that, O students of Veda, is this
Brahma. While Brahma’s quality is Rajas, his consort Saraswati is pure
Sattva thus complementing him. Saraswati is "the embodiment of his power,
the instrument of his creation and the energy of his actions". However
the text does not declare Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva as the Trimurtis. Vedic
texts have multiple other trinities which exclude not only Brahma but the
other two as well.
Brahma is to be found more in scriptures than at homes and temples.
Perhaps, Brahma always maintains his status as the creator god and is
less involved in the delightful myths where gods take a human form and
perform various deeds. He is generally an abstract or metaphysical ideal
of a great god. Brahma's epithet is eka hamsa, the One Swan. (Swan is
always associated with Atma – Hamsa Soham).
Brahma does not take any avatar. Instead, he descends directly whenever
or wherever required by his devotees. It is Brahma who awarded the boons
to most of the Asuras. In many places where Brahma appears in the
Mahabharata, he is the supreme God. Even in warfare, Brahmastra is the
last word and scores over Pashupata Astra of Shiva and Narayana Astra of
Vishnu.
The situation changes totally as we go to the Puranas, which are mostly
sectarian. Brahma loses his position to Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti. In the
Bhagavata Purana, Brahma rises from the navel of Vishnu, at the moment
when time and universe are born.
Shiva-related Puranas declare that Brahma is born as an aspect of Shiva.
The Ardha Narisvara (the half-Shiva, half-Parvati manifestation), created
both Brahma and Vishnu. Yet another version says that Vishnu, Shiva and
Brahma create each other cyclically in different kalpas. In Skanda
Purana, Parvati, the "mother of the universe", creates Brahma, gods, and
the three worlds. In most such texts, Brahma seems to be a secondary god.
A sympathetic explanation is that creation has been streamlined and
Brahma's role in it has been minimized or over. It is now left to Vishnu
and Shiva to play their roles. A political explanation is that the sects,
warring among themselves like opposition parties, have joined together to
dislodge the ruling party.
Brahma’s Appearance

Brahma is also known as Chaturmukha (with 4 faces), Svayambu (self-born),

Vagisa (lord of Speech or lord of Goddess of speech), Vedanatha (god of
Vedas), Gyaneshwar (god of Knowledge) and Pitamaha (grandfather).
In Chaturmukha form, Brahma has four arms and four faces, each face
pointing to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons since he is a
symbol of knowledge and creation. He holds the Vedas in one hand and a
rosary (mala) in another, symbolizing time. In the third hand, he holds a
ladle to feed the sacrificial fires. (Brahma is summoned in the Yagna to
supervise the ritual in the form of Prajapati). He has a kamandalu in his
fourth had. It is a utensil with water symbolizing the origin of
creation. He is often shown with a white beard, implying his sage-like
experience. He sits on a lotus, dressed in white (or red, pink), with his
vehicle, a swan, nearby.
The Manasara-Silpasastra states that a Brahma statue should be golden in
color, have jata-mukuta-mandita (matted hair of an ascetic), and wear a
crown. The text details the different proportions of the idol and
describes its ornaments. The idol should wear a chira (bark strip) as the
lower garment to show his rishi-like nature. He is either alone or with
Saraswati, his wife, who as per one legend, bore him the four Vedas, all
branches of knowledge, the Raginis and Ragas of music, concepts like
Memory and Victory, yogas, speech, Sanskrit and the various units of
measurement and time.
How Brahma lost his fifth head
Brahma originally had five heads but lost his fifth head. Matsya Purana
gives an interesting story. Brahma formed from his own body a female who
is called Satarupa (meaning hundred shapes - aka Savitri, Sarasvati,
Gayatri, and Brahmani). Satarupa was extremely beautiful and Brahma kept
staring at her. Satarupi turned right to avoid his gaze, but a second
head appeared on Brahma and he continued to look at her.
As she passed to the left, and behind him, to avoid his gaze, two other
heads successively appeared on Brahma. Then she sprang into the sky and
Brahma’s fifth head appeared, looking skyward. Then she ran to Shiva for
help, who got angry with Brahma for such a behavior and cut off his 5th
head as a punishment.
Satarupa is perhaps an allegory. Another version says that she took the
shape of different life forms and Brahma took the corresponding male form
and the two produced all kinds of animated beings. Then they withdrew to
a secluded spot and lived there for 100 divine years, at the end of which
was born Swayambhuva Manu.
Several Puranas give several stories, to account for the loss of Brahma’s
fifth head. The Gods and sages once assembled together on the top of
Meru, for a grand meeting. The holy sages requested Brahma to explain the
true nature of the Brahman; but Brahma, under delusion, asserted his own
importance to the sages at that time. To remove his

arrogance, Shiva assumed the form of the terrible Bhairava and cut off
Brahma’s fifth head with the nail in his left thumb.
Why there are no temples for Brahma?
Why the worship of Brahma has stopped? The Skanda Purana says that it is
due to the curse of Shiva for uttering a lie. Once Brahma and Vishnu
began to argue as to who was the greater of the two. Then Shiva appeared
before them as a gigantic linga of light and told both that if either of
them could find the end of the linga, He will be declared the winner.
Brahma took the form of a swan and flew to the top. Vishnu took the form
of a boar and went down to locate the bottom. The two kept searching for
years.
Vishnu realized that Shiva was greater than both him and Brahma but
Brahma decided to trick Shiva. He requested the Ketaki flower to testify
before Shiva that Brahma had reached the top of the linga and had seen
the end. The flower collaborated. Shiva became furious at this lie and
cursed that no one shall ever worship Brahma on earth.
There is yet another elaborate legend in this regard. Brahma planned to
perform a great sacrifice in Pushkara (in Rajasthan). All the Gods and
the sages went there along with Brahma and Savitri to perform the same.
As the function was about to start, Savitri, was found missing on the
spot. She was still at her residence, dressing up. When a priest went to
call her, she gave some excuses for the delay. Lakshmi, Bhavani, Ganga,
Svaha and Indrani (the wives of the other gods) have not yet arrived. How
could she, the wife of the leader, enter the assembly first and alone?
The priest returned and told Brahma. According to rules, the rituals
could not be initiated without the wife of the chief performer. Brahma,
incensed at the conduct of Savitri, told Indra to fetch a wife from
wherever he could find one.
Indra accordingly brought a young, beautiful, smiling milkmaid, called
Gayatri to the assembly. Brahma, with the consent of the gods and the
sages, made her his wife quickly and began the proceedings. Gayatri, as
Brahma’s wife, immediately became the mother of the Vedas, and the cause
of purity in all worlds.
As Savitri walked in later with the wives of Vishnu, Rudra and the other
gods, she saw the milkmaid in her place and the priests already busy with
the sacrifice. Brahma explained to her that the time for the sacrifice
was passing away and hence this had to be done. Savitri was not amused.
Incensed with anger, she cursed everyone around, by the powers obtained
from her tapas.
Savitri cursed Brahma that he shall never be worshipped in a temple or in
a sacred place on earth. Indra, for being an accomplice, would be bound
in chains by his enemies in future and confined in a strange country. His
city shall be occupied by his enemies. Vishnu, for his crime, shall be
born amongst men and his wife will be carried away by his enemy. She also
cursed Rudra that he shall lose his manhood.
Savitri left the assembly in rage and was accompanied for a while by
Lakshmi and the other goddesses, who returned back quickly to attend the
sacrifice. That made Savitri curse Lakshmi that she shall never remain in
one place and will be found in the company of contemptible sinners and
barbarians (flush with wealth). To Indrani she said that Nahusha would in
future, acquire Indra’s kingdom, along with Indrani. Savitri then cursed
the wives of the gods collectively that they will all remain barren.
After Savitri's angry departure, Gayatri modified the curses to some
extent. Those who worship Brahma will finally be absorbed into him. Indra
will be bound but his son would release him. Vishnu should regain his
lost wife. Rudra’s linga will be universally worshipped as his
representative.
Bhavishya Purana gives a different reason for the lack of temples for
Brahma on earth. The demons had begun to worship Brahma and got stronger
and the Gods could not easily defeat them. Vishnu appeared on Earth as
Buddha and convinced the demons to stop worshiping Brahma and the
practice spread. Gods became stronger by default.
Lack of temples for Brahma is a popular topic in Hindu mythology. The
Sthala Purana of Tirupathi says that it was Rishi Brighu’s curse that did
it. There must be more variants to the theme. Whatever may be the reason,
we do not find many temples for Brahma, although he is glorified in the
old texts. Worship of Brahman itself had never been practiced in the
Vedic days. The sacrifices were for the Gods, not for Brahman.
Brahma temples in India
However, the fact is that there are still a few temples for Brahma in
India. The one in Pushkar in Rajasthan is the most famous. In Asotra
village, Barmer District, Rajasthan, there is a Kheteshwar Brahmadham
Tirtha.
Brahma’s idols are found in several temples in Tamilnadu as a parivara
devata or he is also one of the main deities along with Shiva or Vishnu.
Thanumalayan Temple, near Kanyakumari, Uththamarkoil, Thiru Kandiyur and
Thiruppattur, all near the city of Tiruchi, and temples in Kodumudi,
Hosur and Kumbakonam have idols of Brahma.
In Kerala, the Ponmeri Shiva temple in Thirunavaya contains a shrine for
Brahma. Temples in Kalahasthi and Chebrolu in Andhra have Brahma idols.
In Goa, a huge Brahma statue belonging to the 5th century, stands in a
remote village called Carambolim in Sattari Taluk. In Maharashtra, there
is a Brahma temple at a place called Mangalvedha, 52 km from the Sholapur
and one more in Sopara near Mumbai. Khedbrama in Gujarat and Brahmakuti
in Kanpur also have temples for Brahma.
Brahma in other countries
Southeast Asia still remembers Brahma. Cambodia's Angkor Wat contains a
shrine to Brahma. Prambanan temple complex in Yogyakarta, central Java
(Indonesia) has three large temples (9th century CE), dedicated to
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.

A statue of Brahma is present at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand

and continues to be revered in modern times. The golden dome of the
Government House of Thailand houses a statue of Phra Phrom (Thai name of
Brahma – is it Para Brahma?). An early 18th-century painting at Wat Yai
Suwannaram city of Thailand depicts Brahma. The name of Burma is said to
be derived from Brahma. In medieval texts, the country was referred to as
Brahma-desa.
In Cambodian art, Brahma is known as Prah Prohm. He is represented with
four heads and is riding the sacred hamsa. It is a popular form of
depiction in Javanese art too and he is referred to as Hansavahana. In
Tibet, where Brahma is known as Tshangs-pa or White Brahma, he often
rides a horse and carries a white bull and a sword in his hands.
The Tenggerese sect of Javanese Hindus in Indonesia believe that Mount
Bromo is Brahma himself and make pilgrimage during the Yadnya Kasada
ritual (aka Kesodo ritual), when people express their appreciation to
their gods for the blessings shown.
There are quite a few temples devoted to Brahma in China and Taiwan. He
is known in Chinese as Simianshen (Four faced God) or Fantian. His name
in Japanese is Bonten.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American philosopher, wrote a poem called
"Brahma" that was published in the Atlantic in 1857, which shows many
aspects of Hindu philosophy. In it he describes Brahma as "unchanging
reality" in contrast to Maya, "the changing, illusory world of
appearance."
5.5 Vishnu - the all pervasive God
Yaska, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as 'vi??ur vi?vater va vyasnoter
va', meaning 'one who enters everywhere', adding 'atha yad vi?ito bhavati
tad vi?nurbhavati', meaning 'that which is free from fetters and bondage
is Vishnu'.
Vishnu is a Rig Vedic deity, but not as prominent as say, Indra, Agni,
Surya or Varuna. Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rig Veda are dedicated
to Vishnu, though He is mentioned in several other hymns along with other
Gods. Some prominent hymns: - [1-154 (i-vi), 1-155 (i-vi), 1-156 (i-v),
5-3 (iii), 6-69 (i-viii), 7-99(i-vii), 7-100 (i-vii)].
Vishnu finds a more prominent place in the Brahmanas. His profile rises
as we move on to the epics, Puranas and Agamas. By the end of them, He
has become a divinity of the highest rank, equivalent to the Supreme
Being.
Rig Veda asserts (in the hymns 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3) that Vishnu
resides in that highest home where the departed Atmans reside. Vishnu is
also addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a
characteristic he shares with Indra (Rig Veda 7.99). The hymn considers
both as equivalent. He is often invoked with Indra, whom he helps in
killing Vritra. He is considered the friend of Indra (king). In most
places of Rig Veda, you may find, Indra, Indra-Vishnu , Vishnu all used
interchangeably. Agni and Vishnu are together invoked in Sri Rudram’s
Chamakam.

Vishnu is also associated with light. He is also Surya or Savitr – the

Sun god, who is also called Surya narayana. Similarly, Vishnu is linked
to Mitra and Agni. They "bring men together" and cause all life forms to
rise up and also push them to go about their daily activities. The word
Aditya comes from adadanah - move along carrying all with them. In the
Rig Veda, the Atharvana Veda and the Upanishads, Vishnu is also treated
as equivalent to Prajapati. Both are described as the protector and
preparer of the womb.
There is no mention of Narayana in Rig Veda and it first occurs in
Naraya?a Suktam, the 13thanuvaka of the Maha naraya?a Upani?ad, which is
the 10th chapter (prapa?haka) of Taittiriya Ära?yaka. Narayana is
mentioned as the Supreme Being in the Suktam. The words paramam padam, in
that Suktam literally mean highest post and refers to the supreme abode
for all souls. Rig Veda (1.22.20) also mentions the same paramam padam,
in reference to Vishnu.
There are legends to suggest that Nara –Narayanas are a pair of rishis.
However, Manu Smriti, A dharma Sastra, gives a different interpretation.
It states (Ch. 1, Verse 10) that the waters are called narah, (for) the
waters are, indeed, the offspring of Nara; as they were his first
residence (ayana), he thence is named Narayana. In the Mahabharata,
Krishna is synonymous with Narayana and Arjuna is referred to as Nara.
The epic identifies them both in plural as 'Krishnas', or as part
incarnations of the earlier incarnations of Vishnu, recalling their
mystical identity as Nara-Narayana.
In the Atharvana Veda, the legend of a boar that raises goddess earth
from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, but Vishnu is not mentioned here
by name. Much later, the boar became an avatar of Vishnu.
Similarly, the Trivikrama legend is found in several hymns of the Rig
Veda. It is found as an artwork in the Ellora caves as well. Trivikrama,
with his first step covers the earth, with second, the antariksha, and
with the third, entire heaven. (It doesn’t talk about Maha Bali’s head
for the third step).
The Vishnu Sukta (Rig Veda 1.154) says that the first and second of
Vishnu's strides are visible to the mortals and the third can be seen
only by the immortals.
vi??ornu ka? virya?i pra voca? ya? parthivani vimame raja?si| yo
askabhayaduttara? sadhastha? vicakrama?astredhorugaya? ||1||
It means – ‘I will now proclaim the heroic deeds of Vishnu, who has
measured out the terrestrial regions, who established the upper abode
having, wide-paced, strode out triply’.
In Rig Veda (01.22), dealing with Asvins and Others, the following verses
are found. 16. The Gods be gracious unto us even from the place whence
Vi??u strode through the seven regions of the earth! 17. Through all this
world strode Vi??u; thrice his foot he planted, and the whole was
gathered in his footstep's dust. 18. Vi??u, the Guardian, he whom none
deceiveth,

made three steps; thenceforth Establishing his high decrees. Maha Bali
appears only in the Puranic versions.
The Shatapatha Brahmana elaborates this theme of Vishnu and describes how
Vishnu by this act, saved both the mortals and the Devas. In this text,
Purusha Narayana (Vishnu) asserts, "I have placed all the worlds within
myself, and I have placed myself within all the worlds". The text also
equates Vishnu to all the knowledge there is (Vedas).
However, these texts, while praising Vishnu do not run down the others
gods and goddesses like in the later Puranas. Although the gods are
sometimes distinctly invoked as the young and the old (Rig Veda 1:27:13),
nowhere is any of the gods shown as a subordinate to others. If one
searches hard, one can find a verse for any God, which praises Him as the
supreme God and absolute in some hymn of the Rig Veda or the other.
When it comes to Upanishads, there are at least 14 Vaishnava Upanishads
in the list of 108 Upanishads, given in Muktikopanishad. They highlight
Vishnu, Narayana or one of his avatars as the supreme reality.
The epics deal with Vishnu’s avatars and not much with Vishnu. While the
Ramayana deals with Rama’s life from beginning to end, in Mahabharata,
Krishna is introduced as the King of Dvaraka and as the chieftain of a
Yadava clan. There is no reference at all to Krishna, the child and his
mischief in Brindavan. The Bhagavad Gita, a part of Mahabharata,
envisions the universe as the body of Vishnu (Krishna). Vishnu pervades
all souls, all matter and time.
Among the Vishnu-oriented Puranas, the Bhagavata, Vishnu, Naradeeya,
Garuda and Vayu Puranas extol Vishnu to the skies, though they contradict
each other in some details. They also act as tourist guides for Vishnu
temples and are called mahatmyas. One legend says that Vishnu's eye is at
the Celestial Pole, from where he watches the cosmos. The Vayu Purana
(4.80) says that he is the Hiranya Garbha - the golden egg, from which
were simultaneously born all life forms.
The Vishnu Purana considers Vishnu as the central force of the universe,
just as other Puranas dedicated to Shiva or Brahma or Shakti consider
their respective deity as that central force. The worship of Vishnu is
described in 22 chapters in Vishnu Purana. Names such as Hari, Janardana,
Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha etc., are used synonymously for Vishnu.
Bhagavata Purana equates Vishnu with Brahman. "Learned seers who know the
Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as Brahman, Paramatman and
Bhagavan."(1.2.11). This Purana is the most popular and widely read
Purana and it mainly relates to Krishna. It has been translated into
almost all Indian languages.
Unlike the Vedic and Upanishadic texts, many Vishnu oriented Puranas
emphasize that other gods depend on Vishnu. For example, Vishnu's idols
typically show Brahma

being born in a lotus emerging from his navel and Shiva was created by
Brahma, a third generation God with respect to Vishnu. In contrast, the
Shiva based Puranas declare that Brahma and Vishnu were created by Ardha
nariswara, who is half-Shiva, half- Parvati.
In some Vaishnava Puranas, Vishnu takes the form of Rudra or commands
Rudra to destroy the world. Thereafter the entire universe dissolves
along with time and everything is reabsorbed back into Vishnu. The
universe is then recreated from Vishnu all over again, starting a new
Kalpa. For this the Bhagavata Purana employs the metaphor of Vishnu as a
spider and the universe as his web. In Shiva based Puranas, Shiva does
the same job.
Some Tamilians claim that Perumaal or Thirumal, also known as Maayon in
the Tamil literature, became a manifestation of Vishnu in later texts but
there are also claims that it is the other way.
The Bhakti Movement played a major role is the popularization of both
Vishnu and Shiva. It gradually built up from the Puranic days and
ultimately swept India after the 12th century CE. In Tamilnadu, it
started with the Nayanmars and Alvars of Tamilnadu, between the 6th and
9th centuries, CE. The Alvars (means "those immersed in God") were Tamil
Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from
place to place. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya
Prabhandam, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas.
The Bhagavata Purana’s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along
with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South
Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence
excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments
in other parts of India. There also skeptics who dump such passages as
later interpolations.
Agamas: In the Pancaratra agamas (mentioned briefly earlier) Vishhnu is
presented as Narayana and Vasudeva. Narayana is presented as the ultimate
reality (Brahman).The Pancaratra texts present the Vyuhas theory of
avatars to explain how Brahman manifests into avatars of Vishnu. It
states that the creation emerged through vyuhas (arrangements).
In the beginning, there was only Vasudeva Krishna. (Vasudeva means
"indwelling deity"). It ‘arranged’ into Sankarshana (Balarama) as the
lord over all life. Then it became Pradyumna creating mind and then
Aniruddha, as ego (ahamkara). Brahma emerged from Aniruddha and created
the empirical universe. In a way, Brahma becomes a fifth generation God.
Thus, the divinity is everywhere in Pancaratra, but in different aspects,
one form emerging from the previous.

The Vaikhanasa is another Agama but is regarded as a Vedic orthodox sect.

Vaikhanasas reject some elements of the Pañcaratra and Sri Vaishnava
traditions. The Vaikhanasas generally resist the incorporation of the
devotional elements of the Alvar tradition, while the Pañcaratras are
open to this incorporation.
Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and
spiritual), is the wife and active energy of Vishnu. She is also called
Sri because she is the source of eight auspicious strengths for Vishnu.
When Vishnu incarnated on the Earth as the avatar of Rama and Krishna,
Lakshmi incarnated as Sita and Rukmani, his consorts in the respective
avatars. In Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition, Vishnu and Sri (Lakshmi) are
described as inseparable, that they pervade everything together. Both
together create, pervade and transcend their creations.
Garuda is Vishnu's mount or vahana. Sometimes he is shown as a bird,
while at other times, he is shown as a man with a bird’s beak, and Vishnu
is seen riding on his shoulders. Garuda is also considered as Vedas on
which Lord Vishnu travels. The Garuda Purana describes how Garuda quickly
carries Lord Vishnu to save the Elephant Gajendra from a crocodile. This
is a popular legend.
Shesha naga or Adi shesha (first Shesha) or Ananta Shesha (endless
Shesha) is the King of all snakes and one of the primal beings of
creation. Puranas say that Shesha holds the world on his hood. When
Adishesa uncoils, time is said to move forward and creation takes place;
when he coils back, the universe winds back and ceases to exist. Vishnu
rests on Shesha, who is his servant and also His manifestation.
Since Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in
different Hindu denominations, it is but natural that they are shown
together in one form. Harihara is such a form - half Vishnu and half
Shiva. It is mentioned in the Vamana Purana (chapter 36), and as an
artwork, it is found in the caves 1 and 3 of the 6th-century Badami cave
temples. Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called
Harirudra, is mentioned in Mahabharata.
Madhvacharya considers Vishnu in the form of Krishna to be the supreme
creator, personal God, all-pervading, all devouring, one whose knowledge
and grace leads to "moksha". In Madhva’s theology, the supreme Vishnu and
the souls of living beings are two different realities (dvaitam-
duality), while in Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism, they are different but
share the same essential nature (visishtadvaita - qualified non-dualism).
In Hindu mythology, Vishnu is depicted as having a dark blue / black
complexion, wearing yellow colored silk garments, earrings in the shape
of sharks (makara), a garland called Vaijayanti around his neck, and the
Kaustubha gem on his chest. He is typically shown with four arms, but two
armed representations are also found.

In his four arms, he holds a conch (called Panchajanya), a discuss

(sudharshana), a mace (kaumodaki) and a lotus. His bow is called Sharanga
and his sword is called Nandaka. He is depicted as reclining on the coils
of the serpent Shesha, with his consort Lakshmi. The conch shell is
spiral in shape and symbolizes the interconnected spiraling cyclic
existence, while the discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma
with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is disturbed by evil
forces. The mace (kaumodaki) symbolizes authority and power of knowledge.
The lotus flower symbolizes purity and transcendence.
The items he holds in various hands varies, giving rise to 24
combinations of iconography, each representing a particular avatar of
Vishnu. They are covered in detail in the Agni Purana and Padma Purana.
These texts, however, are inconsistent. Vishnu iconography shows him
either in standing pose, seated in a yoga pose, or reclining.
Vishnu temples and iconography probably existed by the 1st century BCE.
Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been
dated to the Gupta Empire period. There are two 1st century BCE
inscriptions in Rajasthan which refer to temples of Sankarshana and
Vasudeva.
The Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE mentions a Bhagavata temple.
Another inscription in Naneghat cave in Maharashtra by a Queen Naganika
also mentions Sankarshana and Vasudeva along with other major Hindu
deities. Several discoveries in Mathura relating to Vishnu, are dated to
1st century CE. A 2nd century CE idol, now in Mathura Museum is termed as
Caturvyuha Vi??u. The sculpture contains Krishna, his brother Balarama,
his son Pradyumna and his grandson Aniruddha.
The Sarvatobhadra temple in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh is dated to the early
6th century and features the ten avatars of Vishnu. Its design is based
on a square layout and Vishnu iconography broadly follows the 1st
millennium Hindu texts on architecture and construction such as the
Brihat Samhita and Vishnu dharmottara purana.
In the Padma Purana, Danta (Son of Bhima, the King of Vidarbha) lists 108
names of Vishnu (17.98-102). These include the ten primary avatars and
descriptions of their qualities and attributes.
The Anushasana Parva of Mahabharata and the Garuda Purana (chapter XV)
and Padma Purana list the 1000 names for Vishnu (Vishnu Sahasranama).
Each name describes a quality, attribute, or aspect of Vishnu. Notable
names in this list include Hari ('remover of sins'), Kala ('time'),
Vaasudeva ('Son of Vasudeva – i.e.Krishna), Atman ('the soul'), Purusha
('the divine being') and Prakriti ('the divine nature').
Interestingly, not all the ten avatars are mentioned in the Vishnu
Sahasranama: Based on Shankara's commentary, Varaha Avatar is mentioned
by the names Vrishakapi, Mahavaraha, Dharani Dharaha. (Similarly
Narasimha Avatar - Narasimha vapuh; Vamana

Avatar - Vamana, Upendra; Parasurama - Akhanda Parasu; Rama – Rama;

Krishna - Krishna, Vasudeva, Damodhara, Devaki Nandana and many more).
Notable omissions are Matsya, Kurma, Buddha/Balarama and Kalki avatars.
While Buddha is treated as an incarnation of Vishnu by some Hindu texts,
Buddhists in Sri Lanka treat Vishnu as the custodian of Sri Lanka and the
protector of Buddhism. According to Mahavamsa, Chulawamsa and folklore in
Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the custody to Vishnu. Others
believe that Buddha gave this task to Sakra (Indra) and Sakra delegated
this task to Vishnu.
Vishnu is also known as Upulvan or Uthpala Varna, meaning Blue Lotus
coloured. One theory is that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later
merged with Vishnu while another theory says that Uthpala Varna was an
early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic
Hinduism.
Vishnu cult in Sri Lanka was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in the
early 1700s. Vishnu images are seen in the ruins of Lanka’s medieval
capital Polonoruwa. Vishnu is found in several Buddhist temples in Sri
Lanka even now but contemporary Theravada monks are slowly purging the
Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples.
In the scriptures of Sikhism, Vishnu is referred to as Gorakh. Guru Nanak
teaches that the gurus (teachers) are " Isar (Isvar-Shiva) Gorakh
(Vishnu), Barma (Brahma) and mother Parbati (Parvati)", yet guru is the
one who is all and cannot be described.
The Sikhism lists 24 avatars of Vishnu and this includes Rama, Krishna
and Buddha. The Sanatan Sikhs claim that the Gurus of Sikhs are also
avatars of Vishnu, since their gurus brought light in the age of darkness
and saved people from the Mughals.
Vishnu’s statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of
South East Asia, following the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In Thailand,
several statues of four armed Vishnu have been found (4th – 9th century
CE). Similarly, Vishnu statues have been discovered (6th-8th century) in
Vietnam. Krishna statues (7th- 9th century CE) have been discovered in
Cambodia.
Vishnu statues (5th century or later) have been found in Indonesia too.
The legend of "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) seems to be popular in
many parts of Buddhist South East Asia. In some iconography, the
symbolisms of Surya, Vishnu and Buddha are fused. In Japan, Vishnu is
known as Bichu-ten and he appears in Japanese texts such as the 13th
century compositions of Nichiren.
During an excavation in an abandoned village of Russia in the Volga
region, an ancient image of Vishnu (7th-10th centuries CE) was found.
Middle Volga region was the original land of Ancient Russia.
An asteroid discovered by American astronomer Eleanor F. Helin in August,
1986 was named ‘4034 Vishnu’. It is a near-earth object, approximately
0.4 km in diameter.

Vishnu rocks are a type of volcanic sediment found in the Grand Canyon,
Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations are known as Vishnu's
temples.
Avatars of Vishnu
The idea of an avatar was distinct to Hinduism before a variation of it
was introduced into Mahayana Buddhism. Even in Hinduism, the concept is
mostly associated with Vishnu among the Trinities. Shiva has his
manifestations but no avatars. Brahma has no avatars either and has been
relegated to a lower position long ago.
The legends about the avatars of Vishnu is only in the Puranas, such as
Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, though Varaha and Vamana avatars find
a brief mention in the Vedas without an explicit link to Vishnu. Epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata are the sources for the avatars of Parasurama,
Rama, Balarama and Krishna.
The Matsya Purana says ‚When the end of an Age rolls around and time has
lost its strength, then Lord Vishnu is born among men. When the gods and
demons go to war, then Hari is born (47.32).' The Garuda Purana says,
‚For the protection of his creation, the unborn, undying Vasudeva made
various avatars' (1.13). Again, it says it says ‚When lord Hari descended
in order to annihilate the law of the demons and to preserve the law of
the Vedas and other laws . . . the unborn god assumed avatars (142.2).'
In Bhagavat Gita, Krishna makes the famous declaration: Whenever
righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.
For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil, and for
the establishment of dharma, I come into being age after age (4.7–8).
In the Mahabharata, Vishnu tells Narada that He will appear in the
following ten avatars: a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise, a fish, a boar, a Man-
lion, a dwarf, a Rama of Bhrigu's race, a Rama as the son of Dasaratha,
Krishna of the Sattwata race, and lastly as Kalki (Book 12, Santi Parva,
Chapter 340). Balarama and Buddha avatar are missing in this list when
compared to the popular lists and swan is added.
Several Puranas give lists of these avatars but the lists are neither
consistent nor exhaustive. For example, the Agni Purana dedicates entire
chapters to avatars but some of the chapters mention other avatars within
them. The Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars in Chapter 1, but mentions
other numbers elsewhere.
There is a competition between the Buddha and Balarama for a place in the
Dashavarara list. The Shiva Purana alone seems to prefer Balarama and
exclude the Buddha, while the majority prefers Buddha at the cost of
Balarama. The Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana by Buddha. Narada is not
specified as an avatar in the Matsya Purana but is present in the list of
Bhagavata Purana. Some avatars consist of two or more people (e.g. Nara-
Narayana, Rama and his 3 brothers and Krishna-Balarama in some cases).
Vishnu has many more avatars than the popular ten avatars, as per the
Puranas. The Matsya Purana (47.32-52), for instance, gives a list of
twelve avatars, while the Garuda

Purana (1.12-35) lists twenty-two. The Bhagavata Purana mentions twenty-

two avatars, but after listing them, it adds: ‚The avatars of Vishnu are
innumerable, like the rivulets flowing from an inexhaustible lake.
Rishis, Manus, gods, sons of Manus, Prajapatis, are all portions of him.'
Agni, Brahma and Skanda Puranas give the number as 12, 15 and 14
respectively. Linga Purana mentions that there were many more avatars
than what is mentioned, due to Bhrgu’s curse of Vishnu.
Vishnu incarnates himself in forms lower than humans, perhaps to check
the pride of man; a half man-half lion form may defy ordinary
rationality, but it points to the animal tendencies within us. The ten
avatars take us from lower forms of evolution to divinities in human
guise. Though this might look like a linear progression, many scholars
dismiss it as a mechanical interpretation.
On the other hand, some scholars interpret the avatars as a theory of
(Darwinian) evolution: an ascending order from simple life-forms to more
complex life-forms. Aurobindo regarded "Avataric Evolutionism" as a
"parable of evolution".
The avatars can be linked to geological eras as follows:
Matsya - fish (Paleozoic era; 542 million - 251 million years ago) Kurma
- amphibious tortoise (Mesozoic era; 251 million - 66 million years ago)
Varaha - boar (Cenozoic era; 66 million years ago to the present day.)
Narasimha - man-lion, semi-human (Cenozoic era) Vamana - dwarf. First
step towards the human form Parasurama – an angry, imperfect human Rama -
physically perfect, but befriends monkeys Krishna - son of Devaki,
perfect human Buddha - the reformer Kalki - yet to happen and the savior
Some Vaishnava Hindu sects, especially ISKCON, reject this concept. For
them it degrades the divine status of Rama and Krishna, both occurring
before the Buddha.
The female form (Matrika) of Vishnu is Vaishnavi, of Narasimha is
Narasimhi, Kurma is Kumari, Varaha is Varahi and so on. There is no
textual evidence to suggest that any of Matrikas are counted as avatars
of Vishnu.
Now we will have a brief look at each avatar.
Adi Purusha is often considered as the first and the primary avatar of
Lord Vishnu, though it doesn’t figure in many lists. Also known as Lord
Narayana, he is depicted lying on the curls of the serpent, Adhi Sesha.
Narayana is the source of all creation in the universe. It is from his
navel that the lotus sprouts and Brahma comes out of that.
Next we move on to the ten popular avatars.

In Matsya (fish) avatar , Vishnu takes the shape of a huge fish. The
Matsya Purana says that the fish informs Manu, the leader of the humans,
of the coming of a great flood and helps him to save all the living
beings, the Vedas and the seeds of all the plants. A demon, Hayagriva, in
the meantime, had stolen the Vedas, wants to destroy them and hides in
the huge ocean. The fish finds and kills the demon and returns the Vedas.
In Kurma (tortoise) avatar, Vishnu becomes a tortoise. The Gods and
demons decide to churn the ocean of milk, using the Mount Mandara as a
stirrer and the snake Vasuki as a rope wound around the mount. The
tortoise supports the mount on its shell. The churning produces both the
dangerous poison halakala and amrit, which gives immortality. Shiva
drinks the poison and saves world while the Gods trick the demons with
the help of Vishnu and keep the amrit for themselves.
Varaha (boar): Varaha is the half man-half boar avatar of Vishnu. He
rescues goddess earth (Bhudevi) when the mighty demon Hiranyaksha kidnaps
her and hides her in the ocean. The boar finds her and kills the demon.
The goddess holds onto the tusk of the boar as he lifts her back to the
surface. The legend is also found in the Veda, but Vishnu’s name is not
explicitly mentioned in it.
Narasimha (man-lion): Narasimha is the half lion-half man avatar of
Vishnu. Hiranyaksha, who was killed during Varaha avatar, has a brother,
Hiranyakashipu, who swears to avenge his brother’s death. Hiranyakashipu
practiced immense austerities and Brhama granted him the boons he asks
for. Then the Demon becomes enormously powerful, gains special powers and
no man or animal could kill him. Then he persecutes people who disagree
with him, including his own son Prahlad, a devotee of Vishnu.
Consequently Vishnu descends in the form of Narasimha, half-man and half-
lion. He creatively overcomes the demon’s special powers and kills the
demon. Then he rescues the demon's son Prahlad and establishes peace,
order and dharma on earth.
The first four incarnations took place during the satya-yuga aka Krita
Yuga (the first age).
Vamana (Dwarf): Vamana was born as a dwarf and a Brahmin. Bali, the chief
of the demons in the treta-yuga, or the second age, had acquired immense
powers on account of his tapas. Vishnu appeared as the dwarf, Vamana,
before Bali, when Bali was giving alms at a sacrifice. Bali offered the
dwarf any riches he wanted, but Vamana asked for only three steps of
land. Bali in his generosity agreed to grant the dwarf as much land as he
could cover in three steps. Vamana grew into an enormous size and took
the earth in his first step and all of heavens, in the second step. For
the third step, Bali offered his head and was pushed down to the
underworld. The legend of Vamana appears in the Vedas but only as a
brother of Indra, since both are sons of Aditi.
Parashurama : Parshurama is a Brahmin sage with an axe in his hand. He
was the son of Rishi Jamadagni and he was born to end the tyranny of the
evil Kshatriyas, who misused their powers and made others’ lives,
especially the Brahmins, miserable. Hence

Parashurama killed the kings and their warrior companions for 21

generations. Later he challenged Rama, the son of Dasaratha, and had to
concede defeat. He is one of the seven persons, blessed with eternal
life. In Mahabharata, he taught warfare to Karna, but also cursed him in
the end for telling a lie.
Rama: Rama is one of the most significant and powerful deities of Hindu
dharma and the lead character of the epic Ramayana. It is quite likely
that Rama was a local hero, who was ultimately elevated to the status of
a divinity; The Maryada-Purushottam (most righteous and dutiful human)
incarnation of Lord Vishnu is during the Treta Yuga or the second age. He
taught the value of morality and is well known to every Hindu.
Krishna : Krishna, the eighth avatar, similarly, was most likely a hero
or a minor king at first, and in the Mahabharata he is described as the
King of Dvaraka. He was eventually absorbed into the pantheon of Vishnu’s
avatars, but assumed such importance that he was taken to be the Supreme
Being himself by certain Vaishnava sects. He is the only one complete
(Purna) Avatar. Every Hindu is familiar with his life.
Balarama is the elder brother of Krishna and appears in Mahabharata. He
carries a plow as a weapon and is known for his strength. He taught the
use of ‘Gada’ (the mace) to Duryodhana and Bhima. He shares many
adventures with Krishna, including the killing of Kamsa. He is an avatar
of the serpent Sesha, as per some versions.
Buddha: Hindu texts give a totally different version of Buddha’s advent.
In the Kali Yuga, the demons had become very weak and their guru, Shukra,
advised them to perform Yagna to regain their strength, power and
authority. The Gods got scared and appealed to Vishnu, who took birth as
Siddhartha Gautama and became the Gautam Buddha, after enlightenment. He
founded Buddhism and taught people the Noble Eightfold Paths. As per the
Hindus, his main role was to dissuade the demons from performing Yagna in
the name of stopping animal sacrifice. The demons stopped performing
yagnas and became weaker without knowing it. Some scholars have pointed
to this as an illustration of the tendency within Hinduism to absorb its
rivals.
Kalki: Kalki avatar will take place at the end of Kali Yuga, the fourth
age and also the end of Maha Yuga. At that time, the sins would be all
pervading and the kings would themselves become thieves. Vishnu will then
take his last avatar as Kalki, in the village of 'Shambhal' in a Brahmin
family. Seated on a white horse, he will move around cutting all the
sinners into pieces with his sword and he will re-establish dharma on
earth and start a new Satya Yuga.
Having finished the Dashavatar, the avatars beyond the ten can now be
taken up. Bhagavata Purana lists 22 avatars and it can be taken as the
reference. Thus twelve more avatars remain to be discussed.

1. Four Kumaras : Sanaka, Sanatana, Sanandana, and Sanat Kumara are

described as the first mind-born sons of Brahma. Taken together, they are
considered to be a single avatar of Vishnu. Their purpose was to assist
Brahma in the creation of life but the four undertook lifelong vows of
celibacy against the wish of Brahma. They are experts in Vedas from their
childhood, and always wander together, throughout the universe without
any desire but with the purpose of teaching the ignorant. They appear
like infants in one version. Another legend depicts them as old men with
flowing beards, as they listen to Dakshina Murthi’s silent(!) lecture.
2.Sage Narada: Lord Vishnu, in his Sage Narada avatar, showed that
devotion is the best way to obtain freedom from the bondages of Karma.
Narada roams from place to place, across all the worlds mentioned in the
epics and the Puranas. He has this special ability to travel between
realms in an instant. He chants Narayana’s name all the time and sings
devotional songs with his Veena. A storyteller and musician, often he is
considered as the messenger of the gods and probably the first
journalist! He creates troubles wherever he goes but it always ends up on
a positive note.
3.Nara-Narayana Sages: A woman named Kala is the mother of Sages Nara-
Narayana, considered as a single avatar of Vishnu. They were born to
ensure Dharma on Earth. Symbolically, it is the human soul Nara, who is
the eternal companion of the Divine Narayana. Nara-Narayana performed
severe penance in Badrinath and showed the importance of Penance to the
world. Two mountains near Badrinath carry their names.
4.Kapila : Vishnu in his incarnation as sage Kapila, compiled all the
divine knowledge that had been lost on the Sankhya Shastra. Kapila is
mentioned in the Mahabharata. His mother Devahuti was his first disciple.
Later, Kapila, while in tapas in the patala loka, cursed the sons of King
Sagara and turned them into ashes for disturbing his tapas. Several years
later, King Baghirata, who came in that lineage of Sagara, did a severe
penance and brought the river Ganga from the heaven to the earth. The
Ganga water washed away the sins of the sons of Sagara and sent them to
the heaven.
5.Dattatreya: Dattatraya is the son of Sage Atri and his chaste wife,
Anasuya. He is depicted as a saint with three heads, representing Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva, and six hands. He is believed to be a sum of the
Trimurtis in mortal form and was the guru of Prahlada. He states that a
man can learn from each and every thing, and accepts 24 objects like
water, bird, air, a virgin and a prostitute as teachers. He is a master
of Yoga.
6.Yagna purusha: (Yagneswara) He is the personification of Yajna and the
protector of yajnas. He was symbolically born to Prajapati and Ahuti.
Indra has also been referred to as Yajna Purusha in some places.
7. Rishaba Deva: Rishabh Deva was born to king Nabhi and Marudevi.
Marudevi is considered to be the daughter of Indra. Rishaba attained that
state of Paramahamsa and

was given the title of 'Jina' which means a winner (of the spiritual
battle). His followers are known as Jains. He was the first of the 24
Tirthankaras.
8. King Prithu : The earth had concealed all the vegetations within her
and as a result the whole land had become barren. To protect the
humanity, Vishnu took the avatar of King Prithu and milked the cow
(earth). After that, the earth has remained full of vegetations. The name
Prithvi for earth came for Prithu.
9. Dhanvantari: Dhanvantari manifested from the ocean of milk, holding a
vessel filled with Amrita, during the churning of the ocean. He gave
Ayurveda Shastra to the world and is worshipped for gaining sound health.
10. Mohini : Mohini is a female avatar of Vishnu. She enchanted the
demons with her beauty into handing her the pot of Amrita, which they had
forcefully taken from the gods after the churning of the ocean. She,
then, distributed it only among the gods and thus protected the devas
from the demons. One demon sat between the sun and the moon during the
distribution and drank the Amrita, which made him immortal. Mohini cut
off his head and the two parts became Rahu and Ketu.
11. Hayagreeva : Hayagreeva is worshipped as the god of wisdom and
knowledge. He is the equivalent of Saraswati or Dakshina Murti for the
Vaishnavites. He has a man’s body, with a horse’s head. He retrieving the
Vedas, defeated darkness and restored to light and wisdom.
12. Vyasa: He is the son of sage Parashara and a fisherwoman Satyavati.
Sathyavati later married King Santhanu of Mahabharata. Vyasa divided the
corpus of Vedas into Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharvana Vedas and made one of
his disciples in charge of each part. He also wrote the eighteen Maha
puranas and the Mahabharata. Vyasa is the physical father of
Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura in Mahabharata.
In addition to the avatars discussed so far, the following persons are
also mentioned as avatars of Vishnu in some Purana or the other. The list
includes -
? Mandhatha or Mandhitri (from Matsya Purana): A king of Ikshvaku lineage
who
was born from his father Yuvanaswa’s body. The father mistakenly drank a
liquid meant for a rishi’s wife and he became pregnant. Mandhatha was
taken out of his father’s body by the Gods. He became a great king later.
He is mentioned in Rig Veda and his legend appears in Mahabharata.
? Manu (Bhagavata Purana): He is the first man and is also connected with
Matsya
avatar.
? Urukrama (Garuda Purana), Achyutha, Anatha, Suyajna (Hari) (Brahma
Purana):
Other names of Vishnu, each with a special meaning, which can be
ascertained from any commentary on Vishnu Sahasranama. They are also
considered as avatars.

? Yama/Dharma, Indra, Varuna (Brahma Purana) - Other Gods; Also,

considered
avatars of Vishnu in certain Puranas.
The Linga Purana’s statement that the number of avatars of Vishnu is
countless, due to the curse of Bhrigu, has been taken full advantage of
by the devotees of modern sages.
This concept had also been extended to other Gods.
For example, Shankara is taken to be an avatar of Shiva, while Ramanuja
is taken to be an avatar of Sesha, the serpent. Incidentally, Lakshmana
and Balarama are also considered to be avatars of Sesha. Madhva is
considered to be third avatar of Vayu, after Hanuman and Bhima (while
Hanuman himself is considered an avatar of Shiva by some sects).
Chaitanya is considered as another avatar of Vishnu or Krishna himself,
who, for the followers of Chaitanya, is Parabrahman himself. He is always
addressed as Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
5.6 Rudra Shiva – Adjective or noun?
The Ancient Rudra Shiva: The Shiva-related traditions are found all over
the Indian sub-continent and in Central Asia and the South East Asia.
Shiva seems to find a place in the prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka
rock shelters, near Bhopal (pre-10,000 BCE). Several pictures in it have
been variously explained as Shiva dancing, his trident and his mount
Nandi, but not with any finality.
Of the several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has
attracted attention shows a large central figure, with three heads,
horned or wearing a horned headdress, seated in a Yoga posture and
surrounded by animals. It has been identified as Pashupati, (Lord of
Animals), an epithet used for Shiva and identified it as a prototype of
Shiva. Many experts dispute this analysis and the arguments continue.
Rudra in Rig Veda: The Rig Veda Samhita has four hymns (RV.1.43; 1.114;
2.33; and 7.46) comprising 39 verses dedicated to Rudra. Other than
these, there are at least 75 references to Rudra in the Samhita. Most of
those occur in the First and the Second Mandalas of Rig Veda.
All the four hymns mention the fierce power of Rudra and pray to him not
to inflict his wrath upon them and their domestic animals; at other times
they request Rudra to ward off evil and to provide protection against
wicked forces.
Rudra is also Shiva, the auspicious one, who is easily pleased
(Ashutosha) with simple adulation. He is also Prachetasa (exceedingly
wise); Midustama (the highest of all) and Ishana (the overlord). He is
also Svayambhu (self generated - RV 7.84.4) and Trayambaka (three eyed -
7.59.19). He is the father of (hordes of) Rudras Rig Veda (2.33), a group
of

storm gods. Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel and another that is
kind and tranquil Rig Veda (10.92).
In the Rig Veda, Rudra appears in several forms and colors (puru-rupa).
He is ever youthful, most powerful, malevolent and terrifying deity. He
is the lord of thunderstorms and lightning, presiding over the entire
existence. He is endowed with sturdy limbs (vajra-bahu), a lustrous body,
decorated with ornaments such as necklaces (nishika) of dazzling
brilliance. He has flowing golden hair, which is brown or tawny
(Bablusha) or blue (Neela) in complexion. Shining like sun and glittering
like gold, he has charming lips. He is crowned with a mop of braided
locks of hair (Kapartin).
Pinaka, the powerful, sturdy bow with a wide span, bending along the
course of the Sun, is his weapon. He is Isana, the Lord with supremacy
over all others. In the later texts, Pinaka is also known as Ajagava, the
southern part of the Sun’s path. (Ajagava is also explained as a bow made
of the horns of goats). Rishi Grisamada, in hymn 2.33, hails the merciful
(jalasa) Rudra as the blissful god of all beings, the mightiest of the
mighty, who rests in his own glory. He is the ‘best of all the physicians
–Vaidyanatha’. In him, the power of divinity (Asurya) is inherent; and
that power never departs.
Rudra is referred fifteen times in this hymn (2.33), once in each stanza,
but a curious feature is that the name of Rudra is hidden in the middle
of a pada in every stanza. In the fourth Pada of the first stanza, for
example, the name ‘Rudra’ is hidden between Praja on both sides.(Praja-
yemathi Rudra Praja-bhih) (‘We want to be reborn, Oh Rudra, in our
children’). Another example is ‘ma tva Rudra cukrudhamanamobhir’. (Let us
not anger thee, O Rudra, with our faulty praise).
Rishi Vasishta, in the hymn (7.46), admires the wise and compassionate
Rudra, who wields a firm bow and swift arrows to chasten the unrighteous.
Thus, even while Rudra is ferocious, he acts as the upholder of the moral
order and the protector of the good.
Rudra is devoted to his devotees. He is always travelling in the
chariot. He is fierce like the lion and vanquishes his enemies. The
devotee requests Rudra to fight against their enemies but be merciful
towards him and his relatives. Rudra is the father of worlds (Bhuvanasya
pitaram). He commands men and entrusts tasks. He sets things in motion
and makes them flow like a river. He is medhavi, intelligent and the
compassionate one. He is praised for his generosity (midvah).
The Nirukta, the text on etymology, says, "Agni is also called Rudra." In
Sri Rudram, names like Saspiñjara (of golden red hue as of flame) and
Tiva?imati (flaming bright), suggest a fusing of Agni and Rudra. Agni is
said to be a bull (his horns are mentioned) and Shiva uses it as his
vehicle. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and Bhairava, a form of Shiva,
have flaming hair as a special feature.

Shiva in Veda: As Rudra is auspicious (mangalakara), he is also called

Shiva in Rig Veda. (RV: 2-33-7; 6-49-10; 7-46-2). The term Shiva occurs
18 times as an adjective in the Rig Veda, meaning auspicious (siva?
svava? – 10.92.9) but not as a proper noun. The word is used to describe
several deities including Rudra. In Yajur Veda, (Taittiriya samhita, 4-5-
1(Sri Rudram), Rudra is given several names, including Shiva. Vajasaneyi
samhita (3-63) says something similar about Rudra (tam Shiva namasi).
The term Shiva is also used to refer to Indra (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and
8.93.3). Indra too, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. Though Rudra is
mentioned as the father of the Maruts, he is never associated with their
warlike exploits as is Indra.
Shiva In Upanishads: Shvetaswatara Upanishad is the first Upanishad to
refer Rudra as a supreme being. While most of the Upanishads are
monistic, this Upanishad shows a theistic devotion to Rudra Shiva, who is
identified as the creator of the world and liberator of souls.
There are at least 14 minor Upanishads dedicated to Shaivism and they
praise Shiva as the Atman and the Brahman and include sections about
rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. Atharvashiras Upanishad mentions
Rudra and asserts that all gods are Rudra and everyone and everything is
Rudra. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, equates self-realization and
identification with Shiva.
Mahabharata: The adjective Shiva is forgotten and the noun Shiva is
mostly used in the Epics and the Puranas. That is an interesting
reversal. Earlier, Rudra was the deity, and Shiva (auspicious) was his
adjective. Now Shiva has become the deity and Rudra (fierce) has become
one of his adjectives.
In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility,
might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and
brilliance. The Shiva Sahasra nama is found in the Anushasana parva of
Mahabharata. Among its thousand names, Hara occurs three times, but with
three different meanings - "one who captivates", "one who consolidates",
and "one who destroys"- following a tradition of not repeating the same
meaning.
The names Kala (time) and Mahakala (great time), who ultimately destroys
everything is also found in it. Bhairava (terrible / frightful) is a
fierce form of Shiva associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name
Sa?kara, (beneficent / conferring happiness) reflects his benign form.
The name Sambhu (shining on its own), also reflects this benign aspect.
The Mahabharata declares Brahman to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu.
Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest
manifestation of Vishnu.
The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport
vehicle (vahana) of Rudra. However, the Mahabharata and the Puranas
declare the Nandi bull as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby
unmistakably linking them as same.

Puranas: The Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana are the major sources of
information on Shiva - mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage centers
associated with him. The Bhagavata Purana praises Krishna as the Ultimate
Reality, but it also presents Shiva and Shakti as equivalent to the same
Ultimate Reality. The Skanda Purana states: Vishnu is none other than
Shiva. He who is called Shiva is the same as Vishnu.(1.8.20–21).
By the Puranic times, the aspect of Rudra had merged with Shiva. Rudra
became Shiva’s terrific aspect as the destroyer. No wonder, Rudra was
associated with the god of death, Yama. He is also associated with the
god of fire, Agni and with the magical drink, soma. At the same time, he
was also the Lord of the universe, the cosmic dancer, the Supreme yogi.
Some also say that the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic
Indra. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility,
fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established
mores, the syllable Aum and the Supreme Self.
Agamas: Shaiva Agamas are both dualistic and monistic. They are the basic
texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. They were popular even in medieval South East
Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in that
region, but they were mixed with local religious practices.
Other references to Rudra Shiva: Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (1-49; 3-53; 4-100;
5-3-99) mentions the several names of Rudra: Mrida, Bhava, Sarva, Grisha,
Mahadeva and Trayambaka. Patanjali talks of Shaiva devotees and ascetics
in Mahabhashya and also mentions about the icons of Shiva and Skanda.
The Greek texts at the time of Alexander, called Shiva the "Indian
Dionysus" (Bacchus of the Romans), who like Shiva, combines opposite
qualities like the destructive and constructive powers and the terrific
and the gentle. The phallic symbol of Shiva is also used for Irish,
Nordic, Greek (Dionysus) and Roman deities. Similarly the idea of a big
column (phallus) linking the heaven and earth exists in several cultures.
Others contest such ideas and suggest that Shiva is simply of indigenous
(or of tribal) origin.
Shiva Linga: Linga, means a 'mark, sign or emblem' and also the phallus.
The worship of the linga probably originated from the famous hymn in the
Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial
post. The beginning-less and endless Stambha is a symbol of the eternal
Brhaman. The sacrificial fire became the brightness of Shiva's body. Its
smoke and ashes became his matted hair. Its flame became his blue throat.
The ox that used to carry the wood for the sacrifice became his vehicle.
Finally, the Yupa-Stambha itself became the Shiva-Linga.
In the Linga Purana, the Yupa-Sthamba example is expanded into stories,
to establish the glory of the Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as
Mahadeva.
The oldest known archaeological linga is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-
century BCE. In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of
Shiva are called Jyotir

Lingas, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.
It includes famous places like Kashi, Rameswaram, Somnath, Kedarnath and
Sri Sailam.
Shiva and local Cults: The figure of Shiva as we know today may be a mix
of various older deities into a single figure. How it happened is not
fully understood and still attracts much speculation.
Vishnu and Shiva had absorbed countless local cults and deities within
their folds. The concepts of avatars and manifestations were convenient
aids in the process. Rama, Krishna and the concept of the ten avatars are
a late addition to the Vishnu cult. In Shiva’s case it was even easier -
the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity did
the trick. e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara.
In Maharashtra, for example, a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron
deity of farming and herding professions. The cult of Khandoba is mostly
found in regions around Jejuri in Maharashtra. Khandoba has been
assimilated as a form of Shiva himself and he is worshipped in the form
of a linga. Khandoba is also identified with Surya and Skanda.
Panchayatana Puja: Five Gods are worshipped together in the Smarta
tradition and the practice is called Panchayatana, the five gods being
Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha, Devi and Surya. All the idols are usually small
stones of various kinds and seen only as symbols and not as distinct
Gods. The idea is that one should go past the symbolism to recognize the
Absolute behind them.
Though popularized by Shankara, Panchayatana probably existed even
earlier. In the temples of the Gupta Empire, Panchayatana sets have been
found. One particular set from the village of Nand, near Ajmer, is
supposed to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE). The set
includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is not
clear. The number five is constant but the Gods change over a period.
Shiva as Yogi and Family man: Shiva is depicted both as a yogi and as a
householder, though the roles are mutually exclusive in a Hindu society.
When depicted as a yogi, he is shown sitting in meditation. He is called
Mahayogi, Adhi Yogi etc., showing his association with yoga. Shiva is not
only a Great Yogi, he is also the Lord of Yogis and teaches Yoga to the
sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in
silence the oneness of one's atman with the ultimate Brahman'.
Shiva is the patron of several Yoga texts, containing the philosophy and
techniques for Yoga. The texts basically integrate Advaita Vedanta with
Yoga philosophy. These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and
texts by scholars like Abhinava Gupta. Among such texts is one Isvara
Gita (Shiva's song), which is the Bhagavat Gita for the Shaiva sects but
not as popular.

The householder Shiva has a wife, Parvati/Uma and two sons, Ganesha and
Kartikeya. The names Umapati, Umakanta and Umadhava appear in the
sahasranama, indicating this role. Uma herself is known by several names
and is Shiva’s creative energy.
Kerala’s famous Ayyappan is also known as Shiva's child, born of Mohini,
Vishnu’s female avatar. Near Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnu
Maya is stated to be a child of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism
rites, but its origin is not traceable. Perhaps it is a female version of
Ayyappan. In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-
goddess Manasa and Ashoka Sundari. Two demons, Andhaka and Jalandhara,
figure in different Puranas in different versions. They fought with Shiva
and were killed by him. Some versions mention them as sons of Shiva,
though demons.
Shiva Tandava: The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Lord of Dance) is
popular. The names Nartaka (dancer) and Nityanarta (eternal dancer)
figure in the Shiva Sahasranama. His various types of dancing forms are
found all over India and in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two common
forms of the dance are the Tandava, the powerful, masculine dance
associated with the destruction of the world and Lasya, the feminine
dance attributed to Parvati. Together they are associated with the
destruction-creation of the world.
Shiva has some Unique Marks and each mark has a story behind it.
Third eye: Shiva is called ‘Tryambaka’, referring to his three eyes,
which represent the Sun, Moon and fire. With his third eye, he burned
Desire (Kama) to ashes.
Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon. The name
Candrasekhara refers to this aspect and is a standard iconographic
feature. The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of
the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and
Rudra are jointly praised. Later, Soma and Rudra are identified with each
other, as were Soma and the moon. The Puranas, however, have a different
legend to tell, based on moon’s partiality towards Rohini, one of his 27
wives.
Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (vibhuti). The
ashes represent the reminder that is left after any material is burnt. It
shows that existence is impermanent and hence the pursuit of spiritual
liberation is important.
Matted hair: Shiva is known as Ja?in (the one with matted hair) and
Kapardin (hair wound in a shell-like braid - kaparda - cowrie shell).
More generally, it means hair that is shaggy or curly. It may probably
indicate his tribal origin. It also represents the ranges of Himalayas,
into which the River Ganga, who came down from the heaven with ferocity,
simply disappeared.
Blue throat: Shiva became Nilaka?tha (blue throat), when, to save the
world, he drank up the Halahala poison that came out of the ocean of
milk. Parvati squeezed his neck in time and stopped it from going down to
the stomach to prevent the destruction of the

worlds, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the dangerous poison

changed the color of his neck to blue.
Sacred Ganga: Shiva is called Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganges'.
When Ganga came down from the heavens, only Shiva could stop the flow and
capture it in his matter hair.
Tiger skin: Shiva’s dress is a tiger skin. Rishis in Darukavan, for some
reason, wanted to destroy him. So they created a huge fierce tiger
through a Yagna and sent it to devour Shiva. Shiva simply killed it,
skinned it and wore it for a dress.
Serpents: Shiva is seen with a garland of snakes. Snakes cause fear and
death and Shiva shows us that he controls both fear and death. The three
rounds of snake around his neck depict future, present and past. Shiva is
Independent of Time. Actually, he controls time – he is kalakala.
Trident: The trident (trishul) that Shiva carries as a weapon, symbolizes
the Trimurthis and the three gunas that are in equilibrium with him.
Drum (damaru): The damaru is an attribute of Nataraja, the dancing Shiva
and is held in a mudra called ?amaru-hasta. This drum is as an emblem by
members of the Kapalika sect. Shiva shook it 14 times and the sound bites
(phonemes) that came out formed the Shiva Sutra or Mahendra Sutra and
became the basis for Sanskrit alphabet. Some claim that Panini invented
them himself.
Rosary beads (Rudraksha - Rudra’s eyes): These are the fruits of a tree
with the same name and came out of the eyes of Shiva. It symbolizes
grace, mendicant life and meditation.
Nandi: It is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's vahana. Shiva's
association with cattle is reflected in this. Nandi also doubles up as
the gatekeeper of Kailasa. Some scholars say that gate-keeping was the
original job of Nandi. The role of the mount was added later.
Mount Kailasa: This mount in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. It
resembles a linga and represents the center of the universe.
Ga?a: They are the attendants of Shiva and live with him in Kailash. They
are often referred to as the bhuta ganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of
their nature. They are generally benign, except when their lord is
transgressed against. Lord Ganesha is chosen as their leader by Shiva.
Hence Ganesha became his name ( Lord of Ganas.)
Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) aka Kashi is the city dearest to Shiva.
Those who live and die in that place go directly to Kailasa. Some sects
claim that Shiva himself tells the Taraka mantra- ‘Rama’- into the ears
of the dying person – the reason he goes to svarga or moksha after death.

So, always pray to Shiva and may the place you live in become Varanasi or
Kailasa!!
Manifestations of Shiva
Although Puranic texts contain occasional references to avatars of Shiva,
the avatar doctrine is not universally accepted in Shaivism. In fact,
this doctrine has been one of the significant differences between
Vaishnavism and Shaivism, in addition to their usual differences on the
relationship between Atma and Brahman and the choice of householder life
versus monastic life for spiritual release.
The Five Faces of Shiva: Five is a sacred number for Shiva. His most
important mantra has five syllables (nama? sivaya). Shiva's body itself
is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañca brahmans. Shiva’s
five faces are called Ishana, Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojatha
and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five
senses, the five organs of perception and the five organs of action.
The Ishana face represents the Akasha among the elements, hearing among
the organs of knowledge and speech among the organs of action. It helps
to hear the subtle sounds in the celestial sphere. Our rishis
incidentally got the sound of Vedas only from akasha.
The Tatpurusha face is identified with the air among the elements, touch
among the organs of knowledge and hands among the organs of action. The
Aghora (aka Ghoresh) face is identified with fire among the elements,
eyes among the organs of knowledge and feet among the organs of action.
Aghora taught Tantra Vidya to this world.
The Vamadeva (aka Namadeva) face is identified with water among the
elements, tongue (taste) among the organs of knowledge and rectum among
the organs of action. The Sadyojatha face represents the earth among the
elements, nose among the organs of knowledge and genitals among the
organs of action.
The other texts like Kalika purana, Padma purana, Vishvakarma samhita,
Aparajita puccha, Shilpa rathna, Shiva agama etc too carry their own
descriptions about the variants of Shiva. However, they vary from each
other in regard to details such as the number of faces, arms, postures,
colour and countenance of the faces. It is virtually not possible to list
out or illustrate these interpretations.
Ashtamurti : Satapatha Brahmana gives the following eight forms of Siva:
‚Rudra, Sarva, Pasupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava, Mahadeva and Isana.' From
this legend, the pura?as developed the A?h?amurti conception of Siva.
Another version says that the A?h?amurtis are the five elements (akasha,
air, fire, water, and earth), two opposite principles of Pra?a and Apana
(heat and cold in the body represented by the sun and the moon) and the
mind (manas). In some versions, sacrifice replaces manas.
Dasha, Ekadasa forms of Shiva: The Dasha Mahavidya concept of the Devi
led to the corresponding forms of Shiva. The eleven Rudras, born to
Kashyapa and his wife

Surabhi (Or Aditi, in some versions) have been mentioned earlier. Suffice
to say that there are several versions of the 11 names.
Maheshwara murtas: There are 25 Maheshwara murtas, which are forms of
Shiva, mentioned in the South Indian agamas and Shaiva Siddhantas. These
forms are based on Shiva-related legends found in Puranas and epics and
can be seen as sculptures or idols in Shiva temples. These 25 murtas are
split five each between the 5 forms of Shiva mentioned earilier– Ishana,
Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Satyojadha.
A brief description follows:
I. murtas From Ishana:
1.Somaskanda: (Sa Uma Skanda) – In this form, Shiva is present with Uma
and Skanda.
2.Nataraja: (King of dance) - Nataraja’s dance represents the unstoppable
motion of the Universe and is described in several agamas. His dance
relief or idol features in almost every Shiva temple. Ananda
Coomaraswamy, the Art Historian from Sri Lanka, described the Nataraja
imagery as The Cosmic Dance of Shiva in the 1920s.
Nataraja, with the swirling locks, dances over the dwarf demon of
ignorance, Apasmara, under His right foot. His left leg is extended and
is hanging in air. His flayed arms hold the drum and fire that signify
creation and destruction. His pose is called bhujanga trasita karana in
Bharata Natyam. A ring of fire surrounds him symbolizing cosmic cycles.
Through his dance, he releases the souls of all jivas from the snare of
illusion.
The place of the dance, Chidambaram, the center of the universe, is
actually within the heart. The Nataraja icon is hailed as "poetry but
nonetheless science". Since then, Nataraja has become a universal
metaphor for the interface between science, spirituality and art. Fritjof
Capra wrote in 1974 that ‚for modern physicists, Shiva's dance is the
dance of subatomic particles'. A two meter statue of Nataraja was
unveiled at CERN, the European Center for Research in Particle Physics in
Geneva in 2004, symbolizing creation and destruction.

3.Rishabharuda (Rider of Rishabha, the bull)

Shiva appears to his devotees with

Parvati on the white bull.

4. Kalyana Sundarar: He appears as a bridegroom along with Parvati, in
this form.
5.Chandra Sekhara (Wearer of (crescent) moon). Daksha cursed Chandra, his
son-in-law, for being partial to Rohini, among his 27 wives. (All are
stars and the daughters of Daksha). The curse was that he should wane
into nothingness. Shiva, out of pity, wore the dark moon on his matted
hair and the moon grew back to his fullness. The process repeats every
month. Another legend says that Himavan and Menaka, the parents of
Parvati, were frightened by the appearance of Shiva, when they saw him
before his

marriage to Parvati. To appease them, Shiva took this form, with the moon
on his head and he was more handsome than Manmatha himself in this form.
II. murtas From Tatpurusha
6. Bhikshadana: (mendicant) He is a naked mendicant in this form and with
Mohini avatar of Vishnu, he mocked the arrogance of the Rishis and their
wives in Darukavana.
7. Kamari: (the killer of Manmatha) The Gods planned to make Shiva fall
in love with Parvati, for the birth of Shiva's son and sent Manmatha on
that mission but poor Manmatha was burnt alive by the third eye of Shiva.
Later, on his wife Rati’s request, Manmatha was resurrected with the
condition, that he will be visible only to Rati.
8. Kalanthaka: (The killer of Kala or Yama) Markanteya, the son of sage
Mrigandu, was blessed with only a short life 16 years. When it ended,
Yama came to take off the soul of the boy, who surrendered to Shiva for
safety. Unmindful of Shiva’s presence, Yama tried to take away the soul
of the boy and an angry Shiva killed Yama himself. Later Yama was
resurrected due to request from gods, to keep the system going.

9.Jalandhari: (Killer of Jalandhara, a demon):

Jalandhara was a terrible demon but his

wife Brinda’s chastity was protecting him from defeat and death. Vishnu
tricked Brinda in Jalandhara’s appearance and Shiva easily killed
Jalandhara using this chance. Brinda committed Sati and became the plant
Tulsi, dear to Vishnu.

10.Tripurantaka: (Burner of Three forts): Three dangerous demons had a

flying fort each as a boon from Brahma and wrought havoc to other forms
of lives, including the Gods. In a rare occasion, when the three forts
came together in one place, Shiva burnt the demons down, with the forts,
by just smiling at them.
III. murtas From Aghora
11. Gajasura Samhara: (Killer of Gajasura) According to Varaha Purana,
the visit of Bikshadana and Mohini to the abode of Rishis in Darukavana,
instead of chastening them, made them angry. The sages performed a black
magic sacrifice and produced an elephant-demon called Gajasura. He
attacked Shiva but Shiva killed the demon and wore his hide as a dress.
12.Vira Bhadra: Shiva became extremely furious after his wife Sati
immolated Herself at the Daksha yagna. He plucked a hair from His head
and threw it on the ground. Veerbhadra and Kali were born from the
strand. The two rushed to the place of Yagna, wrought havoc and cut off
Daksha’s head. Vira Bhadra is depicted as a dark God with three fiery
eyes, wearing a garland of skulls and carrying terrifying weapons.
13.Dakshinamurti: The name means one who is facing towards south and it
is a manifestation of Shiva as a teacher of wisdom. This iconographic
form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. He is
seated under a great Banyan tree,

which is symbolic of manifestation of macrocosm from microcosm. From a

tiny seed, a huge banyan tree is able to grow – similar to the formation
of the gross from the subtle.
His disciples are the four Sanat Kumaras - Brahma’s mind-sons, who in
spite of learning many sciences, had not been able to master atma-vidya,
which Shiva teaches them, out of his boundless compassion. 'Daakshinya'
also means compassion in Sanskrit. So Dakshina Murti is a caring teacher
who accords wisdom.
Shiva’s right leg is on a demon lying on the ground, crushing him. That
demon is the embodiment of ignorance. Three of his hands hold a snake,
agni and rudrak?a mala. The right hand is in vyakhyana mudra or Jnana
Mudra, a symbol of knowledge and wisdom.
In this mudra, the index finger is bent and touches the tip of his thumb.
The other three fingers are stretched apart. The thumb denotes the God
and the index finger denotes the self. The other three fingers stand for
the three congenital impurities of man viz. arrogance, illusion and sins
of the past births. Man attains Godhood, when he detaches himself from
the three impurities and joins with God.
14. Neela Kanta: (blue throated). The blue neck is a permanent feature of
Shiva and how it came about had already been explained.
15.Kirata: (hunter) Shiva appeared before Arjuna as a hunter to save him
from Mooka Asura, who is disguised as a boar. Both Arjuna and the Kirata
struck the boar at the same time with arrows and a fight broke out
between the two as to who struck the boar first. Shiva was pleased by
Arjuna’s valour and gifted him his Pashupata Astra.
IV. murtas From Vamadheva
16.Kankala (One with the skeleton): There are differing legends about
this form. Shiva, as the destroyer, holds the bones of devas after
Pralaya. He is popular in South Indian temples, but almost unknown in
North India. He is depicted as a four-armed man with a kankala-danda
(skeleton-staff) in his hand.
17. Chakraprada: (the giver of Chakra) Vishnu got his powerful discus
Sudharsana, after worshipping Shiva, as per Shiva Puranas.
18.Vigneshanugraha: This is similar to Somaskantha. Shiva is with Uma but
with Ganesha, instead of Skanda.
19.Chandesha Anugraha: Chandesha is a great Shiva baktha, who was raised
to the status of a God by Shiva. He sits outside the Garbha Graha in
Shiva temples and collects all the offerings to Shiva.
20. Ekapada (Shiva with one foot). This shows the merging of Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva, during Pralaya into one form with only one leg
supporting the 3 heads.
V. murtas From Satyojatha

21.Lingotbhava: (appeared as a linga). Shiva appeared as a huge shaft of

light, to settle

the dispute between Brahma and Vishnu.

22. Sukhasana: (easy posture) Shiva sitting in a comfortable, easy

posture.
23.Harihara: (Shiva and Vishnu) Combined form of half Shiva and half
Vishnu.
24.Ardha Naarishwara: In this form, Shiva has given away exactly half of
his body to his consort Uma. It emphasizes that God is beyond genders.
The Shiva Puranas claim that in this form Shiva and Uma produced Brahma,
Vishnu and other Gods. The right half is usually Shiva, while the left
half is Parvati. This form is found in most Shiva temples throughout
India, though very few temples are dedicated to this deity. It represents
the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe –
Purusha and Prakriti - and illustrates how Shakti is the same as Shiva.
It signifies the totality that lies beyond duality. God is both male and
female, father and mother, aloof and active, fearsome and gentle,
destructive and constructive and unifies all the opposite pairs.
25.Umamaheshwara (Maheshwara with Uma) The appearance of divine couple
Shiva and Parvati after their marriage.
Apart from these 25 murtas, there are also 28 Avatars of Shiva, as
mentioned in Satarudra Samhita of Shiva Purana and Kurma Purana. Shiva
takes these avatars at end of every Dvapara Yuga along with Vyasa. While
Vyasa handles the Vedas, Shiva teaches the Yoga techniques. Why 28? We
are now in the 28th Maha Yuga of Vaivastara Manvnatara of Svetavaraha
Kalpa.
Shiva Purana mentions 19 other manifestations of Shiva. Many of them are
more popular in the North than in the South.
1. Pippalada was a Vedic sage, who answers the six questions posed in the
Prasna Upanishad. The Pippalada School is largely credited for the
Atharvana Veda. He was the son of sage Dadhichi, who donated his bones to
Indra, to make the famous weapon Vajrayuda to defeat his enemy Vritra.
Pippalada was still in his mother Swarcha’s womb then. The mother placed
the infant Pippalada under a pippal tree and committed sati to reunite
with her husband. Pippalada was taken care of by Dadhichi's sister,
Dadhimati.
Pippalada came to know that his father’s death was due to bad planetary
influence of Shani. So, he cursed Shani to fall from His celestial abode.
Later he forgave Shani on condition that Shani would never trouble anyone
before 16 years of age. Worshipping Pippalada in the form of Lord Shiva,
still helps to ward off Shani dosha!
2.Nandi: Nandi is the vehicle of Shiva. The word Nandi means joy and
satisfaction. Almost all Shiva temples display stone-images of a seated
Nandi, generally facing the main shrine. Nandi was born from a yagya
performed by sage Shilada, who wanted to have a son who is immortal like
Shiva himself.

Nandi is depicted as bull-faced and with four hands and is seen as the
protector of the herds. Some claim that he was the gatekeeper of Kailasa
and his additional role as also the mount of Shiva was added later. Nandi
learnt the agamas form Parvati and taught it to 8 disciples, who were
sent in eight different directions to spread this knowledge. Ravana once
called Nandi monkey-faced and Nandi cursed that Ravana’s kingdom will be
destroyed by a monkey.
3.Veera Bhadra : Already mentioned as one of Shiva’s 25 forms.
4. Sharabha: According to Shiv Purana, Narasimha, the half lion avatar of
Vishnu, became uncontrollable after killing Hiranyakasibhu, due to
contact with the Asura’s blood. Shiva took the form of Sharabha and tamed
Narasimha. This form of Shiva is part human, part bird and part lion.
5. Ashwatthama : Ashvatthama is one of the seven immortals (chiranjeevi)
and is the son of Drona and Kripi. He was made of four aspects - Yama
(death), Rudra (destruction), Kama (desire) and Krodha (anger). Bhishma
declares in the battlefield that no one can defeat Ashvatthama, since
when angry, he becomes a second Rudra. The death of Drona, caused by
dubious means, makes Ashvatthama extremely angry and he destroys what is
left of the Pandava army with his own hands at the end of the war.
6. Bhairava : Brahma and Vishnu had a fight over superiority. When Brahma
lied about His superiority, Shiva took the form of Bhairava and cut off
Brahma's fifth head as a punishment. This made Shiva guilty of Brahma
hatya (killing a Brahmin) and hence Shiva had to carry the skull of
Brahma for twelve years and roam about as a Bhikshatana (beggar).
Bhairava is said to guard all the Shaktipeeths.
7. Durvasa : Sage Duravsa was born to Anasuya and sage Atri. He is known
for his short temper. He is considered as an amsa of Shiva.
8. Grihapati: Visvanara, a Brahmin and his wife Shuchismati were
childless and prayed to Shiva. Pleased with their devotion, Shiva was
born as their son and the child was named Grihapati. The child was fated
to die at the age of nine. Hence he proceeded to Kasi, established a
Shiva Linga and did penance. Indra visited him and offered him a boon for
his dedication, but Grihapati declined it. This made Indra furious and he
tried to attack Grihapati with his Vajra ayudha but it couldn’t hurt
Grihapati. The linga worshipped by Grihapati in Kashi became famous later
as Agnishwara Linga.
9. Hanuman: Hanuman is considered an avatara of Shiva in the Puranas.
This is mentioned even in the Hanuman chalisa, a prayer song on Hanuman
in Hindi.
10. Vrishabha (bull): During the churning of the ocean of milk, Vishnu
created several beautiful ladies to trick the asuras. The asuras forcibly
carried them away to their abode – the Patala Loka. Vishnu went to Patala
loka to annihilate them, but he himself was got

caught up in the Maya and sired many sons with those ladies and they all
became asuras. Shiva took the form of a Vrishabha (bull) and killed all
the asuras.
11. Yatinath (leader of sanyasis): Aahuka, a tribal man and his wife were
ardent devotees of Shiva. One day Shiva visited them in the form of a
sanyasi. Their small hut could not accommodate the guest. So Aahuka slept
outside but was killed by a wild animal. The wife decided to take her own
life but Shiva blessed that they would be born as Nala and Damyanti in
their next lives and Shiva himself would unite them.
12. Krishna Darshan: King Nabhaga belonged to the lineage of Ikshvaku.
When he was in gurukula, his brothers divided the family wealth among
themselves and left Nabhaga out. When Nabhaga returned and demanded his
share, his father advised him to go to sage Angiras who was trying to
perform a yagna, but was not able to conduct it successfully because of
his attachments.
Nabhaga educated the sage to get rid of his attachments and the yagna was
completed successfully. The pleased rishi wanted to hand over all the
wealth remaining after the Yagna to Nabhaga, when Shiva in his Krishna
Darshan avatara (the significance the name is not clear) and stopped it.
Shiva then taught Nabhaga spiritual knowledge and gave him moksha.
13. Bhikshuvarya (a great mendicant): Once a child was born near a pond
and its mother had died. A beggar woman nearby was hesitant to take over
the child. Shiva appeared as a mendicant and persuaded that woman to take
the child and bring him up. This incarnation of Shiva protects human
beings from all kinds of dangers.
14. Sureshwara: Upamanyu, son of Sage Vyagrapada was doing penance to
please Shiva. Shiva and Parvati, disguised as Indra and Indrani
respectively, appeared before him and told him playfully to stop
worshiping Shiva. Upamanyu was enraged and refused even after being
cursed by them. Happy with his devotion, Shiva granted him boons. Hence
the avatara is called Sureshwara avatara, which is another name for
Indra.
15. Kirata: Discussed as one of Shiva’s 25 forms.
16. Shiva appeared as Suntantarka to ask the hand of Parvati from her
father Himavan.
17. Shiva appeared as a Brahmachari and playfully tried to dissuade Uma
from marrying Him. Uma passed the test.
18. Yaksheshwar Avatara is the same as the legend of Uma Haimavathi in
Kena Upanishad, with Shiva replacing Uma.
19. In Avadhuta (nude) Avatara Shiva appeared as an Avadhuta before
Indra. Indra tried to push Shiva away and soon realized his mistake.
There could be many more avatars/manifestations of Shiva but hopefully
the major ones have been covered.

5.7 The Sons Of Shiva

Karthikeya aka Skanda
Skanda is known by many other names such as Karthikeya, Kumara, Murugan
and Subrahmanya. Of them, Skanda is the name mostly used in the olden
texts and it is derived from the word skan?r-, which means "leaper or
attacker". He is thus the god of war and he is a god whose life history
has several versions.
The word Subrahmanya appears only in one mantra in the Vedas (Aruna
Prasna, aka Surya Namskara (132 mantras) in Taittriya Aranyaka). The 58th
mantra mentions the name Subhramanya thrice.

nighrshvairasamAyutai: kAlair-haritvamApannai: indrayAhi sahasrayuk

agnirvibhrAshTi

vasana:
vAyu:
Svetasikadruka:
samvathsarO
vishUvarNai:
nityAste
anucarAstava

subrahmaNyOgum subrahmaNyOgum subrahmaNyOm indrAgaccha.

The mantra has nothing to do with Skanda but it invokes Indra, who is
riding a chariot drawn by white and black horses (representing day and
night). He is with Vayu and Samvatsara devata. He is "Subhramanya"
(loftiest among Brahmanas).
Similarly the term Kumara appears in Rig Veda (5.2.1). It can be
interpreted as Skanda or just any boy. The boy is described as bright-
colored and hurling weapons. It has been associated with Skanda, later.
Indra, Agni and Rudra are also expressed as kumaras, elsewhere in the
Vedas.
The Shatapatha Brahmana (6.1-3) describes Agni as Kumara, the son of
Ushas (Dawn) and Purusha! Thus it is more allegorical than real. The
Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.1) mentions a Shanmukha (six faced one) but not
Skanda explicitly. The Chandogya Upanishad (Ch.7) mentions that Sanat
Kumara, Brahma’s mind son became Skanda – a simple statement, without any
explanation. Baudhayana Dharma sutra mentions about prayers to Skanda and
Ganesha together.
In Ramayana, Kausalya invokes the blessings of Skanda when Rama takes
leave of her before going to the forest. Valmiki dedicates two chapters
to Skanda (36-37), but describes him as the child of god Agni and the
river Ganga. Once the gods went to Brahma and asked him for a competent
leader for their forces. Shiva was their earlier leader but he was
performing austerities after the death of Sati. Brahma declared that
soon, Agni shall have a son by the river Ganga. He would be their
general.
In the meantime, Agni went to the hermitage of the Saptarishis and was
infatuated with the rishis’ wives. Goddess Svaha, already in love with
Agni, seduced him by taking the form of six of the wives, one by one, and
slept with Agni. (She was not able to take the form of Arundhati,
Vasishta’s wife, because of Arundhati's extraordinary chastity). Later,
Svaha deposited Agni’s semen into the reeds of the river Ganga, where it
developed and was born as the six-headed Skanda.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna declares that among all commanders, He
is Skanda. Several times during the 18-day war, Skanda’s name is
mentioned. Vana Parva of Mahabharata dedicates two chapters to Skanda
(223-232), but depicts him as the son of Agni and Svaha. It also contains
the following interesting legend.
Skanda has just been installed as the general, when, Shiva and Parvati
walk in and bless Skanda. Rudra is also called as Agni; hence Skanda
becomes also the son of Rudra. Soon, all the deities too call Skanda the
son of Rudra.
‚For this child was produced by Rudra when he entered into fire. Skanda,
that most eminent deity, being born of Agni, [who was] Rudra, and from
Svaha (Uma) [and] the six Rishi patnis, was the son of Rudra'.
However, Mahabharata, later in the Shalya Parva and the Anushasana Parva
presents Skanda as the son of Maheshvara (Shiva) and Parvati, with minor
variations to the Agni-Svaha legend. Shiva’s semen is carried off by Agni
and deposited into the reeds of the river Ganga. It is preserved by the
heat of Agni and is born as baby Skanda.
Skanda is mentioned in detail in the Skanda Purana, which is the largest
of the 18 Maha Puranas (81,000 verses). While the text is named after
Skanda, the Purana is equally about Shiva. The text is almost a reference
for matters related to Skanda. At present, Skanda Purana has several
versions.
Matsya Purana has a different version. Vajranaga was an asura who
defeated and humiliated Indra but spared his life. When Vajranaga went
away from home, for a 1000 years’ penance, Indra tormented Vajranaga’s
wife by various means. When the asura returned, he was very angry and
prayed to Brahma for a son who would defeat Indra. The boon was granted
and Taraka was born.
Soon he became the king of asuras. He prayed to Brahma for immortality,
but Brahma could offer him only conditional immortality. Taraka chose
that he should be killed only by a seven year old boy. That boon was
granted. Soon Taraka defeated Indra and his forces and became the king of
three worlds.
The gods sought Brahma’s advice to kill Taraka. Brahma said only a son
of Shiva could do that. Unfortunately, Shiva has become a recluse after
the death of his wife Sati, who has been reborn as Parvati, the daughter
of Himavan. Brahma advised the gods to arrange the Shiva-Parvati marriage
and then their problem would be solved.
Ultimately, with the help of Kama, the task was accomplished but Kama was
burnt by Shiva’s anger. At last Skanda was born in ways described
earlier, on the banks of the river Ganga. Once he reached the age of
seven, he was made the general of the the gods. Soon, a battle between
the gods and Taraka’s army took place. Taraka fell dead, smitten by
Skanda’s spear.

Kalidasa had written an epic poem called ‘Kumara sambhava’ (The Birth of
Kumara). It also tells the story of Taraka, the marriage of Shiva with
Parvati and the convoluted way in which Skanda was born. When Skanda was
born in the reeds near the river Ganga, The six Karthika sisters appeared
on the scene and each claimed the child as her own. The divine child
assumed six heads and drank the milk from each of them. Thus he was
called Sashti matriya (having six mothers), but he had no mother, really,
for he came from his father alone.
Another variant says that Shiva emitted six sparks of fire from his eyes
which were thrown into the lake Saravana, close to the river Ganga. They
became six infants and were nursed by the Karthika sisters. When Parvati
saw these children, she embraced all of them together and their six
bodies became one, while their six heads and twelve arms remained. Thus
there are so many versions of Skanda’s birth in the ancient texts,
contradicting each other.
The six Krittika sisters represent the Krittika nakshatra (names: Siva,
Sambhuti, Priti, Sannati, Anasuya and K?ama). Astronomically, Krittika is
the star cluster Pleiades. They are known as the seven (not six) sisters
in Greek Mythology. Obviously the Greeks had sharper eyes and could spot
one more star in the cluster!
Archaeological evidence from the first century CE shows Skanda with Agni.
His figure is also found in the Ellora Caves and in the Elephanta Caves.
There are several numismatic references to Skanda. The Yaudheya Gana
(derived from yuddha) was an ancient militant confederation. They were
brave kshatriyas, as inscribed in the Junagadh rock inscription of
Rudradaman. They preceded the Kushan Empire in the North West of India
and their coins bear the image of Skanda. The Kushan dynasty too minted
coins featuring Skanda. Such coins had been found not only in the
Gandhara region but also in the city of Mathura. The coins show Skanda,
clad in a dhoti, armor like a warrior, a spear in his right hand and a
bird (rooster) in his left.
The Kushan coins show him with one head, which is the more common
version. Those found in Mathura also show him with one head. Statues
found in Punjab and Kashmir show him either with one head or six. The six
head iconography is dated to post-Gupta Empire era. He is also found on
ancient Indo-Scythian coins, where he wears a Scythian dress and is shown
with a rooster.
Skanda was a major god for the Ikshvakus of Andhra as well as for the
Guptas. Eight of the early Pallava Kings (300-550 CE) were named after
Skanda or Kumara, suggesting his importance.
The iconography of Skanda shows him as a youthful god, dressed as a
warrior, carrying a divine spear called Vel (Tamil) or sakti (Sanskrit).
Sometimes, he is depicted with many weapons including a sword, a javelin,
a mace, a discus and a bow in his several

hands. His vahana (mount) is a peacock. He carries a rooster in his

flag. Many of the major events in his life actually take place during his
youth. Hence Skanda is also worshipped as a child-God in the South, like
Krishna in the North.
Skanda’s legends vary by the region. For example, in North and West
India, Skanda is the perpetual bachelor who never marries. In Tamil Nadu,
he has two consorts, Valli and Devasena. In some regions, he is the elder
son of Shiva. In other places, he is the younger son of Shiva.
There are many interesting legends related to Skanda. In one legend, he
is outwitted by his brother Ganesha. Sage Narada once visited Kailasa,
and presented to Lord Shiva a divine fruit. Shiva wanted to give it to
His children Ganesa and Skanda but he would not allow the fruit to be cut
into two. Instead, He announced that the fruit would be given to whoever
returned first after taking a trip around of the universe.
Young Skanda took off immediately on the back of His peacock. Ganesha
thought that the eternal parents Shiva and Parvati represented the
universe. ‚He who embraces his parents seven times (pradakshinas) gains
the merit of encircling the world seven times'. Hence, after
circumambulating them seven times, Ganesha annexed the prized fruit. In
some legends, the prize is not the fruit but Buddhi (Wisdom) and Siddhi
(Success), the two daughters of Prajapati. Ganesha marries them and two
sons, Kshema and Laabha were born to them later.
Skanda, on return from His whirlwind trip, was upset. He left Kailasa
immediately and proceeded to Palani Hill in South India. Shiva and
Parvati assuaged his feelings by calling him Pazhani. (Pazham - Fruit (of
Jñana), Nee - Thou).
Brahma, the Creator, happened to slight the young Skanda during one of
his visits to Kailasa. Skanda asked Brahma the meaning of the Pranava
(Ohm). When Brahma could not explain satisfactorily, Skanda then
imprisoned Brahma and assumed the role of the Creator! Shiva, Vishnu and
other gods appealed to Skanda to release Brahma and finally he relented.
Shiva then asked Skanda playfully whether Skanda could teach him the
Pranava Mantra. Skanda promised to do that, provided Shiva assumed the
role of a disciple and treated Skanda as a guru. Shiva did so and Skanda
did the upadesa to his own father. Thus he earned the title Swaminatha –
the lord of Swami (Shiva).
Taraka was followed by Surapadma, the asura king, who too won over the
gods and kept them in captivity. Skanda warned him release the Gods but
Surapadma would not listen. Finally, he became prey to Skanda’s powerful
Vel (spear) and the gods were freed. The compassionate Skanda converted
the two portions of Surapadma’s body into a peacock and a rooster. The
peacock became his mount and the rooster, became his banner.

Skanda's consorts are Valli and Devayanai. They represent Ichcha Sakti
and Kriya Sakti. They were in reality Sundara Valli and Amuda Valli, who
were born out of the tears of joy of Vishnu when He took the avatar of
Trivikrama. Both the damsels did intense penance with the object of
becoming Skanda's consorts. Pleased with their prayers, Skanda appeared
before them and ordained that Amuda Valli would be born as Indra's
daughter and Sundara Valli would take birth on the earth in a hunter
tribe. He would then marry both of them.
The marriage of Skanda and Deva Sena, the daughter of Indra, took place
at Tirupparan Kundram, near Madurai, with full Vedic rites. Indra gifted
his daughter to Skanda in grateful acknowledgment of Skanda’s victory
over the demons. Deva Senapati (General of the Gods) thus became Devasena
Pati (Husband of Devasena).
Skanda's wedding with Valli is an interesting anecdoteand the theme for
several dramas and movies. King Nambi Rajah of Chittoor, was a devotee of
Skanda. When the King had gone to the forest to hunt, he found a
beautiful female babe and brought it home. As the girl was found among
the valli creepers, she was named Valli.
Valli was devoted to Skanda from her tender age and wanted to marry him.
She was sent by the king to keep vigil over the crops in their lands from
wandering birds. Skanda appeared as a hunter before her but did not find
any positive response from her. Then he took the form of an old man and
proposed to wed her, much to her chagrin. Finally, Skanda invoked the
blessings of His elder brother Ganesa, who appeared as a wild elephant in
the forest and began to chase Valli. The terrified girl ran for safety,
straight into the arms of Skanda. Soon two were formally married.
Skanda has a special link with the Tamils and Tamilnadu, where he is
known as Murugan, who was perhaps an original Tamil deity. Some aspects
of the iconography and mythology of Murugan are unique to Tamil Nadu.
There had definitely been a God of war during the later Vedic days. These
two Gods got merged into one in due course.
The basement of a temple was discovered after the tsunami in 2004 in
Saluvan Kuppam near Mahabalipuram, when the sea receded by a few miles.
Apparently it was a Murugan temple. Carbon dating gave its period as ~200
BCE. Apparently, it had been hit by Tsunamis earlier and was renovated
during pallava and chozha periods.
The Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar text available, uses the name
ceyo? "the red one", to represent Murugan (literally Muruka? "the
youth"). He is the God of the mountains. Sangam literature glorifies him
as the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and
resplendent, as the favored god of the Tamils. Kotravai (Durga) is often
identified as the mother of Murugan.

Murugan has temples dedicated to him in every hill in Tamilnadu. Among

them, six are prominent and are known as Aaru (six) Padai Veedugal. They
are: Tirupparankundram, Tiruchendur, Tiruvavinankudi (Palani),
Tiruverakam, Kundrutoradal (Tiruttani and several other hills) and
Pazhamutircolai. A vivid portrayal of these six sacred places is found in
the opera Tirumurugatruppadai composed by Nakkeerar, the famous poet of
the Sangam era (2nd century CE).
Arunagiri Naadhar was a Tamil saint-poet who lived during the 15th
century CE in Tamil Nadu. He composed Thiruppugazh, a book of poems in
Tamil in praise of Murugan. His poems are known for their lyricism,
complex rhymes and rhythmic structures. Poyya Mozhi, Avvaiyar,
Kachchiyappa Shivachariyar and Kumara Guruparar are the other poets who
were devotees of Murugan and composed devotional songs in Tamil
exclusively on Murugan.
Murugan links three other major Gods in Hinduism. He is the son of Shiva,
the brother of Ganesha and the nephew/son-in-law of Vishnu. He is
venerated as Kaliyuga Varada, who can bestow on you anything you want in
this Kali Yuga. His name can be split into MU - representing Mukundan
(Vishnu), RU representing Rudra (Shiva) and KA representing Kamalan
(Brahma). Thus his name represents all the three eternal functions --
creation, protection and destruction.
The three integral elements of Murugan's personality are the spear (vel)
in His hand, the peacock, His mount and the cock, adorning His banner.
The Vel was given to him by Parvati, to kill the demons. It signifies
jñana sakti (wisdom) and is venerated by his devotees as Sakti Vel or
Veera Vel signifying its extraordinary power, just like the Sudharshana
Chakra of Vishnu.
The cock and the peacock represent nada and bindu respectively. Nada is
the primordial sound heard in the ear during deep meditation. Bindu means
the dot. It also means the drop, the sperm and the starting point. The
sound of Ohm is the starting point of the cosmos. The peacock displays
the shape of Omkara when it spreads its plumes into a circular form. The
cock proclaims loudly the Pranava sound Ohm. Murugan thus shines as the
very essence of the Vedas.
Skanda's popularity went down steadily in West and North India after the
7th-century CE, while Ganesha's fame rose rapidly. Skanda is mostly in a
secondary role along with Ganesha, Parvati and Shiva.
In the South, Subrahmanya / Murugan never came down in importance. Apart
from Tamilnadu, there are several Subramanya temples in the Southern
states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra and Telengana. Almost in all Northern
states too now temples for Skanda/Murugan have been built by the
Southerners.

Thai Poosam (Jan – Feb), Masi Makham (Feb-Mar), Panguni Uththiram (Mar-
Apr), Vaikasi Visakam (May–Jun) and Skanda Sashti (Oct-Nov) are the major
festivals for Murugan in the South.
Skanda is also worshipped by the Jains and the Buddhists. The Jain deity
Naigamesa rides a peacock and is the leader of the divine army. Both are
symbols of Skanda. Buddhism refers to Skanda as Sanankumara. He is
considered a God of the rank of Mahabrahma and a disciple of the Buddha.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Kumara is one of the eight gods for the common
people. The Chinese call Skanda as Weituo, a young heavenly general, the
guardian deity of local monasteries and the protector of Buddhist dhamma.
The Chinese give him the title Brahma kumara. Skanda was also adopted by
Koreans, and he appears in their woodblock prints and paintings.
In Theravada Buddhism, practiced in Sri Lanka and Thailand, he is called
Skanda Kumara, a guardian deity, along with Upulvan (Vishnu), Saman and
Vibhisana. Numerous Murugan temples exist throughout Sri Lanka. The
Kataragama (Kathirkamam - Tamil) shrine in Sri Lanka is dedicated to
Murugan (to the Tamils) and to Kataragama Deviyo (to the Singalese).
Local legends claim that Murugan came to that place after a quarrel with
his wife Devaena and fell in love with Valli, a local girl. The temple
has been historically controlled by the Hindus and also attracts Buddhist
devotees. It had enjoyed royal support.
In Nepal, Skanda is worshipped as Kumar both by Hindu and Buddhist
Communities. The Newah community celebrates Sithi Nakha - Festival for
Kumar (Kumar Sashti), similar to Skanda Sashti in India. The houses,
streets and the roads are cleaned during this day. It is believed that
the cleaning will bring in rains and lead to good crops.
Murugan is the primary deity in all temples associated with the Tamil
communities, wherever they live in the world. Malaysia, Indonesia and
Singapore have innumerable Murugan temples. Tamilians had also built
several Murugan temples in the USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand,
Switzerland, South Africa and Fiji.
Thus the Tamil God Murugan and the Vedic War God Skanda, combining
together, had won over the whole world!
Ganesha – the remover of Obstacles
?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????????????????? ?
??????????? ????????? ??????????? ? ?? ????????????? ??? ?????? ?
Gannaanaam Tvaa Ganna-Patim Havaamahe Kavim Kaviinaam-Upama-Shravastamam|
Jyeshta-Raajam Brahmannaam Brahmannaspata Aa Nah Shrnnvan-Uutibhih Siida
Saadanam||

This Mantra (Rig Veda 2.23.1), popularly associated with Ganesha, is

actually addressed to Brahmanaspati (Brihaspati). Its translation: ‚You
are the Ganapati (Lord) (of prayers), among the Ganas (Group) (of
Prayers). To you, we Offer our havis (oblations). You are the wisdom of
the wise and uppermost in glory. You are the foremost King (of the
Prayers), presiding as the Lord of the Prayers (Brahmanaspati)'.
In another passage (RV 10.112.9) Indra is addressed as 'ga?apati', (Lord
of the group of Maruts). Of late, these Rig Vedic verses are often
misquoted to give Vedic authenticity to Ganesha. At best, Brahmanaspati
is Ganesha's Vedic prototype.
Two verses in the Maitraya?iya Sa?hita (2.9.1) and Taittiriya Ara?yaka
(10.1) of Krishna Yajur Veda, appeal to a tusked deity (Danti?) -
"elephant-faced" (Hasti mukha), "with a curved trunk" (Vakratu??a) and
holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club. Sayana, the popular Vedic
commentator (14th century CE) asserts that they refer only to Ganesha but
some think that these hymns are later interpolations.
Avvaiyar (Sangam era), invokes Ganesha in her invitation to the three
Tamil Kings, Chera, Chola and Pandya - for the marriage of Angavai and
Sangavai, the daughters of Pari, with the King of Tirukovalur.
Ganesha does not appear in the Ramayana. The Mahabaharata (1.1.75–79)
says that Vyasa asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the
Mahabharata as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed and did it. However,
the story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of
the critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the 5-sloka story is
relegated to a footnote in an appendix, though the legend occurs in 37 of
the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical
edition. South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata omit this Ganesha
legend altogether.
The term vinayaka is found in some manuscripts of Mahabharata in the
Santi parva and Anusasana parva. A reference to Vighna kart?i?am (Creator
of Obstacles) is found in Vana parva. These references are also regarded
as interpolations and do not find a place in the critical edition.
Puranas: References to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu
and Brahmanda Puranas, are also considered interpolations. More detailed
narratives of Ganesha's life are found only in the later Puranas. Most of
his legends are based only on three incidents - his birth (and
parenthood), his elephant head and his single tusk. Other incidents are
touched upon in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.
The two principal texts on Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala
Purana. Of the two, the Mudgala Purana seems to be older than the Ganesha
Purana. The other two Puranas which deal at length with Ganesha are the
Brahma Purana and the Brahmanda Puranas. Another highly regarded
scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, probably came

after the Puranas. There is also a Ganesha Sahasranama and the popular
version is found in the Ganesha Purana. There are variants to it as well.
Ganesha's position as a major Hindu God was sealed only when he was
formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartas by
Shankara. (The five deities are Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya).
Shankara started the tradition primarily to unite the deities of the five
major sects on the same platform, on an equal status. The Ganapatya
tradition of Hinduism treating Ganesha as the supreme deity, was quite
prominent during Shankara’s days.
Ganesha’s Evolution: The roots of Ganesha worship have been traced back
to the Indus Valley. In 1993, a metal plate depiction of an elephant-
headed figure, interpreted as Ganesha, was discovered in Iran, dating
back to 1,200 BCE. The first terrakota images of Ganesha are only from
the 1st century CE. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two
arms, and a chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone are from
Mathura and belong to the Kushan period (2nd – 3rd centuries CE).
Ganesha’s origin can perhaps be traced to the four Vinayakas - evil
spirits, mentioned in the Manava grhya sutra (7th – 4th century BCE). The
four were troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but
who were also easily propitiated.
Elephant-headed human figures (which some identify with Ganesha), appear
in art and coins as early as the 2nd century. The elephant-headed Ganesha
as lord of the Ganas was known to the Sri lankans in the early pre-
Christian era. Elephant-headed yak?a forms do exist from the 2nd century
CE, but it cannot be presumed to be Ga?esha.
Ganesha was certainly prominent during the Gupta period. All the
following discoveries are from the 4th-5th centuries CE. An image of
Ganesha was discovered in the ruins, north of Kabul, along with those of
Surya and Shiva. Another image was found in Gardez in Afghanistan with an
inscription on its pedestal. The Udayagiri Caves (number 6) has a bas-
relief image of Ganesha. An icon of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of
sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap (probably Vallabhi) has been
found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh. There was yet
another discovery from the Ramgarh Hill. Thus, his images was definitely
prevalent in many parts of India by the end of the 5th century. The image
found in Ellora caves is dated to the 7th century. His name and his
earliest images appear in Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam from
the 7th-8th centuries, and mirror their Indian counterparts.
The Ganapatya sect with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established
by the days of Shankara (9th century). However, there is no convincing
evidence about the existence of Ganesha before the 5th century.
Iconography: He is considered to be the restored son of Shiva and
Parvati, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions. The
innumerable forms in which he is

represented iconography vouchsafes for it. The striking features of

Ganesha's iconography are his elephant head and the big belly. His
elephant head makes him unique and symbolizes wisdom. In rare instances,
he is shown with a human head.
He has four arms, which seems to be a standard feature. (In Tamil, he is
described as one with five arms – Ainkaran - which includes his trunk.
That confirms his standard form with four arms). Forms with several arms
appeared in Central India, belonging to the 9th – 10th centuries. He
holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a modak, a
delicacy, in the lower left hand. He samples with his trunk. The trunk
turns sharply to his left but in some variants, it turns to the right as
well, which is considered special. He holds an axe or a goad in one upper
arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In the later form, the
lower-right hand shows an Abhaya mudra, instead of holding the broken
tusk.
The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of the
dancing Ganesha, which is a very popular theme. Upon Ganesha's forehead
is his third eye, three horizontal lines of vibhuthi and a crescent moon,
a distinct form of Ganesha called the Phala chandra – Phala meaning
Forehead).
The serpent Vasuki is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears
in many forms. He is seen with the serpent wrapped around his neck or
around the stomach as a belt. The snake also appears as his sacred thread
(yajñyopavita), held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. The
snake represents Kundalini Sakthi.
Ganesha is often described as red in colour. Many examples of color
associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sri
tattva nidhi, a treatise on iconography. For example, Heramba-Ganapati
and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage) are white
in color. Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized in blue colour.
His names: Ga?a, means a group/category and isha means a lord. In this
case, the ga?as refer to the retinue of Shiva – the Bhootha ganas.
Ganapati means the same thing- pati and isha being synonyms. Amara kosha,
the Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha: Vinayaka (without
a boss), Vighnaraja (Lord of obstacles – Vighnesha/ Vighneswara means the
same thing), Dvaimatura (has two mothers), Ga?adhipa (same as Ganapati
and Ganesha), Ekadanta (with one tusk), Heramba (protector of the weak),
Lambodara (with a pot belly- Mahodara means the same thing), and Gajanana
(with the face of an elephant).
In the Pura?as and in Buddhist Tantras, the name that mostly appears is
Vinayaka. The eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra are known as
the a??avinayaka. A prominent name for Ganesha is Pillaiyar in Tamil. In
Burma, he is known as Maha Peinne (Maha Winayaka in Pali). In Thailand he
is known as Phra Phikanet. Sri Lankans know him as Gana deviyo, and
revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others.

Elephant Head: Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his
elephant head. Some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant
head, while in most other legends he acquires the elephant head later.
The popular legend says that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to
protect her during the absence of Shiva. When Shiva returned home,
Ganesha did not recognize him and prevented him from entering. An angry
Shiva beheaded Ganesha. After knowing the truth, Shiva replaced Ganesha's
original head with that of an elephant.
Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's smile.
Yet another legend says that he was born from the elephant headed goddess
Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the
river. Heramba Ganapati, one of his popular forms, has five elephant
heads, to reinforce the idea that he is Shiva’s son, who too has five
heads.
Vahanas: Ganesha’s vehicle is a shrew (???????? in Tamil) and not a mouse
(Shrew belongs to the family of Soricidae. They are small mole-like
mammals). The early references to Ganesha do not indicate a mount.
Ganesha uses a shrew as his vehicle, in many of his manifestations. He
also uses other vehicles in his other forms (Vakratunda – lion, Vikata –
peacock, Vighnaraja - Shesha, the divine serpent, Mohotkata - lion,
Mayuresvara - peacock, Dhumraketu – horse). The Jains depict Ganesha’s
vehicle variously as a shrew, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.
The shrew is always placed close to his feet. The shrew first appears in
the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana.
The Ganapati atharva sirsha has a verse in which the shrew appears on his
flag. The names Mu?aka vahana (shrew-mount) and Akhu ketana (shrew-
banner) appear in the Ganesha SN.
The shrew symbolizes tamo guna, desire and destruction. The word mu?aka
(shrew) is derived from the root mu? (stealing). It was hence essential
to subdue the shrew, a destructive pest and a type of vighna
(impediment). Ganesha as master of the shrew becomes Vigneshvara (Lord of
Obstacles), both of a material and spiritual order.
Traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to
be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin
anything new. Ganesha's dharma and his raison d'être (the purpose for
something's existence) is to create and remove obstacles. He is both
vighna karta (obstacle-creator) and vighna harta (obstacle-averter). Both
functions are vital to his character.
Buddhi: Buddhi in Sanskrit may mean intelligence, discretion, wisdom, or
intellect. Ganesha is closely associated with buddhi and several legends
display his cleverness and love of intelligence. The Ganesha Purna and
the Ganesha SN call him Buddhi priya, which appears in a list of 21 names
at the end of the Ganesha SN that are especially important. The name may
mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".

Ohm: Ganesha is identified with Ohm and is called o?kara svarupa (Om is
his form). He personifies the primal sound. Ganapathi atharvasirsha says:
(Oh Ganapati!) You are Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya,
Chandra and Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth],
Antariksha-loka [space], and heaven]. You are Ohm. There are striking
similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body and the letter Ohm in
Tamil and Sanskrit.
First chakra: According to Kundalini Yoga, Ganesha resides in the first
Chakra known as muladhara. (Mula – original/main, adhara –
base/foundation). On this chakra rests the primordial Divine Force. The
Ganapati Atharvashirsa declares "You stay permanently in muladhara
cakra." Thus Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras.
Ganesha's marital status: In South India and in part of North India,
Ganesha is considered a permanent bachelor. In North India, he is married
to Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity).
They are basically qualities personified as goddesses and strongly
associated with Ganesha. He is also shown with a single consort called
Vallabhi. In Maharashtra, he is shown together with Sarda, the goddess of
culture and the arts. He is also shown with the goddess of luck and
prosperity, Lakshmi. In Bengal, Ganesha is connected with the banana
tree, Kala bo.
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha has two sons: Ksema (prosperity) and
Labha (profit). In a North Indian variant, the sons become Subha
(auspiciousness) and Labha (profit).
Ganesha’s Popularity: Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular
occasions, especially at the beginning of new ventures such as house
warming or starting a business. Dancers and musicians, particularly in
South India, begin their performances with a prayer to Ganesha.
There can hardly be a Hindu home in India which does not house an idol or
picture of Ganesha. He is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all
denominations worship him. The most famous mantras associated with
Ganesha is Om Ga? Ganapataye Namah (Om, Ga?, Salutation to the Lord of
Hosts). Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and laddus. Because
of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red
sandalwood paste (rakta chandana) or red flowers. Durva grass (Cynodon
dactylon) and flowers are also used in his worship.
Ganesha Chaturthi, celebrated in the month of Bhadrapada
(August/September) is the most important festival of Ganesha. Nowadays,
it is celebrated over ten days, starting on Ganesh Chaturthi as a social
function. On the 10th day, the idols are immersed in the most convenient
body of water nearby.
It was Bala Gangadhara Tilak, who in 1893, transformed this family
festival into a public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the
Brahmins and others and find an appropriate context in which to build a
new grassroots unity between them". He used the

occasion to unite the Indians to fight the British. Since Ganesha was the
God for Everyman, Tilak chose him as a rallying point. Tilak started the
habit of installing large images of Ganesha in tents and the practice of
submerging the images on the tenth day. Now, the practices had become
popular all over India. It is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.
Ganesha in Temples: In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various
ways: as the principal deity of the temple (pradhana), as a subordinate
deity (pãrsva-devatã) and as a deity related to the principal deity
(parivara-devatã). He is often placed at the doorway of many Hindu
temples to keep out the unworthy, similar to his role as Parvati's
doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha
himself, of which the Ashtavinayak in Maharashtra are particularly well
known. The eight shrines are: Moregaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahd, Theur,
Lenyadri, Ozar, and Ranjangaon.
There are 12 other famous Ganesha Temples across India. Of them three are
in Maharashtra. (Shree Siddhivinayak Temple, Mumbai, Shrimant Dagdusheth
Halwai Ganpati Temple, Pune, Ganpatipule Temple, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra).
Two each are in Rajasthan (Ranthambore Ganesh Temple, and Moti Dungri
Ganesh Temple, Jaipur) and in Tamilnadu (Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Koil
Temple, Tiruchi and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple, Pillaiyarpatti). One each
is in Pondicherry, Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka and Sikkim. (Manakula
Vinayagar Temple, Pondicherry, Kanipakam Vinayaka Temple, Chittoor,
Andhra, Madhur Mahaganapathi Temple, Kerala, . Sasivekalu & Kadale Kalu
Ganesha Temple, Hampi, Karnataka and Ganesh Tok Temple, Gangtok)
Every village, however small, has its own image of Ganesha with or
without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts,
below pipa?a trees in a niche and in every temples. He has separate
shrines in every Shiva temple.
Ganesha is also worshipped by the Jains and Buddhists. . In Indochina,
Hinduism and Buddhism developed side by side, and mutual influences can
be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region, where Ganesha was
mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.
Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. King
Vajravudh of Chakri Dynansty was devoted to Ganesha and built a Ganesha
shrine at his palace. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the
Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's fine arts academy.
Mahayana Buddhism recognizes the Buddhist god Vinayaka and also a Hindu
demon with the same name. The Buddhist god Vinayaka is often shown
dancing (N?tta Ganapati). This form was popular in North India and was
later adopted in Nepal and Tibet. In Nepal, the Heramba form of Ganesha
(with five heads and a lion vahana) is popular. Tibetians display Ganesha
in two forms – as tshogs bdag, he is shown being

trodden under foot by Shiva, who is a popular deity in Tibet and as the
Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing. In Japan, Ganesha is known as
Kangiten.
Though Jainism does not worship Ganesha, Jains, mostly a trading
community, worship Ganesha, who has taken over the functions of Kubera. A
15th-century Jain text gives procedures for the installation of Ganesha
images, which appear almost in all the Jain temples of Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
The elephant God is also worshipped wherever large ethnic Indian
populations are found (e.g.: Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Bali (in
Indonesia), Bangla Desh, Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago and British
Guyana). New temples get built for him in countries like the USA, Canada,
UK, Australia and New Zealand.
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went
out of India for commercial ventures. The earliest inscription invoking
Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.
If a temple does get built on the moon in future, it will surely be for
Ganesha.
5.8 Krishna – from a pastoral God to Parabrahma
Introduction: The word Kr?ishn?a means black and it refers to his
complexion. He is the most important avatar of Vishn?u and is a highly
popular God, but his origins remain obscure. What we know of him are from
sources such as Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana and
other Puranas. There are no clear records to treat him as a historical
figure, though he is often suspected to be one.
Apparently Krishna and Vasudeva were different persons to begin with,
just as Vishnu and Narayana were. How all the four names merged into one
and how and when did Krishna become an avatar of Vishnu and how Krishna
replaced Vishnu himself later, as the Para Brahman in some Vaishnavaite
sects are matters of interest.
Krishna, the Yadava: Both Krishna and Vasudeva seem to be separate heroes
of the Satvata and Vrishni tribes of the Yadava clan. They were deified
later and with time, merged into one. The Yadavas are descendants of
Yadu, a legendary king. Yadu had two sons, Sahasrajit and Kroshtu.
Satvata was a descendant of Kroshtu. Vrishni was one of the four sons of
Satvata. Vrishni’s grand nephew was Vasudeva, the father of Balarama and
Krishna.
The Satvatas were ruled by the Bhojas (Aitareya Brahmana - VIII.14).
Satvata's son Bhima was a contemporary of Rama (Harivamsa - 95.5242-8).
Satapatha Brahmana (XIII.5.4.21)says that Bharata, Rama’s brother, seized
the sacrificial horse of the Satvatas. After Rama’s death, Satvata Bhima
recovered Mathura from the Ayodhya rulers. His son Andhaka was obviously
a contemporary of Kusa, the son of Rama.

The Vrishnis are also mentioned in several Vedic texts. (Taittriya

Samhita- III.2.9.3, Taittriya Brahmana - III.10.9.15, Satapatha Brahmana
-III.1.1.4, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana -I.6.1). In the 20th century,
the Yadavas have claimed Kshatriya status in Government records.
A silver coin of the Vrishnis, presently in the British Museum, London
was discovered from Hoshiarpur, Punjab. A number of copper coins and clay
seals of Vrishnis were also discovered from Sunet, near Ludhiana.
Panini mentions that the Satvatas and the Vrishnis belong to the
Kshatriya gotra (IV.1.114) and had a sangha (tribal oligarchy) form of
government. However, Mahabharata, (Drona Parva 141.15) calls both groups
as Vratyas (deviators from orthodoxy). Manu Smrithi (X.23) says that the
Satvatas are Vratya Vaishyas. The Kukuras, the Bhojas, the Andhakas and
the Vrishnis are together referred to as a sangha and Vasudeva Krishna is
their mukhya (leader) (Mahabharata, Shanti Parva -1.25).
Several Puranas mention that the Yadavas were found in the Aravalli
region, Gujarat, the Narmada valley, the northern Deccan and the eastern
Ganges valley and ruled the Mathura region. The Mahabharata refers to the
exodus of the Yadavas from Mathura to Dvaraka owing to pressure from the
rulers of Magadha and from the Kauravas. (Could that be a reason for
Krishna killing Jarasandha, the king of Magadha (through Bhima) and the
Kauravas?)
The Vrishnis worshipped a goddess known as Ekanamsha (Harivamsa II.4.37-
41). She is described as daughter of Nandagopa (Harivamsa - II.2.12).
The name Vâsudeva deserves a discussion. One meaning is that he is the
son of Vasudeva. Vaishnavaites claim that Vasudeva is one who dwells in
everything (vas - dwell). Another theory says that Vâsudeva is the deity
of the Sâttvata clan and when Kr?ishn?a was deified, this name was
transferred to him.
Incidentally, the Jains have a series of supermen named Vâsudeva. There
is an interesting legend in the Puranas about Paundraka, a king. He
claimed to be a deity, used the title Vâsudeva and ordered Kr?ishn?a to
stop using it. Krishna was not amused and killed him for his
impertinence. This implies that ‘Vasudeva’ had been a title.
Krishna, the King of Dvaraka: Krishna has at least four different roles –
i) the king of Dvaraka, ii) the divine child of Brindavan, iii) the great
guru at Kurukshetra and iv) the love deity of Mathura. It is not fully
clear whether all are the same person or could have been different
persons. In Mahabharata, one encounters only the King of Dvaraka. It also
mentions the death of Kam?sa but not the rest of the divine child’s
history.
The divine child and the lover deity appear only in the Puranas. The King
Krishna is radically different from both – ruthless and scheming.
Probably, a military hero of the west has combined with a Yadava deity
(or two) to form the legend of Krishna.

Kr?ishn?a’s assistance to the Pân?d?avas against the Kauravas has made

some scholars to theorize that Krishna used the Pandavas to destroy the
Kauravas. The Pân?d?avas probably belonged to a tribe of the Himalayas,
where they still practice polyandry. What Kunti practiced is technically
polyandry. (Her mother-law too is not a monogamist).
Kunti simply brings her children from the Himalayas to Hasthinapur and
declares them as Pandu’s children. Pandu and Madri had died by then and
Kunti’s words are the only proof. A Yadava chief Krishna helps them to
kill the Kauravas and capture the throne.
Even after returning to Dvaraka from the Great War, in which all but 10
men on both sides were killed, Krishna was bent upon his mission of
clearing the earth of tyrants and demons. The demon king, Salva
(Mahabharata 3:12, 7:11) (not the lover of Amba), who has an aerial
vehicle, lays a siege on Dvaraka, but is defeated and killed. Many other
demons and kings are defeated and destroyed by Krishna or his
descendants.
Finally, all the Yadava men are also annihilated in a day, due to a
drunken brawl. Kr?ishn?a doesn’t stop the conflict but withdraws to the
forest and is killed by the hunter Jaras. (Jaras means old age). Was his
intention to make Bharat safe for the lesser rulers?
Krishna, the teacher and reformer: Long before the Buddha and as a
forerunner to Ramanuja, Krishna has been a reformer; He made public the
mostly secretive Upanishadic knowledge through his Bhagavat Gita. In the
process, He had successfully combined the Vedanta with Samkhya and Yoga
and made his teachings more appealing to the public. There are no
parallels in the Vedic texts and Shad Darshanas to the Karma Yoga, Bhakti
Yoga and the philosophy of surrender propounded in Gita.
Krishna Devakiputra (son of Devaki) is mentioned in the Chhandogya
Upanishad as a sage and a disciple of sage Ghora of the Ângirasa clan.
Could it be the Gita Krishna? No other reference to Kr?ishn?a except the
above is found in the earlier Upanishads.
Later sectarian writers never quote these things.
Kr?ishn?a was perhaps basically a teacher, like Zarathustra, from the
military class. MahâVîra and Buddha, though Kshatriyas, stay as teachers
till the end and did not have heroic exploits in addition, but Krishna is
different. Krishna established probably the new religion of the
Bhâgavatas and created a special deity called Bhagavan, before becoming a
deity himself. Bhagavan itself has come to mean God in general.
Krishna, who opposed the Vedic Gods: Several legends show Krishna in
conflict with the Vedic Gods, contradicting his position as Vishn?u
incarnate. Krishna plunders Indra's garden for the Parijatha tree,
defeats the gods who oppose him and carries away the tree. Krishna and
Shiva (with Nandi and Skanda) take opposite sides in the fight between
Banasura and Aniruddha (Krishna’s grandson). After defeating Paundraka,

Krishna burns down the city of Kashi with all its inhabitants with his
discuss, simply because the King of Kashi sided with Paundraka and to
show the power of the discus.
Krishna forbids the worship of Indra in Brindavan. Indra sends down a
deluge of rain in anger, but Krishna defeats him by lifting up the hill
of Govardhan. He and Arjuna help Agni to burn down the Gandhava forest by
opposing Indra.
While interrupting a sacrifice offered by Nanadagopa to Indra, Krishna
says (found in Vishnu Purana), "We have neither fields nor houses: we
wander about happily wherever we list, travelling in our wagons. What
have we to do with Indra? Cattle and mountains are (our) gods. Brahmans
offer worship with prayer: cultivators of the earth adore their landmarks
but we who tend our herds in the forests and mountains should worship
them and our cattle."
This passage suggests that Kr?ishn?a represents a tribe of highland
nomads who worshipped mountains and cattle and not the Vedic Gods. The
worship of mountain spirits is still common in Central Asia. In all these
cases, we see only an anti-hero who, though ultimately deified, opposed
the established Gods.
Krishna, the cowherd and the Lover: Krishna the cowherd, probably
surfaced when Krishna was fused with another god of the Abhira (Ahir)
tribe. It is not clear whether the Abhiras were natives of India or
immigrants, but it is quite clear that in the 1st century CE, they were
living in the Saurashtra. They became politically active under the rule
of the Shakas and the Satavahanas. The Âbhîras were nomadic and slowly
moved to the Gangetic plains. The pastoral Kr?ishn?a is an Âbhîra from
Braj region but the warlike Kr?ishn?a is probably from the western
Âbhîras, from Saurashtra.
Krishna is the guardian of Mullai (the forestry lands) in Tamil Sangam
literature. The words maal/mayon are also used to refer to the guardian.
While maal may refer to Vishnu, the word maayon (a trickster), is more
applicable to Krishna than to Vishnu, based on their histories. Vellaiyan
(white man), is another guardian of Mullai and he is identified as
Balarama, a companion of black Krishna. Krishna is also mentioned in
Tamil classic Silappathikaram. Modern scholars have revised down the
period of Silappathikaram to 3rd-5th Centuries CE.
The tribes of Vrishnis (of Krishna-Vasudeva) and Abhiras (of the cowherd
deity) have many similarities, especially in the way they treat their
women. Krishna in the Mahabharata counsels Arjuna to abduct Subhadra,
Krishna’s sister and says that would be in keeping up with his Dharma.
Krishna himself had abducted Ruckmani. This was a common practice among
Vrishnis.
Similarly, when Arjuna is escorting the Vrishni women from Dvaraka, after
all the Yadav men had died, the Abhiras take the women away. They also
thrash Arjuna and break his famous bow gandiva, in the process.

The Abhira link may perhaps explain the amorous dalliances of Krishna
with the gopis. The nomadic Abhiras allowed for a greater freedom of the
sexes. Probably, the erotic elements of their god were shifted to Krishna
later. The Krishna-Gopala legend and the link with Abhiras, though
missing in the Mahabharata, is clearly discussed in the Harivamsa, a
later appendage to the Mahabharata.
Treating Krishna as a lover is rather unique. It is not found in any
other known religion and no other God in Hinduism has such legends. His
frolics and the rites instituted in memory them like Rasa Lila have been
lovingly adored by the Krishna devotees like Alwars. The Alvars imagined
themselves to be girls and pined for the love of Krishna. Similar trends
appeared with respect to Muruga in Tamil literature later.
The infant Krishna: The infant Kr?ishn?a is famously known as the Butter
Thief. Through him, one worships the childhood, its wayward pranks and
its loveable simplicity. The tender playfulness of Baby Krishna appeals
profoundly to Indian women. Images of the Butter thief are sold by
thousands in the streets of Mathura. Equally popular is the image of
Kanhaiya, the flutist, as he stands in a graceful but careless attitude.
Kr?ishn?a in this form is the beloved of the Gopîs of Brindavan,
especially Râdhâ, his consort.
Krishna, an Avatar of Vishnu: As days progressed, Vedic worship had
become rigid and sacrifices, expensive. Jainism and Buddhism were gaining
ground, aided by Kings like Ashoka. Invaders like the Shakas adopted
Buddhism or popular cults and not the Vedic practices. The authority of
the priests was eroding. Improved economic conditions of the lower castes
challenged caste rules. Hence, ‚the devotional cult of Vasudeva-Krishna
came handy and made into a form of Narayana - Vishnu worship to bring
back the Vedic authority in a modified form.' It is both evolutionary and
reformatory.
To ease the process, a unified Krishna-Vasudeva was made an avatar of
Vishnu and taken into the Vedic cult. Far more significant are the
absorption of the Buddha into the ten avatars (especially in the North)
and Rishaba Deva of the Jains as one of the supplementary avatars of
Vishnu. Shiva, who was not a Vedic God, was combined with Vedic Rudra and
accepted into the Hindu fold. The approach is the same in all cases.
At many places in Udyoga parva and Shanthi parva of Mahabharata, Krishna
and Vasudeva are mentioned as forms of Vishnu/Narayana. The Anu-gita
which appears at the end of Mahabharata, reveres Krishna as Vishnu.
Krishna displays his cosmic form (vishva rupa) in at least six instances
in Mahabharata (including the one in Gita).
Narayana and Vishnu, initially perceived as separate deities, were
already unified into one and soon a grand unification of Krishna-
Vasudeva-Narayana-Vishnu took place. Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa and their
likes weaved the fragmentary connections of these Gods into a coherent
whole. Krishna was now born as a Kshatriya of the Yadava clan and as the
son of Vasudeva (hence his name Vaasudeva). He is also a dweller in all
life forms. Krishna was smuggled into the tribe of the Abhiras, only
because of Kamsa.

Krishna’s role as a divine child, the lover of gopis and as a pastoral

god was only a passing phase in his life. His life mission was the Great
War and may be Bhagavat Gita. Thus he is God himself, which narrative was
finally complete with Bhagvata Purana, hailing him as the Supreme God.
However, that led to Krishna usurping Vishnu’s place.
Krishna In History: The historian DC. Sircar, quotes Quintus Curtius
Rufus (c. 41-54 CE) and says that an image of Vasudeva-Krishna was
carried by the army of King Paurava, when it fought Alexander’s army.
(The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115).
Krishna in Buddhism: The Buddhists call Krishna as Kan?ha, the name’s
phonetic equivalent. (The name Kanhaiya is also popular among Hindus).
The Dîgha Nikâya, a Buddhist text, mentions the clan of Kan?hâyanas. A
Kan?ha among them became a great sage. This person may be Kr?ishn?a but
no one is sure. Another text, the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) describes Kr?
ishn?a's childhood. He is the son of king Upasagara and queen Deva-
garbha; but was given to the foster care of Nandagopa, wife of Andaka-
vrishni. This Krishna later became a Rishi in their works. Names, such as
Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kam?sa are found in the legend.
Mathura became a great Buddhist and Jain centre after Krishna, as the
statues and vihâras found there attest. Ptolemy calls it the city of the
gods. Fa-Hsien (400 CE) describes it as Buddhist, but Buddhism in Mathura
had declined during Hsüan Chuang's visit (~630CE).
Krishna in Jainism: The Jaina Puranas refer to god Halabhrit, who is
probably Balarama, who carries a halayudha (plough). The Jains have a
system of patriarchs which includes the Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Kr?ishn?
a is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvârakâ. His
physical parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged to the Sâtvata sect of the
Yâdava tribe. He was brought up by Nanda, a herdsman, and his wife Yâsodâ
at Gokula and Vrindâvana. He will become the 12th tîrthankara of the next
Yuga and Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva will attain a similar position a bit
later.
Krishna in Archeology: Indica by Megasthenes, a Greek envoy to the court
of Chandra Gupta Maurya, talks about how the Surasenoi (Surasens, a
Yadava-Vrishni tribe) worshipped Heracles (Krishna) in Mathura. By fourth
century BCE, Krishna has certainly become a deity from a hero.
Till the 1st century BCE, Krishna was only worshipped in his adult form.
A stone pillar with a Garuda sculpture on top dedicated to Vasudeva, the
‚God of gods', was erected in front of Vasudeva temple by Heliodorus, the
Greek ambassador to the court of King Bhagabhadra (~113 BCE), near
Besnagar in MP). Heliodorus, the Greek, became a Vaishnava in India and
the column of Heliodorus is one of the most important archaeological
finds in India.

The inscriptions on the pillar read: ‚This Garuda-column of Vasudeva, the

god of gods, was erected here by Heliodorus, a worshipper of Vishnu, the
son of Dion, and an inhabitant of Taxila, who came as Greek ambassador
from the Great King Antialkidas to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the
Saviour, then reigning prosperously in the fourteenth year of his
kingship.' It adds ‚Three immortal precepts, when practiced diligently
lead to heaven: self-restraint (dama), charity, (thyaga) consciousness
(apramada).'
The Mora–well inscription (1st century CE), found near Mathura, tell that
one Tosha installed the images of the five heroes of vrishni clan viz
Sankarshana (Baladeva), Vasudeva (Krishna), Samba and Pradyumna (sons of
Krishna) and Aniruddha (son of Pradyumna). A 2nd century(CE) inscription
of Ghosundi (Rajasthan) mentions a puja-sila-prakar (stone enclosure for
worship) in Narayana-vata (Narayana’s park) by king Gajayana Sarvatata
constructed in honour of gods Vasudeva and Sankarshana, described as
‘Lords of all’.
The narrative of Krishna’s childhood can be seen only in the sculptures
of the 6th century or later.
Krishna, Parabrahma: In Bhagavad Gita, the tradition of treating Krishna
as the virtual Supreme Being starts. Strangely, Krishna became the point
of departure for Vaishnava Schools of the North and the South. The older
traditions of Ramanuja and Madhva from the South treat Narayana or Vishnu
as the supreme God. However, the traditions of Gaudiya (Bengal)
Vaishnavas talk differently. It was started in the 16th century by
Chaitanya of Bengal (1486-1533). He emphasized the worship of Krishna. He
believed that in addition to one's own meditation on Krishna, his name
should also be chanted in the streets for the benefit of all. Swami
Prabhupada in the lineage brought this concept - formally called the
International Society of Krishna Consciousness — to the U.S. in 1966.
Public dancing and chanting became its trademark.
The Nimbarka Sampradaya and the follower of Vallabha also consider
Vasudeva-Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan - ‚The Lord Himself ‚; and not
different from the ultimate and absolute Brahman. Vasudeva-Krishna is the
source of all avatars, Vishnu-Narayana and all other gods. Their argument
follows the Bhagavata Purana (1.3.28), which says ‘krsnas tu bhagavan
svayam’, (Kirshna is God himself).
As a corollary, Radha (Krishna's consort but not one of his 8 official
wives) also gets a new status. She has become a manifestation of Vishnu’s
third wife, Nila Devi. She is now the source of all other Shaktis,
including Lakshmi and Sita, not to mention Saraswathi and Parvatri. The
Brahma Vaivarta Purana (already discussed in brief) asserts that Vishnu,
Shiva and Brahma are incarnations of Krishna and that all women are
manifestations of Radha. Krishna and Radha are co-creators of the
universe.

Thus ends the fascinating story of Krishna, who probably started as a

tribal hero, was converted into a pastoral God, then became an avatar of
Vishnu and finally ended up as the Parabrahma.
5.9 Transformation of the Vedic Gods
Hindus had always believed in a singular God but also believed in his
polymorphic (different forms) nature. The oft quoted verse from Rig Veda
(1.164.46) says,
?????? ????? ????????????????????????? ??????? ? ???????? ?????????? ? ?
?? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????? ???? ??????????????????? ???
?
They called him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni; and he is heavenly Garuda,
who has beautiful wings. The truth is one, but the sages call it by many
names - Agni, Yama, Matarisvan (Vayu).
The Western world finds it difficult to reconcile with an idea of a
polymorphic God, fixed as they are with an all powerful Abrahamic God who
needs to be obeyed and not loved. Hence they can only consider Hindu Gods
as a pantheon of demi-gods jostling for position. It is because Hindu’s
polytheism is one of its kind and different from its counterparts in
other cultures.
Do Hindus still worship all the old Vedic Gods or have they forgotten
those poor Gods?
To answer the question, we will revert to an earlier article on Vedic
Gods, where the Gods were ranked on the basis of the number of hymns
dedicated to them in the Rig Veda. The same sequence will be followed in
describing their present status.
1.Indra: (289 hymns in Rig Veda) Indra is no more the leader of Gods.
Most of his functions had gone to Vishnu, among The Trinities. Still he
is invoked in a few Yagnas conducted sporadically across India. However,
he is the leader of the Dik Palas and guards the Eastern direction.
2.Agni: (218 hymns) Agni Hotra still goes on in the earth and thus Agni
is remembered and worshipped. Agni based havans/homams are still
important is several rituals. Many of Agni’s functions, mostly
destructive, have been transferred to Rudra/Shiva. As a Dik Pala, Agni
guards the South East direction.
3.Soma: (123 hymns) Soma, as the plant that provides an invigorating
drink, has long been forgotten, since the identity of the plant is now
lost. Soma has been interpreted as the moon in the later days and the
connection had been extended to Shiva. Somanatha is one of the names of
Shiva – it could mean either the lord of the moon or the lord of the
plant soma. In some texts, Soma appears as an Apsara.
4.Ishvara: (Supreme God – not Shiva) (118 hymns) Ishvara as an
independent God had long been forgotten. The name is now another epithet
for Shiva.
5.Ashvins: (56 hymns) Nobody remembers them.

6.Varuna: (46 hymns): He was the leader of the Gods, until Indra usurped
that position. People still perform Varuna Japa, for rains. His functions
have been transferred to Shiva. He is the guardian of the West, balancing
Indra in the East.
7.Maruts (38 hymns) – The controversy regarding their origin and number
remains but that probably is the only thing remembered about the maruts.
8.Mitra (28 hymns) – He has lost his identity after the Vedic days.
9.Usha / Ushas (21 hymns)- It is a popular name for girls but nobody
worships Usha.
10.Vayu (12 hymns) – He is remembered only through his three avatars,
namely, Hanuman, Bhima and Madhvacharya. He is the guardian of North
West.
11.Savitr (11 hymns): He is remembered through the Gayatri mantra but not
worshipped otherwise.
12.Rbhus (11 hymns): People will only ask Rbhus who?
13.Pusan (10 hymns):Same fate as Rbhus.
14.Brihaspati (8 hymns) The preceptor of Devas has become one of the 9
planets and is worshipped by favour seekers, as advised by astrologers.
15.Surya (8 hymns): He is the most powerful among the nine planets. He is
worshipped on Makara Sankranti day. The weather in India constantly
reminds people about Surya.
16. Adityas (6 hymns) Remembered only during ceremonies for ancestors.
17.Vishnu (6 hymns) : He has evolved into one of the Trimurthis and has
become Para Brahma for certain sects.
18.Rudra (5 hymns): He has evolved into Shiva. He is now one of the
Trimurthis and is the most powerful God for certain sects.
19.Yama (4 hymns) Still a most feared God and in charge of the South
direction, but worshipped?
20.Saraswathi (3 hymns) She was known more as the river in the Vedic
days. She has now become the goddess of knowledge and the consort of
Brahma.
Thus, a few Vedic Gods have been accommodated as Dik palas and planets.
Among the eight Dik palas, there are six Vedic Gods - Indra, Agni, Yama,
Nirriti, Varuna and Vayu. Nirriti doesn’t figure in the top 20 mentioned
above. Of the remaining two Dik Palas, Kubera appears only from the epic
Ramayana and Ishana is considered another form of Shiva. (They have been
discussed earlier).
There are some stray Vedic verses, linked with the planets. Among the
planets, the sun and Brihaspati (guru or Jupiter) are definitely among
the Vedic Gods. The Soma Mandala in the Rig Veda mentions Soma but only
as a drink. In the Puranas, Soma becomes the moon. Budha is supposed to
be illegitimate son of moon, born of

Brihaspati’s wife Tara. He too finds a place only in the Puranas.

Incidentally Tara also means a star and moon is the husband of all the 27
stars mentioned in Indian astrology.
Rahu and Ketu appear only during the Kurma avatar of Vishnu. They are not
recognized as planets by Varaha Mihira in his Brihat Jataka, an ancient
and famous treatise on Hindu astrology. They became planets much later.
How about Sukra (Venus)? Bala Gangadhara Tilak has suggested that the
Vedic female God Vena is actually Venus but the argument seems
farfetched. Sukra is a male – he is Bhargava, the son of Rishi Bhrigu and
the guru of the demons. Sani (Saturn- son of Surya) and Mangal (Mars)
find their places only in the Puranas and in Astrology.
A few Vedic Gods are still worshipped today in the traditional way, but
only by a few Purohits, while conducting an occasional Yagna, as per the
old traditions. However, the average Hindu will never know what is going
on in such rituals. Even those Yagnas do not cover all the Gods found in
Rig Veda or in the short list mentioned above.
‚Is there anybody contemplating on the Brahman of the Upanishads'? A few
highly evolved Hindu philosophers may still do that to the exclusion of
all the personal Gods but no one else will ever know.
Then we have a few genuine atheists and agnostics still among the Hindus.
The rest of the Hindus, forming the bulk of the population, worship a
variety of Puranic and tribal Gods. The long list includes the Gods in
local temples, the family deities (kula Devatha), the community Gods, the
favorite Gods (ishta devata) and so on. The average Hindu is also fully
free to switch over to a different God any time or every time he
worships. During national festivals, the majority of Hindus worship a few
specific Gods, such as Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, Durga, Karthikeya
and so on.
When did the Vedic Gods yield their place to the Puranic Gods?
Mahabharata's time was perhaps the transition time. Why? Both sets of
Gods were popular during that time, based on references in that epic.
That is the sign of a transition period. That was also the period of
transition from Dvapara Yuga to Kali Yuga.
When did it happen? Well, about 5000 years ago (Kali Yuga began in 3102
BCE as per our almanacs) and much later, according to the Westerners.
Take your pick, but the transition seems to be certain!
Let us now go into the evidences. Kunti and Madri sought help only from
the Vedic Gods to sire their heroic children, ignoring the Puranic Gods
that were popular at that time. Surya, Yama, Vayu, Indra and the Ashwinis
were the physical fathers of Karna, Yudhishtra, Bhima, Arjuna and the
twins Nakula & Sahadeva, respectively.
Some of these Gods appear frequently in the epic. Yama comes down only to
test his son Yudhishtra’s righteousness on a few occasions. Surya and
Indra come down on

several occasions, but to help their respective sons, Karna and Arjuna.
Arjuna casually visits Indra Loka, runs into Urvashi, refuses her love
and gets cursed by her. Krishna gets his guru’s son back from Varuna
Loka. Agni burns down the Gandhava vana. Many Yagnas like the Rajasuya
Yaga get conducted in the epic. So there is no dearth of references to
Vedic practices and Vedic Gods in the Mahabharata.
Let us now turn to the Puranic Gods. Krishna, Balarama and Parasurama
were living among the characters of Mahabharata but they were seen only
as strong and special men – not as avatars of Vishnu by their
contemporaries. The concept of the ten avatars of Vishnu must have
emerged much later. If the Kauravas knew that Krishna was an avatar, the
war would not have taken place or Indra would not have opposed Krishna.
Yudhishtra first goes to hell after his death and then to heaven. Kailasa
or Vaikunta is not mentioned in this context.
Shiva appears in a few places. Arjuna’s fight with the hunter Shiva is
well known. Karthikeya, as the commander of the Gods’ army, is mentioned
several times while describing the 18 days’ war. Ganesha is supposed to
have written down Mahabharata to Vyasa’s dictation. Ashwatthama gets a
vision of Mahakala in the epic. Rukmani was abducted by Krishna when she
was worshipping in a Devi’s temple. The Mahabharata also mentions
Pradyumna’s worship of Katyayani, Aniruddha’s hymn to Chandi and
Yudhishthira’s hymn to Durga. It also talks about Brahma’s creation
process.
In the epic, the Vedic gods took the help of humans and also rubbed with
the Puranic Gods, sometimes. The Agni Khandava forest incident is the
most interesting. Agni wants to consume it and seeks the help of Arjuna
and Krishna. Indra at that time wants to protect the Nagas and their
leader Takshakha living in the forest and sends torrents of rain to put
out Agni’s fire. Krishna and Arjuna help Agni to burn down the forest
with its life forms. Takshaka was in Indra's court at the time and hence
escapes the fire. He tries to kill Arjuna during the war through Karna’s
arrow but fails, but kills Arjuna’s grandson Parikshit later, to honor a
curse.
Thus the society at the time of the Mahabharata was comfortable
worshiping Indra along with Shiva and also accepted the gandharvas,
yakshas and rakshasas in their presence along with human beings.
How about the Ramayana? Vedic Gods were more in vogue during the Ramayana
days, while it also mentions the Trinity. Rama, Lakshmana and Sita visit
Sage Agastya’s Asram and witness his offering prayers to all the
prominent Vedic and Puranic Gods (slokas 17-21 in the Aranya Kanda 12th
Sarga).
A broad translation follows:- Rama entered inside the hermitage and saw
therein the sanctums of Brahma, Agni, Vishnu, Indra, Vivasvat (Sun god),
Soma, Bhaga (one of the 12 suns) and Kubera. Then (they saw) the sanctums
of Dhaata, Vidhaata (deities created by Brahma to help Svayambhu Manu),
Vayu, the sanctum of great-souled Varuna (who wields the noose),

and the sanctums of Gayatri, the 8 Vasus, Aadishesha, the sanctums of

Garuda, and Kaartikeya - chief of the gods’ army and Dharmaraaja.
Leaving the example aside, we can postulate that the latter epic
Mahabharata reflects the changes in people's perception of their Gods and
a reflection of the social, religious and spiritual thoughts existing at
that time.
During the later Vedic period, life became more complex and so did mere
subsistence. There arose diversified jobs and division of functions.
Apart from farmers, priests and soldiers, who were there from time
immemorial, there appeared on the scene artisans, merchants and
labourers. This is the dark period when castes were established.
Instead of a religion based on beliefs and values, a religion based on
rituals evolved. For performing the rituals, the Brahmin priests with
knowledge of the Vedas and Sanskrit were needed. Systems became
complicated and it extended to the gods as well.
There was a backlash from the non-Brahminical castes to this situation,
which resulted in the rise of Sramanic religions and beliefs. To counter
that, the adaptive Hindu religion added new hopes to its belief system
and dropped some practices that became irrelevant, but by keeping the
base unchanged.
There was gradual change of nature of beliefs and it ultimately led to
new forms of god that involved standardization and rationalization.
Shankara did only that. He reduced the 72 henotheistic sects prevailing
at that time to six acceptable henotheistic sects and banned the rest!
Five of them were represented in the Panchayadana Pujas. The sixth,
Skanda, was added to the Shan mathas (a list of six sects, approved by
Shankara), as a concession to the South, where worship of Skanda is more
prevalent.
How did the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva evolve? That is the big
question and an interesting question! There are several good books
written by Indians themselves on the subject. (I recommend one book ‚The
Indian Theogeny : Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva”(Theogeny - "the genealogy or
birth of the gods"). It is written by Sukumari Bhattacharji, Penguin
Publications, 1970).

Brahma, for example, is a sum total of the Vedic-Brahmanical Gods like

Brhaspati,

Brahmanaspati,
Prajapati,
Visvakarman,
Hiranyagarbha,
Purusa,
Skambha,

Paramesthin, Pitamaha and Brahman too. In other words, the functions of

these Gods had been transferred to a newly created entity called Brahma.
The famous mantra ‚Ganaanaam tva ganapthihum avamahe.. is not addressed
to Ganesha, as popularly believed but to Brahmanaspati, an earlier
variant of Brahma.

Incidentally, Brahma was the Ruler of all the Worlds until the Ramayana
days. - ???????
???????? ??? (Ramayana, Bala Kanda). Indra's status was held next to him.
Vishnu in a similar way is a sum of the component Gods found in the Vedas
– basically the Solar Gods Savitr, Surya, Vivasvat, Mitra, Aryaman,
Bhaga, Amsa, Daksa,

Martanda, Indra and Vishnu. It is pertinent to quote two verses in

Bhagavat Gita, which says that among the (12) Adityas, I am Vishnu
(meaning the the most prominent)- adityanam aham Vishnur (10.21).
Similarly Sankara is the best among the (11) Rudras, says another Gita
sloka - rudranam sankarasca asmi (10.23). Both Vishnu and Shiva were not
thus among the great Trinity at the time of Bhagavat Gita (or
Mahabharata). The transition took place much later.
Shiva is a more complex God than the other two and needs a bigger
explanation. It starts from a three-headed God found in the Indus Valley
seals, who is speculated to be a form of Shiva, who was also probably a
tribal God, worshipped in several other parts of the country. Also
phallic worship was a common practice among almost all the tribal
religions. The maypole of the European folk culture was based on the same
theme and was a forerunner to the Christian’s cross. We had already
mentioned about the link between Yupa Sthamba and the linga.
Indra, Agni and Soma are considered the three forms of Rudra, in the
later parts of the Vedas. Indra is Tamas (darkness/inertia), Agni is
Rajas (passion) and Soma is Sattva (truth). Shiva was not easily accepted
into the Vedic pantheon in the early days. Daksha’s yagna, where Daksha
deliberately snubs Shiva (and gets killed) is a good example.
Rudra’s component Gods include Varuna, once a number one God (Indra
usurps the position later), Agni, the destroyer, Yama, the killer and
many more. How does Shiva become a destroyer, when there is a Yama, the
killer specialist? There is the Markandeya episode, in which Shiva
subdues Yama and becomes a super destroyer!
Let us now move on to the Goddesses. Though there were Vedic Goddesses
like Ushas, the concept of forms of Shakthi as consorts of Trinity
probably came much later. It may have entered Hinduism from the
matrilineal South. In Vedas, the concept of female Goddesses was
different – they were mostly virgins!
Ushas, representing the beautiful dawn, was personified into a Goddess.
Saraswathi, many feel, represented the river. Durga Suktam talks more
about Jathavedas (Agni). Uma is mentioned in Kena Upanishad but probably
represents Aum. ‘Sri’ (Lakshmi) Suktam is found only in a Khila
(appendix) portion and mixes up Sri and Lakshmi – the classical
adjective-noun confusion. The husbands of the Goddesses are not mentioned
in the above examples.
Even now, in many Vishnu temples in Tamilnadu, Lakshmi resides only the
heart of Vishnu, without a separate sanctum for her. The sanctum for
Parvati in the Thanjavur Big (Shiva) Temple was a later construction.
Thus the regular worship of the Goddesses in Hinduism is probably a later
phenomenon. Similarly, we had also seen earlier Krishna’s composite
personality, though the different elements are not easily separated.

There are innumerable regional and functional divinities, Village Gods

and Disease-Gods and also Gods for different occasions in life many of
whom got absorbed into Hinduism. When Buddha could become an avatar of
Vishnu, what is the problem in accommodating other gods who were already
being worshipped!
Clearly, there was no idol worship in the Vedic Era. There was only the
worship through fire. There was no sectarian approach to religion either.
The probable reason for both is that the dominant rulers aided by selfish
scholars created new Gods and started creating their own groups. This
phenomenon is seen in several ancient cultures – from Egypt to Rome.
Summing up, as a result of these transformations,

(i)
Brhama was created as a new God, absorbing several older Gods.

(ii)
Vishnu, one among the 12 Adityas earlier, has been elevated to the
highest level
(iii)
Rudra, one among the eleven, became Shiva and then the Mahadeva (great
God)

(iv)
The consorts for the Trimurtis were established, with their own legends.

(v)
Ganesha and Skanda emerged as important Gods

(vi)
So did Krishna, even to the extent of replacing Vishnu in some regions.

(vii)
The more popular Vedic Gods were accommodated as Dik Palas and planets.

(viii) Buddha and the Jain Rishabha Deva were accommodated as avatars of
Vishnu

(ix)
Brahma’s status among the Trinity was degraded later to accommodate
Vishnu,

Shiva and Shakti above him. If he had a sect following him and if it did
exist during Shankara’s time, then the sect was deliberately left out of
the Shanmathas.

(x)
Each sect created its own Puranas or corrected the old Puranas to their

convenience and attributed the authorship to Vyasa for authenticity. This

is just to establish its supremacy over competing sects and the fights
continue till date.

Thus Hinduism marches on, in spite of its polytheism and in spite of the
onslaught of the Abrahamic religions, thanks to its adoptability. Its
orthodox adherents call it Sanatana Dharma ('Eternal Order'). Its
detractors claim that is not the same religion that was practiced earlier
and there is nothing much common between the various sects of Hinduism.
However, the bulk of the Hindus do not give a damn to these opinions or
even think about them and carry on with their own practices.
They had learnt to live in the present.
5.10 Hindu Sects
Shaivas
Fortunately, Hinduism has no established church, no single authority, no
governing body, no prophet and no single binding holy book. Each Hindus
can hence define his

own set of beliefs and no one can question him. This freedom has a price
and has resulted in a large number of sects among the Hindus.
Shaivas, Vaishnavas, Shaktas and Smarthas currently form the four major
groups among the Hindus. The first three groups regard Shiva, Vishnu and
Shakthi as the supreme Godhead respectively. They also revere their
sectarian agamas.
The Smarthas are often mistaken to be Shaivas by many (including
themselves). Essentially, they are followers of the Advaita Vedanta of
Shankara. They worship any God of their liking though many prefer Shiva
over others. Among their practices is the Panchayatana Puja -
simultaneous worship of five deities - Shiva surrounded by Vishnu, Surya,
Devi and Ganesha. For them, the idols are only representations of the
Brahman and such worship leads ultimately to the understanding of the
oneness of Atman and Brahman. They are the smallest group among the four.
Iyers from Tamilnadu and a few other Brahmin groups from other states
claim to be Smarthas.
The regular Shaivaites worship Shiva alone and form the largest group
among the four. It was the predominant tradition in South India, co-
existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava alvars launched
the Bhakti movement in the 7th-century. Later, Ramanuja developed a
philosophical framework to expand Vaishnavism.
As per current practices, Shaivism has four major sects, mostly regional,
in India. Each sect has a distinctive philosophy of its own and contains
elements of both Vedic and tantric beliefs and practices, taken from the
Vedas and the agamas respectively.
The four sects are: Shaiva Siddhanta, Veera Shaivism, Kashimiri Shaivism
and Gorakhnath Shaivism. The first three have been briefly mentioned in
the essay on Agamas and here a few more points will be added. The
Pasupatha Shaivism, the oldest among the Shaiva sects will also be
touched upon. We will also briefly discuss a few Tantric sects, for the
sake of records, most of which are now extinct or are practiced in
secrecy.
1.Shaiva Siddhanta: Shaiva Siddhanta is popular mainly in the South and
derives its doctrine from the 28 Shaiva Agamas and from the works of
several saints and philosophers from the South. Twelve basic texts
including Thevaram, composed by Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar,
Thiruvachakam of Manikka Vachakar, Thirumanthiram of Thirumoolar and
Periya Puranam of Sekkizhar and some miscellaneous compositions have been
compiled by Nambi Andar Nambi into one single corpus called Thirumurai.
Real Shaiva Siddhanta starts with Meykandar’s 12 verse Sivajñanabodham
(13th Century).It laid the foundation of the Meykandar Sampradaya.
Arulnandi Shivacharya, Umapati Shivacharya and a few others are important
gurus for this sect.
The Siddhanta claims that the existence of the world and the beings is
not an illusion. Shiva manifests the world through Shakti, the real
material cause of the universe. In his dynamic aspect, Shiva performs
five functions of creation, preservation, destruction,

concealment and liberation. All living beings are subject to delusion or

Maya, which is of different types. When beings overcome their delusion,
they become free from the cycle of rebirths.
The souls are innumerable. They are bound to one or more of the three
impurities (egoism, attachment and delusion). Many bound souls remain
bound forever. A few souls get liberated and attain purity and supreme
consciousness, but retain their individuality and retain some
distinctions from Shiva.
2.Veera Shaivism: Veera Shaivism rose to prominence during the medieval
period in Karnataka and the adjoining areas of Andhra and Tamilnadu. It
derives its name from the ferocious aspect of Shiva as Veerabhadra. The
sect is also known as Lingayatas, since its followers wear a Shiva linga
around their necks.
The sect was popularized by Basavanna from the Karnataka in the 12th
century CE. According to them, each being is an amsa of Shiva - similar
but not the same as Shiva. Individual souls make up the body of God, held
together by the power of Shakti, while God is its Soul. Shiva is the
efficient cause of creation. Shakti is the material cause. She evolves
and transforms into the phenomenal world. Individuals are subject to the
impurities of egoism, attachment and delusion. When the impurities are
overcome, the soul regains its blissful nature and feels its oneness with
the subtle body (linga sarira) which is the same as Shiva.
Guru, Jangama and Linga are important concepts in Veera Shaivism. The
guru is the spiritual teacher, a Jangama is a self-realized soul, higher
than guru, and Linga is none other than Para Shiva. To attain liberation,
one should acknowledge these three entities and observe eight rules
(ashta varana) of virtuous conduct, which purifies them and transforms
them for their final union with Shiva.
3.Kashmiri Shaivism: Kashmiri Shaivism flourished in the Kashmir region,
before the arrival of Islam in India. It is also known by other names
such Trika, Spanda and Pratyabhijna. While Shaiva Siddhanta and Veera
Shaivism acknowledge some distinction between Shiva and the individual
souls, Kashimiri Shaivism consider Shiva the only reality and everything
else a mere illusion. It is monotheism. The entire creation including the
individual souls are a projection of Shiva. At the end of creation they
are withdrawn and only Shiva, the ultimate reality, remains.
Trika refers to the triple principles, Pati (Shiva), Pasu (jivas) and
Shakti. Spanda explains how the beings learn to adapt to the phenomenal
world and act according to their desires and delusion which results in
their bondage. Pratyabhijna is the distinct awareness, or the remembrance
which arises in the souls at the time of their liberation regarding their
Shiva nature or their oneness with Shiva.

Shiva manifests through his Shakti, which becomes fivefold in the process
of creation, namely, the mind power (cit-shakti), the bliss power
(ananda-shakti), the will power (iccha-shakti), the knowledge power
(jnana-shakti) and the active power (kriya-shakti). Shiva, using these
five powers, manifests in the world in innumerable animate and inanimate
forms.
Although the individual souls are the same as Shiva, since they are
subject to the three impurities, they forget their true Shiva nature.
Through liberation (moksha) they regain their awareness and return to
their original state of omniscience, perfection and absolute purity.
4.Gorakhnath Shaivism: This sect is also known as Natha Shaivism or
Goraksha Natha Shaivism. It emerged from an older Siddha tradition, based
on Yoga. The Naths consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru. Their
devotees are called "Yogi or Jogi".
Their philosophy is a mix of Advaita and Buddhism. Matsyendra Nath (9th-
10th century) is their first guru. His ideas and organization were
developed by Gorakhnath, who is from the 12th century CE. Gorakhnath also
figures in the Buddhist tantric lineages.
It is basically an ascetic sect. Its members practice austerities,
tantra, and hata yoga. They subject their minds and bodies to rigorous
discipline and go for extreme practices to go beyond their attachment to
names and forms and stabilize their minds on Shiva.
The sect derives its name from the nine (or twelve) legendary teachers
called Naths or lords. These teachers are still believed to be alive and
live in the physical plane. They keep a watch on the spiritual
transformation of the world.
Gorakhnath is credited with a number of compositions and tantric
practices. He was also said to possess several magical and spiritual
powers and could arrest aging, death and decay. It followers smear their
bodies with the ash from the burning grounds.
They are siddhas and practice alchemy, magical rituals and kundalini
yoga. They behave offensively in public to invoke public censure that
overcomes their pride. They also use herbs and chemicals to induced
trance to enter altered states of consciousness. However, they avoid the
use of sex and contact with women. Like Kashimiri Shaivism, this sect
also believes in the unity of Shiva and the individual souls.
They formed monastic organisations, and some of them metamorphosed into
warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the
Indian subcontinent.
5.Pashupata Shaivism: The Pashupatas are the oldest Shaivaite group, made
of ascetic monks. The name is derived from the word ‘Pashupati’ which
means lord of animals. It is said that their members wandered across the
country carrying iron tridents or solid cans. They wore deer leather or
bark on their hips. Their philosophy was systematized by Lakulish (also
called Nakulisa) in the 2nd century CE. The main texts of the school are

Ga?akarika, Pañchartha bhashyadipika and Rasikara-bhashya. Commentary on

Pashupata sutras were written by Kaudinya.
The Pashupata yogi enjoys the Shiva within him and avoids the external
rituals. The path to liberation is sanyasa that was earlier restricted to
Brahmin males. They were devoted to Shiva and were considered to be his
white magicians estranged from priest dominated Vedic society. They
accepted members from any cast but preferred Brahmins over others,
perhaps to make a point. The Pashupatha monastic path was available to
anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from the four usual
Asramas and enter into the fifth stage of Siddha-Ashrama.
Their sadhana usually began with the deepening of an ethical code. The
accent was on brahmacharya, ahimsa and tapas. It was a means of self-
purification, of removal of the ego and the elimination of the need to be
accepted in the society. It helped them to overcome the pairs of
opposites like good and bad and develop a strong and powerful love for
Shiva.
Haradattacharya, in Ganakarika, explains the eight characteristics of a
spiritual teacher. Each characteristic has five aspects. The first is
Acquisition, as advised by the guru. It is not material stuff but
acquisition of 1.knowledge ii.Penance, iii. Permanence of the body, iv.
Constancy and v. Purity). The other seven are 2. (remove) Impurity-.
Expedient means of purification, 3. (proper) Locality to aid to increase
knowledge 4. Perseverance, 5. Purification, 6.Initiation and 7. Powers .
The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian
subcontinent. In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics
practically became extinct.
6.Lakulish: This sect developed from the Pashupatas but differ in one
major respect – they do not respect the Vedas or its social customs.
Their ascetics were naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull
for begging. Nothing was forbidden and they did whatever they felt like
and pretended to be a Rudra each. The ascetics were strictly celibate and
did not engage in sex. Kashmiri Kshemaraja’s texts suggest that the
Lakula had their text books, rituals and literature on pramanas. However,
their primary texts are not available now.
7.Kalamukhas: (Black faced) They were organized groups of ascetics, who
marked their forehead with a black streak, to show their identity. They
were mostly present in the Karnataka region between the 8th and 13th
centuries CE and followed many social and religious rules. They are often
clubbed with the Kapalikas (skull bearers), which is incorrect, though
both sects looked weird. Kalamukhas followed Pashupata and were more
orthodox. They also shared many traditions with the Lakulisa followers.
Kapalikas followed Tantric practices and were unorthodox.

Kalamukhas wore the clothes of typical of Shaiva ascetics and lived in

mutts, attached to temples. A number of epigraphs are found in such
temples. Some of their temples, like the Kedaresvara temple and the
Tripurantaka temple at Belagave have survived. The monks managed the
temples, under the supervision of government officials. A few priests
were Brahmins, since their names ended in pandita-deva ("divine wise
man").
The Kalamukhas believed in logical analysis as the paramount means of
investigation. Ramanuja contrasted his own system with what he called the
dualism of the Kalamukhas. In this way, the Kalamukhas seem to have been
much less counter-culture than the Kapalikas, who deviated significantly
from the Vedic standards.
The Kalamukhas practiced a number of yoga-like rituals, based on
Patanjali’s Yogasutras. They followed the five yamas (restraints)
strictly: non-violence, chastity, truthfulness, non-theft, and rejection
of anything more than what is required for bodily subsistence. The
Kalamukhas faded out, with the advent of Basava, the founder of
Veerashaivism, who spearheaded the movement to reform the Kalamukha
doctrine. Many temples formerly run by Kalamukhas were taken over by the
Veera Shaivas.
Tantric sects: They became popular during the 8th-11th century CE,
depending on the region, in parallel to the development of Buddhist and
Jain tantra traditions. These sects practiced secret rituals, special
mantras, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi (special
powers). Their practices include mantra, tantra, yantras. There are both
dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta followers and followers of the Bhairava
Tantras. The former were more orthodox. The main element of all Shaiva
Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divine
mantras are given to the initiate by a guru.
A notable feature of some vamachara (left tantra- heterodox) ascetics was
their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and bala (powers), such
as averting danger (shanti) and the ability to harm enemies (abhicarah).
Gana chakras (ritual feasts) were held in cremation grounds and powerful
goddesses called Yogini were invoked. It is an esoteric worship of the
Shakti. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.
8.Kapalikas: (skull bearers) The Kapalikas ("skull-bearers") originated
in the Deccan plateau in the 5th-6th century CE. The tantric literature
was then just beginning to develop. By the 9th century, they were spread
all over India. The Kapalikas seem to have died out by the 14th century.
Some claim that Kapalikas still inhabit the jungles of Bengal and Assam.
A mythological origin for the Kapalikas is given in the Goraksa-
siddhanta-samgraha. It claims that Shiva, angered by the unacceptable
activities of certain gods, assumed the form of 24 Kapalikas. Each
Kapalika cut off the head of one such God, stripped it of its flesh and
carried the skull around. This myth speaks about the tensions between the
Tantric schools and the Vedic schools.

The Kapalikas were travelling ascetics, did not belong to any caste and
lived away from society. They carried a skull bowl and a trident, their
bodies smeared with ashes from funeral pyres. The Kapalikas left no texts
of their own. Information about them is only from secondary sources.
The Mattavilasa by the Pallava king Mahendravarman, the Malati-Madhava by
Bhavabhuti, the Candakausika by Kshemisvara and the Prabodhacandrodaya by
Krishna Misra are among the dramas, which express disgust with the
hedonism and sadism of the Kapalikas. The Kapalika lifestyle also finds
its way into poetry, most notably a number of Bengali songs (or
caryapadas).
The religious activity of the Kapalikas was centered around devotion to
Bhairava, Shiva in his terrifying form. For Kapalikas, Bhairava was the
creator, preserver and destroyer of the world and king of the gods.
Bhairava was propitiated by human or animal sacrifice, liquor and meat.
Self-sacrifice was also important for the Kapalikas, who often mutilated
their bodies and committed even self-immolation. They believed that such
practices helped to attain magical powers on the worldly plane and led to
liberation.
The Kapalikas also occasionally practiced the Mahavrata or "Great vow",
described in Vishnu-smrti. It is a penance for compensating the sin of
killing a Brahmin. This involves 1) building and living in a forest hut,
2) bathing three times a day, 3) begging for food, 4) sleeping on grass
and 5) carrying the skull of the person who was killed for 12 years. This
was the penance apparently performed by Shiva, for removing one head of
Brahma. The ascetics believed that they could gain Shiva's grace by such
practices.
9. Aghoris (ghori – terrible, aghori- not terrible, also fearless).
Aghoris are a small unorthodox group of Shaiva ascetics, practicing
Vamachara. They engage in post-mortem rituals. They often live near
cremation grounds, smear ashes from funeral pyres, use human bones as
jewellery and use skulls as cups for drinking.
Many Aghori gurus command respect from the rural public for their
supposed healing powers gained through their penance.
Aghoris are devoted to Bhairava and follow a monistic doctrine. Hence
they maintain that all opposites are illusionary. They purposely embrace
filth and degradation through various means to realize the non-duality by
transgressing accepted social practices. Theirs is a process of
unlearning deeply internalized cultural models.
The Aghoris enjoy close ties with another group called the Shivnetras.
The Shivnetras follow Sattvic worship, while the Aghori’s practices are
tamasic.
Aghoris believe that every soul is Shiva but is covered by a??a mahapasa
or eight great bonds, including sensual pleasure, anger, greed,
obsession, fear and hatred. The funny Aghoris practices are for removing
these bonds. For example, Sadhana in cremation

grounds is to destroy fear; being naked is to destroy shame. On release

from all the eight bonds the soul becomes sadasiva and obtains moksha.
The Aghoris trace their origin to Baba Keenaram, who is said to have
lived 150 years, dying during the second half of the 18th century.
Dattatreya the avadhuta, considered the avatar of Trimurtis, who composed
Avadhuta Gita, is considered the first guru of Aghoris. Dattatreya is
revered in all schools of Tantra.
An aghori believes in getting into total darkness by all means, and then
getting into light through self realization. Though this is a different
approach from other Hindu sects, they believe it to be effective. They
are infamously known for their rituals that include shava samskara
(ritual worship involving corpses) to invoke the goddess Smashan Tara.
Tara is one of the ten Mahavidyas (wisdom goddesses). Other Mahavidyas
worshipped by them are Bhairavi, Dhumavati and Bagalamukhi. Apart from
Shiva and Bhairava, they also worship Mahakhala and Veera Bhadra.
The practitioners do not bother about social recognition or popularity.
Hingla Devi, whose temple is near Karachi (one of the 51 Shakti pitas),
is their Kula Devata. Their main pilgrimage centre is Baba Heenaram’s
Samadhi in Varansi. Apart from this, any cremation ground would be a holy
place for an Aghori and those near Shakti pitas will be preferred
locations. They also meditate in haunted houses.
Aghoris are known for healing the sick through purification. The public
believe that the Aghoris can transfer their health to the patient and
take the ‘illness’ away from the patient, due to the ‘superior’ state of
body and mind of the Aghori.
Lastly, the majority of the people who worship Shiva do not belong to any
of the sects and perhaps are not even aware of the names of the sects
mentioned above.
They are simply Hindu Shaivaites.
Many are stubborn in pursuit of the path they have chosen, few in pursuit
of the goal - Friedrich Nietzsche
Vaishnava Sects
Vaishnavism is a major tradition within Hinduism. Large Vaishnava
communities exist throughout India, particularly in Western Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat. After the 15th century, the
Vaishnava population increased in Odisha, Bengal and in the North East.
Followers of Madhva live in large numbers in Karnataka where he had
established several temples and mathas, and in neighboring Pandharpur
region. Tamilnadu is the birthplace of Ramanuja, who is the most well
known name in that tradition. We will now discuss the major Vaishnava
sects.
1.Pañca ratra is perhaps the oldest tradition among the Vaishnavas. It
belongs to the Agama genre and has been discussed earlier. The expression
means five nights. The

Satapatha Brahmana decribes a "five nights’ sacrifice" performed by

Purusa-Narayana to become the highest God. The Narayaniya section of the
Mahabharata describes that legend in detail. The Pañca ratra Samhitas
were developed in the 7th-8th centuries CE, prior to Shankara. Though it
originated in north India, it became more popular in the South, thanks to
its association with Ramanuja. Later, Ramananda was also influenced by
Pañca ratra and it re-entered north India. The Pañcaratras had accepted
the devotional elements of the Alvar traditions.
2.Vaikhanasas: It is another Agamic school and it is a Vedic orthodox
sect. They do not accept the devotional elements of the Alvar traditions.
The Vaikhanasasmarta Sutra, is their most important text, which describes
a mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship. They had become chief
priests in a lot of south Indian temples, where they remain influential.
3.Smartas There are also a few Smartas among the Vaishnava Brahmins. The
tradition developed during the 1st-2nd centuries of CE, when a new
Hinduism emerged from the integration of Brahminism, the local traditions
and the Puranic lore. By the time of Shankara, it had developed into the
pancayatana puja, as seen earlier. The Smarta Vaishnavas perform the same
puja by keeping Vishnu in the center, surrounded by Shiva, Ganesha, Surya
and Shakti.
Sampradayas: Among the Hindus, Sampradaya means 'spiritual lineage’ or a
religious system based on a succession of gurus. There are four major
Sampradayas in Vaishnavism. Vishnu is the first guru for all the
Sampradayas. In Sri Sampradaya of Ramanuja, Sri Devi (Lakshmi) is the
second guru. In the Brahma Sampradaya of Madhva, Brahma is the second
guru. In the Rudra Sampradaya of Vishnu Swami/Vallabha, Rudra is the
second guru. In the Kumara Sampradaya of Nimbarka, the four Kumaras –
mind-sons of Brahma, are the second guru. Chaitanya is a follower of
Madhva. The sects based on the Sampradayas will be briefly discussed now.
4.Sri Vaishnavas: This combined the tantric Pancaratra with puranic
Vishnu worship and also combined the abstract Vedanta with the Bhakti
Movement of the Alvars. It was thus a great integrator. It developed in
the Tamil Nadu in the 10th century, thanks to the seers Nathamuni and
Yamunacharya.
Then came Ramanuja (1017-1137), who developed the philosophical framework
for the same (Vishishtadvaita - qualified advaita), after successfully
challenging the dominant Advaita Vedanta. Ramanuja’s guru Yadava Prakasha
was an Advaiti. Ramanuja disagreed with his guru, came out and started
his Vishistadvaita. Later he converted his guru Yadava Prakasa himself to
Vishistadvaita.
According to their theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and
service to the Lord and detachment from the world. With moksha, the soul
is united with Vishnu, in vaikuntha, Vishnu's heaven, though they still
maintain some distinctions from Vishnu.

Moksha can also be reached by total surrender (saranagati) to the Lord.

Sri Vaishnavism also subscribes to videhamukti (liberation in afterlife),
in contrast to jivanmukti (liberation in this life) found in other
traditions such as the Smarta and Shaivism.
They consider the Vedic Gods to be different names/roles/forms of Lord
Narayana citing their reasons and conclude that the entire Vedas are
dedicated to Vishnu worship alone. They have remodeled Pancharatra homas
like Sudarshana homa to include Vedic Suktas and Sri Rudram, thus giving
them a Vedic outlook. The movement grew with its social inclusiveness,
where devotion to Vishnu is open without caste and gender considerations.
The sect includes both Brahmins and others.
Decades after Ramanuja, the sect split into Vadakalai ("northern
culture") and Tenkalai ("southern culture") sects. The Vadakalai relies
more on the Sanskrit scriptures, and emphasizes bhakti to the temple-
icons, while the Tenkalai relied more on the Alvar heritage and total
surrender. There is a third group among the Vaishnavas in Tamilnadu, who
call themselves as Chozhias – which probably indicates that their origin
is Chola Nadu. They are identified by their tuft – which is on the front
of their heads, while all others, keep it on the back of their heads. The
three groups do have their differences on several issues.
5. Sadh Vaishnavism: (Sadh-true) This was started by Madhvacharya, the
founder of Dvaita Vedanta in the 13th century. It is also referred to as
the Brahma Sampradaya or Bhagavata Sampradaya. Their claim is that the
creator is superior to the creation, and hence liberation can come only
from the grace of Vishnu, but not from one’s efforts.
Madhva studied under Achyuta Preksha, an Advaiti, got initiation from him
and changed his name to Poorna Prajna. He wrote his commentaries under
the name Ananda Tirtha. Later, like Ramanuja, he converted his old guru
to Dvaita. According to Madhva, the Divine and the soul are completely
distinct from each other. Vishnu is the highest God, same as Brahman, who
can only be Saguna.
Madhva himself is considered to be an incarnation of Vayu, considered a
son of Vishnu by the sect and Vishnu’s representative in this world.
Madhva rejected the philosophies of both Shankara and Ramanuja outright.
The devotional movement of the Haridasas, his followers, is almost
exclusively of the Brahmin community of Karnataka. It had a deep impact
on the people in different parts of India. It heavily influenced the
Chaitanya school later, of which was born ISKCON. The Gujarati Vaishnava
culture is also influenced by the Madhva philosophy.
Madhva’s followers belong to three distinct groups - Shivalli Brahmins,
Deshastha Brahmins and Gaud Saraswat Brahmins. In the 17th century, a
pontiff from their tradition converted the Brahmins of Gaya in Bihar to
the Madhva fold.

6. Pushti marga The Rudra sampradaya was started by Vishnusvami. (There

had been three Vishnu Svamis, in the 3rd, 8th-9th and 14th centuries).
They are partial to the Narasimha avatara of Vishnu. Their philosophy is
suddha-advaita (pure monism). It says that the world is God’s lila
(pastime). God, according to His will, can be inside or outside the world
and its life forms. Everything he creates is thus pure, including the
material universe. Vishnusvami worshipped Rama and he founded the
Jagannatha Vallabha Math in Puri, in the temple gardens. Ramananda also
established his spiritual school in the same place, much later.
Vallabha Acharya (1479-1531) came away from the tradition of Vishnusvami
and started his own school, which is prominent today in the Mathura-
Brindavana region. In his school, there are no sannyasis but only
householders. For Vallabha, the realization of the Para Brahman can be
achieved only through pushti (nourishment), or total surrender to God. He
distinguished the Maryada bhakti (respectful devotion) from the Pusthi
bhakti (intimate devotion) and claimed the later to be superior.
He divided the humans into suddha, samsarin and mukta. The householder –
samsarins - are further divided into daivi (Godly), madhyama (Middle) and
danava (demonic). Vallabha made the worship of Bala Gopala popular in all
Hindu homes.
7. Nimbarka: Nimbarka’s period is uncertain. He was born near Govardhana
in a Telugu Brahmin family. He followed the Kumara sampradaya. His
philosophy is svabhavika-bheda-abheda (aka dvaita advaita) "natural
difference and oneness", between the Atma and Brahman. He sees no
contradiction in it. He claims to be a disciple of Narada and lived for a
long time in Naimisharanya. His followers are mostly in Mathura-
Brindavana, Rajasthan and Bengal.
He identifies the Supreme Brahman as the divine couple of Radha and
Krishna. According to him, the first stage in evolution is karma (the
ritualistic process), the second is jnana (Godly knowledge), the third is
dhyana (meditation), the fourth is prapatti (surrender), and the fifth is
guru prapatti (surrender to the guru). Nimbarka wrote several texts and
two of them Rahasya sodasi (explanation of the Sri Gopala mantra) and
Prapanna kalpa valli (explanation of Mukunda mantra) are special.
8.Gaudiya Vaishnavism: Gauda refers to the Bengal Region and this sect
was founded by Chaitanya (1486–1533CE). Its philosophical basis is the
Bhagavat Gita and Bhagavata Purana. It sees the many forms of Vishnu or
Krishna as incarnations of the one Supreme God, adipurusha. His
philosophy is known asachintya-bhedabheda-tattva.
This specified that the Supreme and the individual soul are beyond
chintya. They are inconceivable, and simultaneously one and different.
This means that Brahman and the jiva souls are the same in quality, being
eternally spiritual, but always separate individually. The jivas are
small and subject to being influenced by the material energy, while the
Brahman is infinite and always above and beyond the material
manifestation.

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is devotion to Radha and Krishna, and

their incarnations. Krishna is Svayam Bhagavan. Most popularly, they sing
the holy names of Radha and Krishna, in the form of the Hare Krishna
mantra. They do Bhajans and sing kirtans to please Radha and Krishna.
After its decline in the 18-19th century, it was revived in the beginning
of the 20th century due to the efforts of Bhakti Vinoda Thakur. His son
Bhakthi Siddhanta Sarasvati Thakura founded 64 Gaudiya Mathas in India,
Burma and Europe. Thakura's disciple Prabhupada went to the west and
spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the International Society for Krishna
Consciousness (ISKCON).
9.Varkari-tradition: The Varkari-tradition is a non-Brahminical tradition
which worships Vithoba, also known as Vitthal. Vithoba’s past is unclear
– he was a hero, a pastoral deity, a manifestation of Shiva, a Jain
Saint, Vishnu, Krishna and all of these at various times for various
devotees. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms
akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai.
The Varkari-tradition is popular in Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.
The Varkari movement recommends a duty-based approach to life, moral
behavior, strict avoidance of liquor and tobacco, a strict vegetarian
diet and fasting on Ekadashis (twice a month), brahmacharya during
student life, equality for all, rejection of caste/wealth based
discrimination, the reading of Hindu texts, the recitation of Hari’s name
and the regular practice of bhajan and kirtan.
The Varkari poet-saints are known for the abhang (devotional poems)
dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. They also sing the Kannada
hymns of the Haridasas. Notable gurus of the Varkaris include Jnaneswar,
Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath and Tukaram, all of whom are called Sants
(saint). Most of them are not Brahmins. Not much is known about their
origins but they definitely existed by the 13th century.
10.Ramanandis : Ramananda was a Vaishnava saint in medieval India. The
sect claims to be descendants of Kusha and Lava. The Ramanandis (aka
Ramayats/Ramavats), is one of the egalitarian Hindu sects India, found
around the Gangetic Plain and Nepal. Their main emphasis is on the
worship of Rama as well as Vishnu and his other avatars. The ascetic wing
of the sect constitutes the largest Vaishnava monastic order and may
possibly be the largest monastic order in all of India. They are also the
largest ascetic group that celebrates the Shiva Ratri festival!
The ascetics are known as Vairagis or Bairagis. They rely upon meditation
and strict ascetic practices, but also believe that the grace of Rama is
required to achieve liberation. Hence they keep their sacred threads even
after initiation, unlike the Shaiva ascetics. Philosophically, they
follow Ramanuja’s philosophy. There are two major subgroups among them:
the Tyagis, who use ash for initiation, and the Nagas, who are the
militant wing.

11.Northern Sant tradition: Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet

and saint. He was born a Muslim, but was strongly influenced by Ramananda
and became a Vaishnavite with a universal appeal. He promoted the Bhakti
movement, but his verses are also found in Adi Granth, the Sikhs’
scripture. Kabir was the guru of Guru Nanak (but many Sikh scholars
disagree). Nanak too is in the Sant tradition and they believe in Kirtans
and Bhajans.
12.Ekasarana dharma: (Shelter-in-One religion) This was founded by
Srimanta Sankardev in the Assam region of India in the 15th-16th century.
It rejects Vedic ritualism and focuses on devotion to Krishna through
Kirtans and bhajans. This sect attracted everybody into its egalitarian
fold via an initiation ceremony called xoron-lowa (take-shelter or
sarana), usually conducted by Mahantas who follow the Sankara Dev
Sampradaya and head monastic institutions called Sattras. Their movement
led to new forms of literature, music (Borgeets or songs celestial),
theatre (Ankia Natt) and Sattriya dance. It considers Krishna as the only
God.
13.Manipuri Vaishnavism This is practiced by the Meitei people of
Manipur. King Gareeb Nivaz (r.1709-48 CE) was initiated into Vaishnavism
of the Chaitanya tradition. It maintained its cultural contact with
Assam. The movement reached its peak during the reign of Gareeb Nivaz’s
grandson Bhagyachandra. The sect worships Krishna and Radha together.
Every village in Manipur has a Thakur-ghat for travelers and a temple for
Radha Krishna.
14.Bhagavats The Bhagavats were the early worshippers of Krishna.
Bhagavat, the Lord, can be Krishna, Vasudeva, Vishnu or Bhagavan. The
term bhagavata may have denoted a general religious tradition which
prevailed until the 11th century, and not a specific sect, but it is best
known as a designation for Vishnu-devotees. As seen earlier, bhagavats
are mentioned in an inscription by the Greek Heliodorus (115 BCE).
15. Radhavallabhas Radha Vallabha is a popular name of Krishna, meaning
the consort of Radha. It is also considered as Krishna and Radha in one.
This denomination began with Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu, a Vaishnava
theologian. The sect emphasizes devotion to Radha Rani. The Radhavallabh
Temple in Brindavan, Mathura is very famous. In this temple, there is no
deity of Radha Rani, but a crown placed next to Krishna signifies her
presence. Radha is the Prakriti or the world and Krishna’s flute is the
call of God for the humans to abandon the worldly attachments and run to
God.
16. Miscellaneous Sects:
Balmiki (Valmiki) is a Vaishnavaite sect that worships sage Valmiki as
their ancestor and god. For them, Valmiki is an avatar of God and his
Ramayana and Yoga Vasishta are their holy books. Balmiki is a prominent
Dalit community in Punjab state and they revere both the Ramayana and Adi
Granth. They have temples for Valmiki in many places, including a few in
the UK.

Ramsnehis is another sect that reveres Rama but does not follow idolatry.
Ramsnehis just do a darshan of the chair of their acharyas and monks and
revere all the previous acharyas and saints as well. They chant Ram nam
in the evenings in their temples (Ramdwaras). They follow three simple
rules: 1) Have the Name of Ram in your Heart 2) Have mercy for every
living being 3) Be ready to serve any needy person. The Sampradaya was
found in 1817 by Vikram Samwat in Bhilwara city of Rajasthan
Krishna Pranami Sampradaya, was founded by Devchandra Maharaj (1581–
1655). He was born in Umarkot village, in Sind, now in Pakistan. He
explained the Vedas, Vedanta and Bhagavatam, in simple language
intelligible to lay persons. His followers later came to be known as
Sundarsaths.
Mahanama Sampradaya was founded by Prabhu Jagadbandhu. He was a saint
from Bengal and his asram is in Faridpur in Bangla Desh.
Mahanubhav (aka Jai Krishni Pantha) was founded by Chakradhar Swami in
the 12th century. He accepted members from all castes and rejected the
traditional ritualistic religion. Some say that the founder was one
Govinda Prabhu and Chakradhara was his disciple. It teaches that Krishna
is the only God.
17. Tantrik Sects: (Sahajiya and others) Vamachara is practiced among the
Vaishnavas as well. Bauls, Gaukuleshas, Brindavanis and the Sahajiyas are
known to follow Vamachara (left-handed) based Tantric rites. Most of the
Tantric cults are based in Bengal and Orissa. It started in the 14th
century, but took a definitive form by the 16th century. What is natural
to the humans is sahaja (natural) and what goes counter to it is vakra
(crooked). Sahajiyas do not stress on vegetarianism and do not fast on
Ekadashi days. There are both ‘right-handed’ and ‘left-handed’ Sahajiyas.
Sahaja was prevalent in the Tantric traditions of both Hinduism and
Buddhism in Bengal as early as the 8th–9th centuries. It used the romance
between Krishna and Radha as a metaphor for union with God, and sought to
experience that union through its physical reenactment. It teaches that
the ideal way to understand the union of humanity is to transcend the
profane aspects of sex and experience it as divine.
There was a Buddhist sect called Sahajayana, besides the Mahayana and
Hinayana sects, which was popular in Bengal before the appearance of
Chaitanya. They followed the Tantric practice of trying to elevate their
consciousness or raise the Kundalini with the help of a female partner.
Some sects of Tantra still practice this and it has unfortunately become
the popular understanding of the Tantra in the West.
There are hundreds of manuscripts on Sahajiya, in respectable places like
the Calcutta University, the Bangiya-sahitya-pari?ad and the Asiatic
Society, Calcutta, apart from many individual houses. Shashibhusan
Dasgupta discusses five sahaja traditions in his

book Obscure Religious Cults (III Edition-1976). He says that poets like
Ca??idasa (14th century), Vidyapati, Jayadeva and Caitanya-dasa practiced
Sahajiya.
A famous Sahajiya text is the Radha Tantra, available only in Bengali.
For Sahajiyas, Radha is supreme to even Krishna - she is moola prakriti.
Their Brahman is similar to the Buddhist Brahman - a void (sunya).
The Sahajiyas operated in secrecy because the other religious communities
practically detest them. So, in their literature, they adopted an
enigmatic language called sa?dhya-bha?a – twilight language. They carry
out their practices in secret, even till date. They enacted the
Ganachakra (circle dance), which is aka the Rasa lila of Krishna.
Chaitanya opposed the Sahajiya practices on the grounds that a human soul
cannot be promoted to the status of Radha.
In conclusion, the number of sects in major Hindu denominations is mind
boggling. For example, there is a sect called ‘Ayya Vazhi’ in
Tamilnadu/Kerala, whose founder Ayya Vaikundar (aka Narayana
Vaikundaswamy or Narayana Pandaram), is claimed by his followers as the
tenth avatar of Vishnu! The person is a 19th-century social reformer, an
iconoclast and a contemporary of King Swati Tirunal of Travancore. There
are already several websites, confirming that he is indeed Vishnu’s 10th
avatar!