1660-1731

3.10
Daniel Defoe

Life and works Defoe’s novels

Daniel Defoe was born in 1660 into a family Defoe is generally regarded as the father of
of Dissenters, a Protestant sect which refused the English novel, the representative of a new
the authority of the Church of England. He was social class that wanted to see their life and
educated at Newington Green, in one of the ideals portrayed in literature. His narrative
best Dissenting academies, where he studied technique was original and became the basis
practical subjects such as modern languages, for the development of the realistic novel.
1
economics and geography, besides the His novels are fictional autobiographies
1. Portrait of Daniel Defoe, traditional ones. His father wanted a religious always pretending to be true stories through
18th century. London, The career for him, but Defoe began working as the biographical details and memories
Mansell Collection.
an apprentice, and then went into business on provided by the protagonist. They are also
his own. He suffered two bankruptcies, which preceded by a preface by the author which
he faced both with legal and illicit means. He emphasises their authenticity. The structure
started to write in Whig papers; as a journalist of the novels is characterised by a series of
his greatest achievement was The Review, the episodes and adventures held together by the
periodical which he published three times a unifying presence of a single hero. The lack
week from 1704 to 1713. He became a famous of a coherent plot is due to the fact that Defoe
and well-paid intellectual by writing political neither planned his works nor revised them;
essays and pamphlets till the reign of Queen his main aim as a writer was to produce a large
Anne (→ 3.2). The queen did not like his and effective output not intended for a critical
critical attitude and had him arrested, tried and audience. Defoe used retrospective first-person
imprisoned. He even made three appearances narration, and the author’s point of view
in the pillory, which were meant to degrade mainly coincided with the main character’s.
him publicly but which turned into triumph The characters are presented from the inside
when some of his friends threw flowers at him and through their actions rather than from the
instead of rocks or rotten eggs. He denied his outside. They usually appear in isolation, either
Whig ideas so as to be freed and became a physically like Robinson Crusoe, or socially like
secret agent for the new government. When he Moll Flanders, in their struggle for survival or
was about 60, he started to write novels which for their daily bread.
were very successful. In 1719 he published
his first novel, Robinson Crusoe, which was COMPETENCE: READING AND
followed by Captain Singleton in 1720, the UNDERSTANDING INFORMATION
voyage story of a captain who becomes a pirate.
In 1722 he published Moll Flanders, which is 1 READ the text and justify the following
about the adventures of a woman who was born statements.
in Newgate prison in London, and Colonel 1 He was an outsider.
Jack, which tells the story of a pickpocket who 2 He was one of the greatest journalists
repents and ends up leading a prosperous and of the age.
respectable life. Defoe’s last novel was Roxana 3 He was a prolific writer.
(1724), which deals with the adventures of a
4 He sold his pen to the political party
high-society woman who exploits her beauty
which governed the country.
to obtain what she wants. Thanks to the
money he earned with these works, he could 5 He always held his head high.
afford a comfortable standard of life, but his 6 He is the father of the English novel.
old creditors haunted him and led him into 7 His novels are fictional autobiographies.
Text Bank 25 numerous adventures till his death in 1731. 8 The plots of his novels lack coherence.

209
 Authors and Texts 1719

Robinson Crusoe
Key idea The main character in Defoe’s novel is
Robinson Kreutznaer, anglicised Crusoe, born
in York in 1632 of a German father and an
A spiritual English mother. At the age of 19 he decides to
autobiography leave his home, his family and the prospect of 1
a comfortable life as a member of the trading
middle class in order to travel around the
Robinson Crusoe is full of
world and make his fortune. His first voyage The hero, Robinson, belongs to the middle
religious references to God,
leads him to Guinea and then back to England. class, he is restless and wants to find his own
sin, Providence and salvation
During his second voyage he is captured by identity as an alternative to the model provided
(→ T36). The novel can be read
as a spiritual autobiography Moorish pirates but manages to escape; he by his father (→ 3.8). Actually the story begins
where the hero reads the Bible is finally rescued by a Portuguese ship and with an act of transgression, of disobedience,
to find comfort and guidance, brought to Brazil. There he becomes the owner which places the character in a situation of
experiences the constant of a plantation and, needing more labour, sets separation that will culminate with his isolation
conflict between good and evil, out on a voyage to Africa to get more slaves. on the island after the shipwreck. Robinson’s
and keeps a diary to record During this journey he is shipwrecked on a life on the island develops the issue of the
events to see God’s will in them. desert island (→ T35) where he will remain relationship between the individual and
Robinson prays to God to be for 28 years. The rest of the novel tells how he society, between the private and the public
freed from sin rather than to be gradually re-builds the same kind of society spheres. The society Robinson creates on the
rescued from the island. What as exists in his country. He writes a diary island is not an alternative to the English one;
Defoe explores is the conflict where he records his experiences and debates on the contrary, it can be read as an exaltation of
between economic motivation contemporary ideas addressing himself, the 18th-century England and its ideals of mobility,
and spiritual salvation. Is the reader and even God. After 12 years of solitude material productiveness and individualism.
concern with making money he finds a human footprint on the shore. As Defoe shows that, though God is the prime
and dealing with worldly time goes by, he also finds some human bones cause of everything, the individual can shape
matters incompatible with and flesh left by cannibals. Once Robinson his destiny through action. Man can overcome
religious faith and spiritual decides to attack them: they escape and leave doubt and modify reality through his work and
welfare? The Puritans found the one of their captives, whom he calls Friday, after the interpretation of his achievements in the
answer to this question in doing the day of his rescue. When other cannibals light of the Bible and God’s will. Robinson has
their best to increase the gifts land on the island, Robinson and Friday attack a pragmatic and individualistic outlook. His
that God had given them as them and free two of their prisoners, one of objective and rational approach to reality (→
a sign of His grace. whom turns out to be Friday’s father. The novel T35) is demonstrated by his journal-keeping.
ends with Robinson’s return to England and His progress re-invents the learning processes
his discovery that his plantation in Brazil has of baking, ship-building, carpentry and farming.
prospered and made him very rich. Friday is the first native character to be
portrayed in the English novel, he is attractive
and lively. The moment Robinson rescues
The setting of most of the story, the island, him, he teaches him the word ‘master’, Western
is the ideal place for Robinson to prove his culture and to read the Bible; so Friday
qualities, to demonstrate that he deserved becomes the symbol of the colonised.
to be saved by God’s Providence. Robinson
organises a primitive empire on the island,
thus becoming the prototype of the English The novel shows an objective approach to the
coloniser (→ T37): his stay on the island is not events through clear and precise details. Defoe
seen as a return to nature, but as a chance to concentrates his description on the primary
exploit and dominate nature (→ T36). qualities of objects (→ T36), especially their
solidity, extension and number, rather than on
the secondary ones (colour, texture, flavour).
The language is simple, matter-of-fact and
1. Frontispiece to the first
edition of Robinson Crusoe concrete to reinforce the impression of reality
(1719). conveyed by the first-person narration.

210 3. The Restoration and the Augustan Age

 Authors and Texts

T37 Man Friday Daniel Defoe

Robinson Crusoe
(1719)
The following text deals with the description of the native Robinson has
rescued from a group of cannibals who came to the island to perform 4.8
their rites.

He was a comely, handsome fellow, perfectly well made, with straight,

strong limbs1, not too large; tall, and well-shaped; and, as I reckon2, about
twenty six years of age. He had a very good countenance, not a fierce and
surly3 aspect; but seemed to have something very manly 4 in his face; and yet
5 he had all the sweetness and softness of an European in his countenance,
too, especially when he smiled. His hair was long and black, not curled like
wool; his forehead very high and large, and a great vivacity and sparkling
sharpness5 in his eyes. The colour of his skin was not quite black, but very
tawny; and yet not of an ugly, yellow, nauseous tawny, as the Brazilians and
10 Virginians, and other natives of America are; but of a bright kind of a dun6
olive-colour, that had in it something very agreeable, though not very easy
to describe. His face was round and plump; his nose small, not flat, like the
negroes, a very good mouth, thin lips, and his fine teeth well set, and white
as ivory.
15 After he had slumbered, rather than slept, about half-an-hour, he
waked again, and comes out of the cave to me; for I had been milking my
goats7, which I had in the enclosure just by 8: when he espy’d9 me, he came
running to me, laying himself down again upon the ground, with all the
possible signs of an humble thankful disposition, making a many antick10
20 gestures to show it. At last he lays his head flat upon the ground, close to
my foot, and sets my other foot upon his head, as he had done before; and
after this, made all the signs to me of subjection, servitude, and submission
imaginable, to let me know how he would serve me as long as he lived.
1
I understood him in many things, and let him know I was very well pleased
25 with him; in a little time I began to speak to him, and teach him to speak to 1. Robinson and Friday in a
TV series (2008-09) created by
me; and first, I made him know his name should be Friday, which was the Stephen Gallagher on NBC.
day I saved his life; I called him so for the memory of the time; I likewise
taught him to say Master, and then let him know, that was to be my name;
I likewise taught him to say yes and no, and to know the meaning of them;
30 I gave him some milk in an earthen pot11, and let him see me drink it before
him, and sop12 my bread in it; and I gave him a cake of bread to do the like,
which he quickly comply’d with13, and made signs that it was very good for
him. 1 limbs. Membra, arti.
2 I reckon. Credo.
I kept there with him all that night; but as soon as it was day, I 3 fierce and surly. Feroce e scontroso.
35 beckoned to him14 to come with me, and let him know I would give him 4 manly. Virile.
5 sharpness. Acutezza.
some cloaths, at which he seemed very glad, for he was stark naked. As we 6 dun. Bigio, opaco.
went by the place where he had bury’d the two men, he pointed exactly to 7 goats. Capre.
the place, and shewed me the marks that he had made to find them again, 8 just by. Lì vicino.
9 he espy’d. Vide.
making signs to me that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at this 10 antick. Buffi, grotteschi.
40 I appeared very angry, expressed my abhorrence of it, made as if I would 11 earthen pot. Recipiente di terracotta.
12 sop. Intingere.
vomit at the thoughts of it, and beckoned with my hand to him to come 13 comply’d with. Obbedì.
away, which he did immediately, with great submission. 14 I beckoned to him. Gli feci un cenno.

216 3. The Restoration and the Augustan Age

 1667-1745

3.11
Jonathan Swift

Life and works in London, defending Ireland and the Church.

Jonathan Swift was born in 1667 in Dublin, He gave one-third of his income to the Catholic
where he was educated, although his parents poor.
were English. The family returned to England For a time he wrote comparatively little, but
at the time of the Glorious Revolution in after a few years he began to write pamphlets
1688 (→ 3.2), and Swift became secretary to denouncing the injustices that Ireland
1 Sir William Temple, a Whig statesman, who suffered from. Among them was The Drapier’s
1. Charles Jervas, Portrait
encouraged him to write his first satirical Letters (1724-25), a series of pamphlets Swift
of Jonathan Swift, ca 1718. works. wrote as an assumed character, M.B. Drapier,
London, National Portrait Among his best satires were: attacking the government’s proposal for a new
Gallery.
• The Battle of the Books (1704), about the coinage which would have increased poverty
merits of ancient and modern literature, in in Ireland.
which Swift supported Temple’s defence of In 1726 he published his masterpiece, Travels
the classics and mocked the self-satisfaction into Several Remote Nations of the World,
of modern scholarship, criticism and poetry. known as Gulliver’s Travels. In 1729 A Modest
• A Tale of a Tub (1704), about the contending Proposal appeared, in which, with irony and
religious parties of the day, the superstition bitterness, Swift suggested that the poverty of
of the Catholics and the fanaticism of the the Irish people should be relieved by the sale
Dissenters. of their children as food for the rich. Swift’s
In 1694 Swift returned to Ireland, where he was later years were marked by the decay of his
ordained Anglican priest; he was appointed mental faculties. He died in 1745.
Dean of Dublin’s St Patrick’s Cathedral in 1713.
Route 5: The great satirists He lived in Dublin for the next thirty years in A controversial writer
of the 18th century indignant opposition to the Whig government Swift is without doubt one of the most
controversial among great English writers. He
has been labelled alternatively as a misanthrope,
a man with a morbid attitude, a monster or a
COMPETENCE: READING AND UNDERSTANDING INFORMATION lover of mankind.
What clearly emerges from his works is that
1 READ the text and decide whether the following statements about Swift’s life he was seriously concerned with politics
and works are true or false. Correct the false ones. and society, and that his attitude was mainly
1 Swift’s family was of Irish origin but was forced to leave conservative. It is also clear that he did not
Ireland at the time of the Revolution of 1688. .................................................................................................... share the optimism of his age and the pride
in England of his contemporaries. He defined
2 Swift found a job at the house of Sir William Temple, a Whig statesman. ...............
himself as a hater of man, whom he described
3 His first satires were all concerned with religious subjects. ......................................................
as ‘an animal capable of reason’. According to
4 He became Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral. ................................................................................................................. Swift, reason is an instrument that must be used
5 He supported English rule in Ireland. .......................................................................................................................... properly; too intensive a use of reason is an
6 He made serious proposals to improve the situation of the poor in Ireland. ....... error of judgement and therefore unreasonable.
Thus he insisted on the need to take a
2 EXPLAIN the following in your own words: common-sense view of life.
Swift found in irony and satire the means
1 how Swift has been labelled;
that suited his temperament and his interests.
2 what his attitude to his contemporary society was; He usually achieved the effect of parody
3 how he viewed reason; combining ironic intent with the simplicity
4 what his favourite means of expression was. of his style and his diction.

223
 Authors and Texts 1726

Gulliver’s Travels

Gulliver’s Travels was printed in London in The novel consists of four books.
1726, though most of it was certainly written Book 1. Gulliver sails from Bristol on 4th May
in the years 1721-25. 1699; after six months his ship is wrecked
The novel has four settings, each linked somewhere in the South Pacific and he is cast
to one of Lemuel Gulliver’s four voyages. upon the shore of Lilliput, where he falls asleep.
When Gulliver’s ship is wrecked during his The inhabitants of the land, the Lilliputians,
first voyage, he reaches the land of Lilliput, carry his huge body to the capital and house
a childhood fantasy world built for very him in an unused temple (→ T38). Gulliver
small people, the tallest being only about six gradually learns their language, their customs
inches high. Here Gulliver plays the role of a and institutions, and gains the favour of the
benevolent giant for a little people who have king. After several amusing experiences, he
exaggerated ideas about their self-importance. manages to return to England.
On his second voyage, Gulliver lands on the Book 2. On 20th June 1702 Gulliver sails for
land of Brobdingnag, where he finds himself India but finds himself in Brobdingnag, a
surrounded by a race of giants, making him feel country Swift located in Alaska. Here the
like a Lilliputian. In both worlds, Gulliver finds natives are giants, and Gulliver becomes the
1 that he must use his wits to survive. Gulliver’s king’s pet and is carried around in a cage.
third voyage to the island of Laputa allows The king enjoys talking with him about
1. Poster of the film Gulliver’s
Travels (1939) directed by
Swift to satirise the scientific community in the system of government in England and
Dave Fleischer. Great Britain. The fourth voyage to the land Europe. One day Gulliver’s cage is lifted up by
of the Houyhnhnms, a country governed by a huge bird and dropped in the middle of the
intellectual horses, gives Swift the opportunity ocean. He is rescued by a ship and returns to
to criticise humanity. These four settings England.
provide Swift with the opportunity to discuss
everything he feels is wrong with mankind in
general and British society in particular.

1 4.9 LISTEN and complete the plot of Book 3 and Book 4 with the missing information.

Book 3. Gulliver finds himself on the (1) of Laputa, which

(2) thanks to magnetism. Its inhabitants are (3)
astronomers, philosophers and scientists. Gulliver visits their capital, Lagado, and its
(4) (→ T39), where absurd experiments are (5) .
The island drops Gulliver on Japan and he (6) to go back to England.
Book 4. Gulliver’s last voyage leads him to the island inhabited by the Houyhnhnms, intelligent
horses that (7) over the Yahoos, who are stupid, corrupt and similar to
human beings in (8) . Gulliver admires the (9)
of the Houyhnhnms and is ashamed of his similarity with the Yahoos, a man-like race remarkable
for lust, greed and filth. When the horses banish him, he returns to England, where he finds that he
can’t any longer (10) the society of his fellow beings (→ T40). He therefore
decides to live in the stable, among the animals that (11) him of the
nobility of the Houyhnhnms.

224 3. The Restoration and the Augustan Age

 Key idea

Swift’s satiric technique

One of the main ingredients

by institutions. If in the end Gulliver takes an of satire is distortion or
aversion to everything at home, it is because exaggeration; the reader is
Swift devotes a few pages to point out that Europe is losing its civilisation and falling into invited to see something very
Gulliver is a typical European. He is middle- a state of corruption, expressed in the novel by familiar in such a way that
aged, well-educated and sensible; he is a the constant opposition between rationality it becomes simultaneously
careful observer, he takes care of his family and animality. ridiculous or even disgusting
and runs his business prudently. He is, like The scientific projects described in Book 3 show and yet funny. The key to this
Robinson Crusoe (→ 3.10), one of the practical a familiarity with the work of the Royal Society technique is the use of the
traveller, the figure who is the
seamen through whom England started to (→ 3.1). Finally there are recognisable elements
reader’s contemporary and
rule the seas. He has experience of the world of political allegory through allusions to people
fellow countryman.
and he fully supports the culture which has and events in the England of Queen Anne and
The genius of Swift’s satire
produced him. In this way Swift implies George I (→ 3.2, 3.3).
in Gulliver’s Travels is shown
that the transformation which takes place
in a second feature, the way
in Gulliver through his voyages cannot be he organises the new world
linked to any extravagance of his character. by constantly changing
Only when circumstances force him to think, Swift’s masterpiece can be read on different the perspective on human
does Gulliver learn something and begin to levels. It has been widely read as a tale for conduct. Through this
develop a critical awareness of the limitations children because of Gulliver’s amusing and altered perspective, Swift can
of European values. However, these first absurd adventures, especially in the first two manipulate Gulliver’s reactions
critical insights are only temporary because books. It can also be read as a political allegory to the changing circumstances
when he returns home after his first voyage, of Swift’s time, as a parody of voyage literature in order to highlight his satiric
he quickly fits into European life. But in the or as a masterpiece of misanthropy and a points in a very humorous way.
second voyage the critical awareness becomes reflection on the aberrations of human reason.
deeper, even if he does not question European The most common interpretation among Swift’s
values seriously and still defends the history contemporaries and in the 19th century was
of Europe. This time it takes him a while to that Swift’s main satiric point was to criticise
re-adjust to European life after his return home. the political, social and religious conflicts of
In the fourth voyage Gulliver’s transformation the time, as well as the problems caused by
becomes complete and when he returns home, scientific progress.
he can no longer take part in European society, A second interpretation claimed that Swift COMPETENCE: READING
not even with his friends and family. was mentally unbalanced, and therefore the AND UNDERSTANDING
Swift’s originality lies in his presenting Gulliver reader does not need to consider the ending of INFORMATION
always displaced – first in relation to little men the book seriously. This psychoanalytic view
and then to big ones – and finally and suddenly neutralises the satire by an appeal to mental
2 READ the texts on pages
forced into comparison not with men but with disorders. 224-225 and answer
animals. In the 20th century, criticism held that we the following questions.
are not supposed to see Gulliver’s actions as
1 What lands does Gulliver visit?
the natural rational result of his experiences,
Swift looked to the extensive literature of because Gulliver himself has finally become the 2 What people does he meet?
travel, real and imaginary. In fact throughout target of the author’s satire. Gulliver no longer 3 What sort of character is
the 17th century the imaginary voyage had speaks for the author, but his dislike of the Gulliver?
been used by French writers as a vehicle for Yahoos and his conduct are a sort of warning 4 What is his function in the
their theories. The traveller usually discovered for us. This approach maintains the claim novel?
some happy societies where men lived a simple, that Swift was a clever writer, in control of his 5 Why does Gulliver’s Travels
uncorrupted life, following natural instincts literary medium. differ from traditional works
and the innate light of reason; and from these of travel literature?
utopias European man was seen as the victim 6 What constant opposition is
of civilisation. Gulliver, just like Robinson Crusoe (→ 3.10), expressed in the novel?
Gulliver’s experiences are different because tells his experiences in the first person, in a 7 How can the novel be
the people among whom he is cast are in prose style which is matter-of-fact, free of interpreted?
no sense children of nature. They all live in literary colouring, and records observed details 8 What are the ingredients of
highly organised societies and are governed with the precision of a scientific instrument. Swift’s satirical technique?

225