ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING
ENGINEERING
DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS
Seng(4051)
CHAPTER 1
DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS

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 CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Elements of visual perception

1.2 Light and the electromagnetic spectrum

1.3 Image sensing and acquisition

1.4 Image sampling and quantization

1.5 Some basic relationships between pixels

1.6 Linear and Nonlinear Operations

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 Principles of remote Sensing
 REMOTE SENSING is an aerospace technology that uses
electromagnetic energy to capture data from the Earth's surface
and its surrounding atmosphere by remote sensing systems.

 It is a scientific discipline that integrates:

 A broad set of knowledge & technologies used for

observation, analysis and interpretation of terrestrial and
atmospheric phenomena.

 Its main information sources are the measures and the images
obtained with the help of aerial and space platforms.

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 ....cont.
 Remote sensing means sensing from a distance, whereby
the distance itself is not defined.

 The use of electromagnetic radiation sensors to record

images of the target features , which can be interpreted to
yield useful information.

 During data acquisition there is no any physical contact

between the sensors and target features.

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 Remote Sensing Processing

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 …con,t.
 A=Energy sources or illumination
 B=Radiation and the atmosphere
 C=Interaction with the target features
 D=recording of energy by the sensor
 E=Transmission, Reception and processing
 F=Interpretation and analysis
 G=Application

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 Elements of Visual Perception.
 The field of digital image processing is built on the
foundation of mathematical and probabilistic formulation.

 but human intuition and analysis play the main role to make
the selection between various techniques, and the choice or
selection is basically made on subjective, visual judgments.

 Three thing should know in human visual perception are:

 The eyes act as the sensor or camera,

 The neurons act as the connecting cable and

 The brain acts as the processor.

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 ....cont.
 The basic elements of visual perceptions are:
 Structure of Eye
 Image Formation in the Eye
 Brightnes Adaptation and Discrimination

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 The human eyes
 Diameter: 20 mm
 3 membranes enclose the eye
–Cornea & sclera
–Choroid
–Retina
 The Choroid
 The choroid contains blood vessels for eye nutrition and is
heavily pigmented to reduce extraneous light entrance and
backscatter.
 It is divided into the ciliary body and the iris diaphragm,
which controls the amount of light that enters the pupil (2
mm ~ 8 mm).

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 ....cont.
 The Lens

 The lens is made up of fibrous cells and is suspended by

fibers that attach it to the ciliary body.
 It is slightly yellow and absorbs approx. 8% of the visible
light spectrum.
 The Retina

 The retina lines the entire posterior portion.

 Discrete light receptors are distributed over the surface of

the retina:

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Image Formation in the Eye
 Distance between the center of the lens and the retina
(focal length):
–varies from 17 mm to 14 mm (refractive power of lens
goes from minimum to maximum).
 Objects farther than 3 m use minimum refractive lens
powers (and vice versa).
Example: – Calculation of retinal image of an object

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 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red

Blends smoothly into the next.

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 ....cont.

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 Properties of EM
 The electromagnetic spectrum can be expressed in terms of

wavelength, frequency, or energy.

 Wavelength (λ) and frequency (ν) are related by the expression

c=λν where c is the speed of light (2.998*108 m/s).

 Wavelength (λ) and frequency (v)

λ=c / v ( c is the speed of light)

 Electromagnetic Energy and Frequency

E=hv (h is Planck’s constant)

 Unit: λ: meters; v: Hertz; E: electron-volt

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 Visible light
Light is a particular type of electromagnetic radiation that can
be seen and sensed by the human eye.
The visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum spans the
range from approximately 0.43 nm (violet) to about 0.79 nm
(red).
 For convenience, the color spectrum is divided into six broad

regions: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

 Light that is void of color is called achromatic or
monochromatic light.
The only attribute of such light is its intensity , or amount.
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 Visible light

Visible light

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Other EM Spectrum:Short-wavelength End
• Gamma rays
–Medical Imaging

–Astronomical Imaging

–Radiation in nuclear environments

•Hard Rays

–Industrial Applications

•Soft Rays

–Chest X-Ray (shorter wavelength)

–Dental X-Ray (lower energy end)

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 ...
• Infrared region:
–Heat-Signatures
–Near-infrared
–Far-Infrared
•Radio wave
–AM and FM and TV
–Stellar bodies
Note: The wavelength of an EM wave required to ‘see’an object
must be of the same size as or smaller than the object.
 Energy radiated by EM waves is not the only method for image
generation. (sound, electron beams)

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 Image sensing and acquisition
 The types of images in which we are interested are generated by
the combination of an “illumination” source and the reflection
or absorption of energy from that source by the elements of the
“scene” being imaged.

 Idea: the incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the

combination of input electrical power and sensor material that is

responsive to the particular type of energy being detected.

 The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s), and

a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing its
response.

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 Image acquisition using sensor array
•CCD (charge-coupled devices)

–Digital Cameras

–Light Sensing Instruments

•The response of each sensor is proportional to the

integral of the light energy projected onto the surface of
the sensor.

–Reduce low noise image.

•A complete image can be obtained by focusing the energy

pattern onto the surface of the array.

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 Three principal Sensors

Line sensors

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 Image acquisition using sensor array

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 TAKE A
BREAK

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 Image Sampling & Quantization
 The spatial and amplitude digitization of f(x, y) is called:

–image sampling when it refers to spatial coordinates(x, y) and

–gray-level quantization when it refers to the amplitude.

 To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed

data into digital form. This involves two processes: sampling and

quantization.

 Figure 2.16(a) shows a continuous image, f(x, y) , that we want to

convert to digital form.

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 ....Cont.
 An image may be continuous with respect to the x - and y –
coordinates, and also in amplitude.

 To convert it to digital form, we have to sample the function in

both coordinates and in amplitude.

 Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling and

Digitizing the amplitude values is called quantization.

 In order to form a digital function, the gray-level values must be

converted (quantized) into discrete quantities.

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 ....Cont.
Digital Image

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 ....cont.

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 …cont.

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Basic Relationships between Pixels
 Definitions:
 f(x, y): digital image
 Pixels: q, p
 Subset of pixels of f(x, y): S
The following are basic relationship b/n
pixels
 Neighbourhood
 Adjacency
 Connectivity
 Paths
 Regions and boundaries
 Distance Measures

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 Neighbors of a Pixel
Neighbors of a Pixel

1. N4 (p) : 4-neighbors of p.

 Any pixel p(x, y) has two vertical and two horizontal

neighbors, given by (x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1).

 This set of pixels are called the 4-neighbors of P, and is

denoted by N4(P).

 Each of them is at a unit distance from P.

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 ....cont.
2. ND(p)

 This set of pixels, called 4-neighbors and denoted by ND (p).

 ND(p): four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates:

(x+1,y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1,y+1), (x-1,y-1)

 Each of them are at Euclidean distance of 1.414 from P.

3. N8 (p): 8-neighbors of p.

 N4(P)and ND(p) together are called 8-neighbors of p,

denoted by N8(p).

 N8 = N4 U ND

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 Adjacency
 Two pixels are connected if they are neighbors and their gray
levels satisfy some specified criterion of similarity.

 For example, in a binary image two pixels are connected if they

are 4-neighbors and have same value (0/1).

 Types of adjacency

1. 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from v are 4-

adjacent if q is in the set N4 (p).

2. 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from v are 8-

adjacent if q is in the set N8 (p).

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 ....cont.
 3. m-adjacency (mixed): two pixels p and q with values from v
are m-adjacent if:

 q is in N4 (p) or

 q is in ND (P) and

The set N4 (p) ∩ N4 (q) has no pixel whose values are from v (No
intersection).

 Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency ''introduced

to eliminate the Ambiguities that often arise when 8- adjacency
is used. (eliminate multiple path connection)

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 Connectivity
 Connectivity between pixels is important:

 Because it is used in establishing boundaries of objects and

components of regions in an image

 Two pixels are connected if:

 They are neighbors (i.e. adjacent in some sense --e.g. N4(p),

N8(p), …)

 Their gray levels satisfy a specified criterion of similarity (e.g.

equality, …)

 V is the set of gray-level values used to define adjacency (e.g.

V={1} for adjacency of pixels of value 1)

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 Path
 A path (curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x,y) to pixel q with
coordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels:

 (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn,yn)

 where (x0,y0)=(x,y), (xn,yn)=(s,t), and (xi,yi) is adjacent to (xi-1,yi-

1), for 1≤i ≤n ; n is the length of the path.

 If (xo, yo) = (xn, yn): a closed path

 4-, 8-, m-paths can be defined depending on the type of adjacency

specified.

 If p,q S, then q is connected to p in S if there is a path from p to q

consisting entirely of pixels in S.
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 Regions and Boundary

R a subset of pixels: R is a region if R is a connected set.

Its boundary (border, contour) is the set of pixels in R

that have at least one neighbor not in R

Edge can be the region boundary (in binary images)

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 Distance Measures
 D4and D8distances between p and q are independent of any
paths that exist between the points because these distances
involve only the coordinates of the points (regardless of
whether a connected path exists between them).

 However, for m-connectivity the value of the distance (length

of path) between two pixels depends on the values of the pixels
along the path and those of their neighbors.

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Linear and non-linear operations
 Let H be an operator whose input and output are images.

 H is said to be a linear operator if, for any two images f and g

and any two scalars a and b.

 H(af + bg) = aH( f )+ bH(g) (2.6 -1)

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Do not work hard
but
Do intelligent!!!
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